Textiles history, properties and performance and applications (chemistry research and applications)

CHEMISTRY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

TEXTILES
HISTORY, PROPERTIES AND
PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no
expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No
liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information
contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in
rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.


CHEMISTRY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
Additional books in this series can be found on Nova’s website
under the Series tab.

Additional e-books in this series can be found on Nova’s website
under the e-book tab.


CHEMISTRY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

TEXTILES
HISTORY, PROPERTIES AND
PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS

MD. IBRAHIM H. MONDAL

EDITOR

New York


Copyright © 2014 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher.
For permission to use material from this book please contact us:
Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175
Web Site:
NOTICE TO THE READER
The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or
implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No
liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of
information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special,
consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or
reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated
and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.
Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in
this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage
to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise
contained in this publication.
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the
subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not
engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert
assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A
DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE
AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS.

Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN:  (eBook)

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York


CONTENTS
Preface

vii

Contributor Contact Details
Andrej Javoršek, Cesar Pulgarin, Eva Bou-Belda,
Gordana S. Ušćumlić, Ignacio Montava, Jaime Gisbert
and Sami Rtimi

ix

Chapter 1

An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing
Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride,
Karina Nobbs and Linda Shearer

1

Chapter 2

Developing Sustainable Design on Denim Ready-Made Apparels
by Stone and Enzymatic Washing
Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan

Chapter 3

Digital Textile Printing Using Color Management
Dejana Javoršek, Primož Weingerl and Marica Starešinič

Chapter 4

Inkjet Printed Photo-Responsive Textiles for Conventional
and High-Tech Applications
Shah M. Reduwan Billah

Chapter 5

Synthesis and Grafting of Cellulose Derivatives from
Cellulosic Wastes of the Textile Industry
Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and A. B. M. Fakrul Alam

Chapter 6

History, Synthesis and Properties of Azo Pyridone Dyes
Dušan Ž. Mijin, Gordana S. Ušćumlić and Nataša V. Valentić

Chapter 7

Smart Textiles and the Effective Uses of Photochromic,
Thermochromic, Ionochromic and Electrochromic

Molecular Switches
Shah M. Reduwan Billah

19
53

81

123
157

187

Chapter 8

Smart Textiles
Ali Akbar Merati

239

Chapter 9

Overview of Textiles Excavated in Greece
Christina Margariti, Stavroula Moraitou and Maria Retsa

259


vi
Chapter 10

Contents
Innovative Ag-Textiles Prepared by Colloidal, Conventional
Sputtering and HIPIMS Including Fast Bacterial Inactivation:
Critical Issues
Sami Rtimi, Cesar Pulgarin, Rosendo Sanjines and John Kiwi

277

Chapter 11

Fungal Deterioration of Aged Textiles
Katja Kavkler, Nina Gunde-Cimerman, Polona Zalar
and Andrej Demšar

315

Chapter 12

Durability of Functionalized Textiles by Microcapsules
Lucia Capablanca, Pablo Monllor, Pablo Díaz
and Maria Ángeles Bonet

343

Chapter 13

New Approaches and Applications on Cellulosic
Fabric Crosslinking
Eva Bou-Belda, Maria Ángeles Bonet, Pablo Monllor,

Pablo Díaz, Ignacio Montava and Jaime Gisbert

Chapter 14

Wrinkle Resistant and Comfort Finishing of Cotton Textiles
Vahid Ameri Dehabadi and Hans-Jürgen Buschmann

Chapter 15

Evaluation of Physical and Thermal Comfort Properties of
Copper/Alginate Treated Wool Fabrics by Using Ultrasonic Energy
Muhammet Uzun

355

367

383

Chapter 16

Hemp Fibers: Old Fibers - New Applications
Mirjana Kostic, Marija Vukcevic, Biljana Pejic
and Ana Kalijadis

399

Chapter 17

Textiles Using Electronic Applications

Marica Starešinič, Andrej Javoršek and Dejana Javoršek

447

Chapter 18

Textiles for Cardiac Care
Narayanan Gokarneshan, Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan,
Venkatachalam Rajendran and Dharmarajan Anita Rachel

465

Chapter 19

Effect of Clothing Materials on Thermoregulatory Responses
of the Human Body
P. Kandha Vadivu

483

Designing of Jute–Based Thermal Insulating Materials
and Their Properties
Sanjoy Debnath

499

Effects of Ring Flange Type, Traveler Weight and Coating on
Cotton Yarn Properties
Muhammet Uzun and Ismail Usta

519

Chapter 20

Chapter 21

Chapter 22
Index

Optical Fiber Examination by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy
Andrea Ehrmann

531
547


PREFACE
This book reveals the expanding opportunity of textiles in a wide range of industrial
applications. No longer limited to apparels and home furnishings, textiles are being used in
many sciences and technologies, such as clothing and fashionable materials, smart textiles,
technical textiles, medical textiles, agro-textiles, geo-textiles, electronics, photonics,
intelligent sensors, etc.
This book is intended for all those who are interested and engaged in the latest
developments in the field of textiles, especially chemists, engineers, technologists, application
technicians and colorists of the textile industry, technical colleges and universities.
Textiles are essential and one of the most important classes of materials used by all
people since ancient time. Despite textiles having been around and in use for so long,
advances and improvements continue to be made. This book contains 22 invited contributions
written by leading experts in the field of textiles. Each contribution presents an updated
science and technological advances that have happened during this period and are fully

discussed. The first chapter discusses the present and future prospects of vintage fashion
clothing, i.e., an old fashion clothing and its retailing. Chapter 2 searches for the dynamic best
method for producing specific washing effects and designs on denim ready-made apparels.
The chapters 3 and 4 present a discussion on color management application in the field of
digital printing onto textile substrates, and inject printed photo-responsive textiles used in
fashion and design, self indicating security alert systems, anti-counterfeit and brand
protection. In chapter 5 and 6, an attempt has been made to cover the most up-to-date
information regarding synthesis, and application of cellulose derivatives and azo dyes on
textiles. Smart textiles incorporated with different functionalities have many uses in a variety
of fields, some of them are widely used in the fields of biomedical or healthcare applications.
The smart textiles and its multi-disciplinary applications have been well discussed in chapters
7 and 8. In chapters 9, 10 and 11, preservation of textile objects in different environments like
home, stores, museums etc. have been discussed. These chapters also discussed how to
protect textiles from bacterial and fungal deterioration. An elaborative discussion has been
made in Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 on the new applications of textile materials through
modification by physico-chemical methods. The modification has been done to obtain
durable, comfort, sustainable and environment friendly finished products using various
organic and inorganic chemicals for much better performance. Use of micro-capsulation
techniques to modify textiles offers extra-properties, e.g., durable fragrances, skin softeners to
textiles. Electronic applications of textiles have been discussed in chapter 17. Textiles, from


viii

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal

fibers to fabric, with integrated special electronics are more and more used as special
materials in newly developed smart clothing. The chapter 18 specifically focuses on the
technological advances with regard to development of textiles for cardiology purpose, i.e.,
cardiac care. The thermoregulatory process of human body, the thermal comfort properties of

fabrics and the effect of clothing material on the thermoregulatory process of human body in
different weather conditions has been discussed in Chapter 19. In chapter 20, effort has been
made on diversification of jute specifically, development of jute-based materials for thermal
insulating applications. The main aim of chapter 21 is to utilize the ring flanges and travellers
of ring spinning, which is the most effective staple yarn production process, for the yarn
quality in terms of hairiness, twist, breaking strength and irregularity. The last chapter 22
gives an introduction into the techniques of confocal laser spinning microscopy, and depicts
optical differences between several textile fibers, enabling a non-destructive examination of
natural and chemical fibers.
I am very much grateful to all the specialized contributing authors of this book. My
special appreciation is also extended to Ms. Carra Feagaiga of Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
for her good collaboration, support and numerous discussions throughout the project for this
book.
I wish thank to my colleagues Professor C. M. Mustafa, Professor F. I. Farouqui, and
Professor M. A. Sayeed for their constant support and encouragement. I also thank my
graduate students, Dr. Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan, Md. Raihan Sharif, Md. Saifur Rahman
and Md. Tariqul Islam for their help during editing this book. Lastly I am thankful to
Khadijatul Qubra and Ishrat Rafia for their constant encouragement, understanding and
support.
Any constructive suggestions and comments are therefore welcome for future revisions
and corrections.

Department of Applied Chemistry & Chemical Engineering,
Rajshahi University, Bangladesh
November 2013
Professor Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal


CONTRIBUTOR CONTACT DETAILS
A. B. M. Fakrul Alam

Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

Ali Akbar Merati
Advanced Textile Materials and Technology Research Institute (ATMT), Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
E-mail:
Ana Kalijadis
Laboratory of Physics, Vinca Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike
Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Andrea Ehrmann
Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Textile and Clothing Technology,
Webschulstr. 31, 41065 Moenchengladbach, Germany
E-mail:
Andrej Demšar
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Andrej Javoršek
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia


x

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal
Biljana Pejic
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia
Catherine Canning
Department of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,

Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland
Cesar Pulgarin
EPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Christina Margariti
Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /
Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece
E-mail:
Dejana Javoršek
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5, 1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail:
Dharmarajan Anita Rachel
NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India
E-mail:
Dušan Ž. Mijin
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail:
Eva Bou-Belda
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain
Gordana S. Ušćumlić
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia


Contributor Contact Details

xi

Hans-Jürgen Buschmann
Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universität Duisburg-Essen,
NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Straße 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany
Ignacio Montava
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain
Ismail Usta
Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University,
Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey
Jaime Gisbert
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain
John Kiwi
EPFL-SB-ISIC-LPI, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Bâtiment Chimie,
Station 6, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

Julie McColl
Department of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland
E-mail:

Karina Nobbs
London College of Fashion, 272 Holborn, London WCIV 7CY, UK

Katja Kavkler
Restoration Centre, Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail:

Linda Shearer
Department of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland


xii

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal
Louise McBride
Department of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland

Lucia Capablanca
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Maria Bonet
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain
E-mail:

Maria Retsa
Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /
Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece
Marica Starešinič
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,
1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail:

Marija Vukcevic

Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail:

Mashiur Rahman Khan
Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh and
Department of Apparel Manufacturing Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles,
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal
Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh
E-mail:


Contributor Contact Details

xiii

Mirjana Kostic
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia

Muhammet Uzun
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, Deane Road,
Bolton, BL3 5AB, UK, and
Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University,
Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey
E-mail:

Narayanan Gokarneshan
NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India
E-mail:

Nataša V. Valentić
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia

Nina Gunde-Cimerman
Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia,
and
Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins
(CIPKeBiP), Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

P. Kandha Vadivu
Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004,
India
E-mail:

Pablo Díaz
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Pablo Monllor
Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza
Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

xiv

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal
Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan
NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India

Polona Zalar
Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia

Primož Weingerl
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia

Rosendo Sanjines
EPFL-SB-IPMC-LNNME Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Bat PH, Station 3,
CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

Sami Rtimi
EPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
E-mail:

Sanjoy Debnath
National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research 12, Regent Park, Kolkata – 700 040, West Bengal, India
E-mail: ;

Shah M. Reduwan Billah
Department of Chemistry, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK and

The School of Textiles and Design, Heriot-Watt University, Galashiels TD1 3HF, UK
E-mail: or

Stavroula Moraitou
Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /
Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece
Vahid Ameri Dehabadi
Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universität Duisburg-Essen,
NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Straße 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany
E-mail:


Contributor Contact Details
Venkatachalam Rajendran
NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India
E-mail:

xv



In: Textiles: History, Properties and Performance …
Editor: Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal

ISBN: 978-1-63117-262-5
© 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

AN EXPLORATION OF VINTAGE FASHION RETAILING

Julie McColl1,, Catherine Canning1,
Louise McBride1, Karina Nobbs2 and Linda Shearer1
1

Department of Business Management, Glasgow
Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland
2
London College of Fashion, London, UK

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to offer a definition of vintage fashion and consider
the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer and the positioning of the vintage
fashion store from the perspective of fifteen vintage fashion retailers. The research
indicates that vintage fashion retailers position themselves on the basis of their
uniqueness, based upon their experience, knowledge and skills.

Keywords: Vintage, fashion, definition, customer characteristics, positioning

INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade there has been an increasing trend for vintage fashion clothing [1].
Indeed, McMeekin [2] and Wilson and Thorpe [3] have identified that vintage fashion is a
multimillion pound industry. Previously, second-hand clothing was purchased by low income
groups, economically disadvantaged in terms of mainstream fashion. More recently, however,
vintage clothing has become an alternative or an additional choice to high street fashion [4,
5]. Tolkien [6] has proposed that vintage stores and markets have become a desirable source
for acquiring fashion items. This may be the result of increasing societal acceptance of an
aesthetic shift, with vintage fashion being intended as a means of self-expression and
differentiation [4, 7, 8].


Corresponding author: Julie McColl. Department of Business Management, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland. E-mail:


2

Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride et al.

The acceptance of second hand clothing as an alternative to high street fashion is partly
due to the resurgence of fashion styles from the 1960s, 1970s and the 1980s [9], and the
influence of celebrity culture [4, 10].
Consumers are increasingly aware of unethical practices in the fashion industry [10-12],
and have become less tolerant towards disposable fashion and more suspicious of the
behavior of global brands [8, 13]. The move of vintage from niche sub-culture to mainstream
may be evidenced by the increased vintage offerings by high street, luxury and online
retailers and by the plethora of guides on selecting and assembling vintage clothing outfits [4,
14, 15, 8, 16]. This apparent increase in vintage offerings has broadened the opportunities for
the consumption of vintage clothing.
The term vintage is widely used yet has never been clearly defined [4, 7], in terms of the
parameters, characteristics and the positioning of the vintage fashion retail store. The
literature on the retailer positioning strategies is clearly established [17-26], however, there is
little published research on vintage fashion retailing, and developments in the market and
their implications for vintage fashion retailers has not been addressed. This exploratory study
defines the concept of vintage fashion and the vintage fashion consumer. It evaluates the
positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers, explores how they differentiate themselves
in the face of increased competition and considers the implications of the more recent vintage
trend for traditional vintage retailers.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Vintage

It is difficult to define the concept of vintage, partly due to the lack of agreement
regarding the specific time periods of ‘vintage’, ‘antique’ and ‘retro’ but also due to
differences in opinion about the constituents of such clothing items.
According to De Long [7, p. 23] “in clothing, vintage usually involves the recognition of
a special type or model, and knowing and appreciating such specifics as year or period when
produced or worn”. Furthermore, they suggest that vintage clothing is concerned with a
specific time period or setting and is distinguished from “antique, historical, consignment, reused or second-hand”. Palmer and Clark [4, p. 175], define the term more broadly proposing
that it is “used to cover a huge spectrum of clothes that are not newly designed”. Tungate [8,
p. 221] offers a more focused definition which highlights the evolution and complexity of the
term, identifying that “any one particular item may change through time and usage by the
fashion media, so that second hand becomes known as retro then in turn as vintage”. The
increase in availability of vintage and the growth of on-line availability of vintage clothing
has added confusion to the array of vintage definitions [4].
From the customer view point, Tungate [8], proposes that vintage is an intangible concept
which is more about attitude than style of dress.
Similarly Palmer [4], characterises vintage fashion as a symbol of individuality and
originality. A primary aim of this research was to define vintage from the perspective of the
vintage fashion retailer.


An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing

3

Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer
Traditionally the buying of second-hand apparel has been subject to negative meanings as
a mark of poverty [27, 28]. Tseëlon [29] acknowledged that this type of social judgment has
been discounted by the vintage consumer in their quest for non-conformity to fashion trends.
Silverman [30], recognized increased demand for vintage goods amongst the young consumer
and the middle class consumer. Crewe and Forster [31], agree with this explanation, adding

that these groups acquire vintage fashion for excitement and as a means of displaying
themselves in public. Hansen [32], segments the vintage consumers into young professionals
who want good quality apparel at modest prices, or young people keen on retro subculture
looks like Punk, Rave or Mod styles.
In addition, Woodward’s [16] study explored younger consumer’s affection for vintage
clothing and recognized that the incentive for consumption was to achieve a level of
differentiation from their peers. Additionally, a substantial consumer group has been
acknowledged as taste-makers: stylists, designers and image makers who use it as a means of
inspiration and creativity [33-35]. The ownership, or the wearing of vintage items along with
high street clothes, has become anindication of how fashionable the wearer is, with an
increasing prominence on how the items are sourced, and not just on how the person looks
[16]. The increase in mass market vintage has possibly weakened the authentic charm of
vintage among ‘fashion’ orientated consumers, i.e., those more concerned with how things
look and being individual in style, than having a deferential concern with the historic and
representative links of these sometimes uncommon items which the vintage connoisseur and
retail experts so value [7, 36, 38].

History and Key Drivers
Vintage as mainstream fashion emerged as a trend in the 1980’s [38]. Tolkien [6] has
identified vintage as stemming from the New York social fashion elite, influenced by
sentimental pictures of 1940’s couture. In addition, celebrities fueled demand and popularity
of the style by wearing luxury vintage gowns to major award ceremonies and fashion shows.
Others credit Barbra Streisand as the first vintage-couture advocate [39]. In turn, this
encouraged designers such as Marc Jacobs, in the 1990s to create the ‘nouveau vintage’ look
by reinventing older styles [40].
This trend also occurred in the UK and Europe with designers and celebrities such as
Stella McCartney and Kate Moss inspiring mainstream adoption of vintage fashion [41, 42].
The appreciation of vintage aesthetics which grew in the 1990s helped to decrease the stigma
of wearing second hand clothing, and permitted them to develop in to acceptable sources of
fashion. This resulted in a differentiation both in-store and in the consumer’s mind, between

vintage and clothing purchased from charity stores [1, 4, 6, 43]. The media has endorsed
vintage fashion as a means of conveying connoisseurship and uniqueness, more recently
extended by the juxtaposition of vintage and contemporary in one ensemble [4, 8].
Jackson and Shaw [44] highlight an important driver in the vintage movement is media
attention on the unethical practices which exist in the fashion industry, resulting in a
consumer backlash against disposable fashion and the beginnings of a ‘slow fashion’
movement, who emphasize the importance of quality as opposed to quantity [45].


4

Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride et al.

An additional driver acknowledged by Tungate [8] is customer defiance of expensive,
branded products and trends promoted through marketing communications. In recent years,
the economic downturn has witnessed ‘upcycled’ fashion items becoming a mainstream
phenomenon; this is the re-working of old clothes into more modern-day, higher value pieces
[46, 47].
The influential ‘retail guru’, author and broadcaster Mary Portas, successfully developed
a media campaign in 2009 called ‘Living and Giving’ which improved the image of charity
shops and further increased demand in vintage clothing [48]. More recently, in a study of
street style Woodward [16], indicated that the trend for vintage has reached maturity and
might now be perceived as commonplace or omnipresent.
In the case of both the retailer and the consumer alike, the uptake of the vintage trend in
the ‘noughties’ has caused a reduction in the availability of interesting and unusual items,
affecting the market in two ways. Firstly key pieces have increased in value and vintage
fashion has grown to be an investment prospectrivaling the collection of artwork [49-50].
Agins [51] has identified that this is as a result of the widely broadcast view that the couture
industry is declining, with prices accelerating and skilled workmanship growing scarcer.
Secondly it means that traditional vintage consumers are being forced to search extensively

and even globally to source the desired article [52].
In total there are three key drivers of vintage fashion trends. Firstly, the trickle down
feature from celebrities and designers, secondly, the ethical aspect of the fashion industry and
finally the need for individual uniqueness and authenticity. Palmer [4, p. 197) proposes that
“vintage has now shifted from subculture to mass culture because of the disappointing fact
that, regardless of price, fashion today is rarely exclusive”.

Market Structure and Vintage Retail Formats
Mhango and Niehm [53] suggest that vintage clothing retailers are focused within the
small business sector, and are characteristically independently owned. These include secondhand stores for example thrift or charity shops, estate sales, garage sales, flea markets and
auctions, usually the province of commercially-mediated lateral recycling [31, 54].
Nevertheless, vintage clothing retailers have now developed to comprise multifaceted retail
support functions such as sourcing, supply chain management and visual merchandising [55].
Moreover many charity stores in Great Britain have re-invented themselves as ‘vintage’ to
increase their apparent brand value and to distinguish themselves from others in the sector
[12]. Mainstream high street retailers such as Top Shop and Urban Outfitters have
successfully sold vintage clothing ranges for a number of years [15]. Tolkien [6] ascertains
that the internet as a significant channel in the distribution of vintage clothing, however this
phenomenon requires an alternative research approach and can be addressed in future studies.

Retail Positioning
Porter's [56, 57] theory of positioning theory has had an lasting impact on the marketing
literature [58-65], and practice [66, 67], as one of the most significant concepts and
fundamental principles of marketing [63, 64], central to strategic marketing success [68].


An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing

5

The positioning strategy implemented by any company is grounded in the needs of the
customer, the behaviour of the competition, and is ultimately how companies can achieve
competitive advantage [69-73].
It is commonly acknowledged that although there are a number of positioning typologies
developed within the marketing planning framework [59, 73-74], there is a lack of empirical
research testing these typologies [61, 64]. Yip [75] has proposed that a number of the
positioning approaches suggested within the literature, are incomplete and may be confusing.
Table 1 offers a summary of positioning typologies. The concepts of these positioning
typologies are considered by the authors as the central means by which the organisation can
attain differentiation, increase competitive advantage and therefore position themselves
within the market [64].
Table 1. Summary of positioning typologies
Author

Aaker and Shansby [59];
Berry [78]; Buskirk [76];
Brown and Sims [77];
Crawford [79]; Hooley, et
al. [63]; Wind [73]

Ries and Trout [66]

Easingwood and Mahajan
[80]

Arnott [61, 58]

Kalafatis, et al. [72]

Positioning constructs i.e., concepts

Features and Benefits
Features, price, advertising, distribution, problem solved, usage
situation, users, competitors, value, time efficiency, high contact,
sensory, benefits, product class dissociation, attributes, price,
quality, use or application, product/service user, product/service
class, competition, direct/indirect, surrogates: nonpareil,
parentage (brand, company, person), manufacture, target, rank,
endorsements, experience, predecessor, innovation-imitation,
superior service-limited service, differentiated benefitsundifferentiated features, tailored offering-standard offering.
Strategic positioning
Market leader, follower, reposition the competition, use the name,
line extension (use of house name).
Reputation/capabilities of organisation: expertise, reliability,
innovativeness, performance, augmentation of product offering:
product augmentation, extra service, people advantage, more
attractive package offering, a superior product through
technology, accessibility, extra attention given to individual
requirements through customisation, satisfaction of more user
needs within the sector through offering a complete product line.
Empathy, solvency, promotions, administrative time, helpfulness,
reliability, attentiveness, staff competence, flexible products,
access to people, reputation, customisation, incentives, social
awareness, security, technology.
Easy to do business, personal contact, product performance,
range of offerings, presence, safety, leadership, distinct identity,
status, country identity, differentiation, attractiveness.

Source: Adapted from Blankson and Kalafatis [64].

Blankson and Kalafatis [64], however, consider existing studies to be descriptive,

difficult to put into practice and based on limited empirical testing, principally in terms of
their representation within consumer marketplaces, their propensity being to represent the


6

Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride et al.

views of management. They propose that the literature lacks an empirically based consumer/
customer derived typology, which can measure the effectiveness of positioning strategies
employed.
Having carried out extensive empirical research, they have proposed a positioning
typology based on customer opinions, which they advise is suitable for both product and
service markets and recommend that managers develop their positioning based on consumer
perceptions of prestige, service, reliability, attractiveness, country of origin and brand name.
These, they propose, are the key differentiating features within the marketplace and can be
successfully deployed in marketing communication.
In the retailing literature, Cook and Walters [19] suggest that a company’s market
position is its reaction to its understanding of the needs, desires and behavioural
characteristics of its target customer profile. Retail positioning is defined by Wortzel [81, p.
47] who proposes:
“For a retailer, strategic positioning involves providing unique value. Strategic
positioning involves selecting and then bringing to bear an integrated set of tools and
communication techniques that identify and explain the store to the customer.”

Walters [18] offers a model of positioning developed as the consequence of wide-ranging
empirical research within the retail sector. The fundamentals of the positioning strategy in
retailing, he suggests, are a visible response to the needs and wants of the identified target
market. The key decision areas for retailers in evolving their marketing strategy are those of
trading format, merchandise strategy, customer service and customer communications

strategy. These decision areas define the retailer positioning strategy, and position them in
terms of what the customer anticipates and customer satisfaction, creating a point of
distinction which separates retailers from their competitors and represents the retail brand [82,
26].
While established as a theoretical model, the strategic elements of Walters’s [18] value
added positioning statement are still recognised in the retail marketing literature as the means
by which retailers should position themselves in the market [17-26].
Therefore it forms the basis of a number of empirical studies on retailer brand positioning
[20, 26, 81, 83-88, 89, 90], which stress the possible benefits of developing a clear and
distinctive positioning statement using the elements of the retailing mix. Consequently it was
thought to be the most suitable framework for application within this study. However,
although there are a number of positioning typologies developed in the marketing and
retailing planning context [59, 73-74], there is still a lack of empirical research testing these
typologies [61, 64].
The literature suggests that small retailers, like those addressed within this study, are
different from larger companies in terms of management systems and resources, and that
planning, control and strategy are a result of the personal objectives and personality of the
owner manager [91-93]. However, within the vintage retail sector, this proposition has not
been tested. This research serves to help address this issue.


An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing

7

METHODOLOGY
Small companies are dominant within the vintage retail sector and generally evolve from
the entrepreneurs who are enthusiastic about vintage themselves [12, 14]. The decision to
focus on small scale companies is also supported by evidence provided in the vintage retailing
literature, as existing research focuses on small companies [53, 54]. To be selected for this

study the vintage retailers had to meet some or all of the specifications within the literature.
They had to have high levels of experience in both buying and merchandising and so had to
have been in business for at least two years. The participants of the study therefore had
between two and twenty three years experience of running a vintage retailing company. To
ensure consistency of trading practices, participants were required to trade as bricks and
mortar businesses.
Therefore, participants would provide credible information as to the concept, positioning
and differentiation of small vintage fashion retailers. Thirty nine vintage fashion retailers
from Scottish towns and cities were identified from The Yellow Pages, trade journals and
company websites.
Of these, twenty seven were found to have been in business for over two years, however
one was found to sell only on an online basis. A letter was sent to these twenty six vintage
fashion retailers from the population sample of thirty nine in September of 2009. A follow up
phone call was made a week later. Sixteen retailers responded that they were willing to
participate in the study, however, one potential participant remained unavailable. Therefore
fifteen interviews were carried out with owner/managers of vintage retail stores. All
participants had direct experience in the areas of buying and merchandising within the vintage
retail sector. The owner managers were between twenty three and fifty eight years old.
The interviews took place within the retail premises and were approximately two hours
long. Confidentiality was assured. The interviews were taped, transcribed and retained as
Microsoft Word documents. Analysis was carried out by one member of the research team to
ensure consistency. First of all the transcripts were analysed to identify common
characteristics and emerging themes and issues.
At this stage, a “cluster” approach was adopted and a framework for theoretical
development began to emerge [94]. These clusters were selected on the basis of significance,
mutual exclusivity and ability to stand by themselves [95]. Yin [95] suggests that data
analysis consists of examining, categorising, tabulating, and testing the content to address the
initial propositions of the research. Interviews were analysed one at a time individually and
then on a cross interview analysis. Patton [96] suggests that the analysis involves the
application of the existing theoretical framework, developed from the literature, and the

subsequent analysis of the interviews to allow for an examination of emerging patterns.
According to the theories and concepts extracted from the literature, the interviewees
were asked open-ended questions about their definition of vintage, the vintage customer,
merchandising and the positioning of the vintage store.
The results and discussion section is therefore divided into three sections. Firstly, the
research seeks to define vintage fashion and investigate the vintage fashion movement,
secondly, the research explores the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer from the
perspective of the store owner/managers, and finally it explores positioning in relation to the
retail vintage fashion sector.