Chapter 6 human resource training and development

Chapter 6 Human Resource Training and Development
6.1 Motivation
A vital managerial function in any organization is to motivate employees. This is because
motivation is inextricably linked to employee satisfaction and ensures employees consistently
excel at their jobs. Motivation is especially important in the hospitality industry, where
employee satisfaction and competence are key determinants of service quality.
Self-assessment
6.1.1 Definition
Specially, motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward
organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need. This
definition suggests that although individuals may work toward common group or
organizational goals, their willingness to do so is related to their individual needs.
Motivation plays a major role in achieving high performance in the workplace. But just
because an employee is motivated does not guarantee she will perform satisfactorily. As
illustrated in figure 3-1, changing the performance of workers is rather more complicated
than just “motivating” them.
Before an organization motivates their employees, it needs to recognize the following
points:
1.
2.

Employees’ needs vary from one person to another.
To accommodate the diverse needs of employees, a variety of
motivational strategies must be implemented throughout the organization.

6.1.2 Motivation Theories


There are a number of motivation theories that are well known and have popular support
among users. These include:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory
McClelland’s manifest needs theory
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Reinforcement theory
To explore these theories and strategies in the context of the hospitality industry, we will
begin by categorizing each theory according to whether it is most relevant at the individual,
group, or organizational level. Each theory will be further classified as either a content theory
or a process theory. Content theories explain “why” someone is motivated to undertake some
activity. Process theory, in contrast, describe “how” the individual becomes motivated in the
first place and sustains that motivation over a period of time. These theories offer an
explanation of the actual means by which someone becomes and stays motivated. (Table 3-1
presents such categorization)
Table 6-1 categorization of motivation theory
Motivation theory

Level of greatest
applicability

Content or process theory

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Individual

Content

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Individual

Content

Individual

Content

Group

Process

individual

Process

Organization

Content/process

McClelland’s
theory

manifest

Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Reinforcement theory

needs

Hierarchy of needs theory
In 1940s, Abraham Maslow’s research led him to the realization that motivation can stem
from a variety of needs that are ordered in a particular hierarchy way. Maslow thus developed
a motivational theory based on this hierarchy of needs. Underlying this theory is the notion
that a person is moved to engage in behavior that will satisfy the predominant need
experienced at that particular time.


The hierarchical ordering of the potential needs is illustrated in figure 3-2.
Maslow viewed physiological needs as basic survival needs: the need for food, water,
shelter, and so on. Safety needs include protection from both real and psychological harm.
The third level of need, love, includes our need to be with others and to be loved or
appreciated. This need includes the need to have friends and to feel accepted as a family or
group member. Esteem needs refer to a need for self-respect, a sense of personal worth,
recognition for accomplishments, a feeling of self-confidence, and prestige. Selfactualization, the highest level of need, refers to the need to develop to one’s full potential, to
accomplish to the full extent of one’s capabilities.
SelfActualization


Esteem

Love

Safety

Physiological

Figure 6-2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

In application, this theory suggests that as a basic need is met the next need nay be
experienced as unfulfilled, and it then becomes the primary motivating factor as well ad the
main stimulus of action. Say, an individual who had adequate food and shelter and who felt
safe from potential threats would be motivated to meet love needs. The self-actualization
need is never totally satisfied, so the need survives with the individual. If a person’s lowerorder need is threatened, the higher needs would be lost until that threat is removed.
Maslow’s theory is appealing because it can be readily applied to the workplace. If
managers can determine which of an employee’s need are unmet, they can strive to meet
those needs motivating the employee to greater productivity.
Although it has been criticized as being too simplistic, Maslow’s work has been the basis
for the development of other motivation theories.
Two-Factor Theory
According to Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which he developed in the 1960’s,
the satisfaction of a need has one of two effects. It either causes employees to be satisfied
with their jobs or it prevents employees from being dissatisfied with their jobs.
Herzberg labeled the factors associated with job dissatisfaction “hygiene factors”,
indicating an analogy to the concept of preventive maintenance. The factors associated with
job satisfaction were labeled “motivators” to suggest their effectiveness in evoking individual
behavior toward superior performance. Interestingly, Herzberg’s hygiene factors correspond
closely to Maslow’s two lower-level needs (physical and safety needs). The motivators
identified by Herzberg are akin to Maslow’s higher-level needs of esteem and selfactualization. This suggests that meeting lower-order needs can only prevent job
dissatisfaction; to achieve job satisfaction requires the fulfillment of higher-order needs.
Manifest Needs Theory


This theory developed by David McClelland in the 1950s, is based on the idea that needs
are derived from personality. It suggests that needs ate developed, and thus motivators are
acquired, as people interact with environment. According to McClelland, all people possess,
in vary degree, the need for:
Achievement
Power

Affiliation
The need for Achievement
People with a high need for achievement tend to:


Take personal responsibility for solving problems.



Be goal oriented.



Set moderate, realistic, attainable goals.



Seek challenges, excellence, and individuality.



Take calculated, moderated risk.



Desire concrete feedback on their performance.

To motivate employees with a high need foe achievement, a manager needs to provide
them with:


Nonroutine, challenging tasks in which there are clear attainable objectives.



Prompt and frequent feedback on their performance.



Increased responsibility for doing new things.

The need for power
People with a high need for power tend to:


Want to control the situation.



Want influence or control over others.



Enjoy competition in which they can win (they don’t like to lose).



Be willing to confront others.
To motivate employees with a high need for power, managers should:





Let them plan and control their jobs as much as possible.
Try to include them in decision making, especially when they are affected by the
decision. They tend to perform best alone rather than as a team member.
Try to assign them to a whole task rather than a part if the task.

The need for affiliation
People with a high need for affiliation tend to:




Seek close relationships with others.



Want to be liked by others.



Enjoy lots of social activities.



Seek to belong (they often join groups and organizations).
To motive employees with a need foe affiliation, managers should:





Be sure to let them work as part of a team. They derive satisfaction from the people
with whom they work rather than from the task itself.
Give them lots of praise and recognition.
Delegate responsibility for orienting and training new employees to them. They
make great buddies and mentors.

Expectancy Theory
It is a process theory that indicates whether a person is motivated depends on two
expectancies and one valence.
The first expectancy involves the probability that an employee will be able to make a
connection between her level of effort and the performance that derived from this effort. For
motivation to occur, the employee must believe that if she puts forth a reasonable effort, there
is a high probability that she will be able to meet expected performance standards. We refer
this as E – P (effort – performance) expectancy.
The second expectancy involves the probability that the employee will be able to link her
level of performance to the rewards she receives for the performance. In other words, a high
level of motivation will occur only if the employee believes there is a high probability of
being rewarded for satisfactory performance. We refer it as the P – R (performance – reward)
expectancy.
The valence that is import to motivation is that which is attached to the reward. This
means that in order for a reward to have high value as a motivator, it must have a high
valence for the employee. That is, the employee will only be motivated to work hard if the
reward id something that she finds desirable.


Putting the elements of the expectancy theory together, a high level of motivation occurs

when there is a high expectancy that one’s effort will yield satisfactory performance and that
this performance will result in the attainment of one’s desired rewards. Figure 3-3 illustrates
how the components of the expectancy theory work together to produce a high level of
motivation in an employee. Table 3-2 shows predicted levels of motivation as a function of
the expectancies and valence that are functional to the expectancy theory.
Table 6-2 predict levels of motivation according to expectancy theory
E—P

P—R

Reward
valence

Predict level of
motivation

low

low

low

Very low

low

low

High

low

low

High

low

low

low

High

High

low

High

low

low

low

High

low

High

Moderate

High

High

low

moderate

High

High

High

High

Equity Theory
This is a theory which can be used to motivate groups. At the group level, motivation is
important in establishing effective and productive work groups. Employee behavior is also
influenced by the presence and actions of others. In some instance, group influence can be as
powerful as individual needs are in driving behavior.
Equity theory is a process theory that is based on the idea that people motivated by
fairness, an important social value in North America. According to this theory, people
compare how much they are being rewarded for their performance to how much others in
their peer group are being rewarded for their performance. If employees perceive an inequity,
they will be motivated to change their behavior to create an equity situation. If employees

feel equitably rewarded, their combination of performance and rewards is perceived as being
equal to that of their peers and they will be motivated to continue their current behavior.
A perception of inequity will ultimately lead an employee to one of two conclusions. The
employee will either feel (1) underrewarded or (2) overrewarded.
An employee who feels underrewarded might try to reduce the inequity with one or more
of the following actions:
Trying to get an increased reward.
Rationalizing a logical reason for the inequity.


Doing less work.
Getting others to do more work.
Leaving the situation
An employee who feels overrewarded might try to reduce the inequity with one or more
of the following actions:
Working harder or longer.
Rationalizing that “I’m worth it.”
Taking a pay cut (a rare occurrence)
Trying to get more rewards for the peer group.
Using equity theory can be challenging for managers because it forces them to deal with
employees’ perception rather than facts. In addition, it is not always possible to know who
belongs to the peer group to which the employee is comparing himself.
Equity theory offers managers some general recommendations:
It is important for managers to understand their employees’ perceptions of equity.
Rewards should be perceived to be fair by all involved parties.
Organizations with clearly stated objectives, clearly stated standards of
performance, and an effective performance appraisal system will have fewer problems
with perceptions of inequity.
The Hawthorne Effect
In the late of 1920s, a Harvard University researcher named Elton Mayo conducted

studies at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago.
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effect of work environment on
productivity. They study proceeded by first selecting a group pf workers to participate in the
research project. These workers carried out their duties in an area that was set apart from the
rest of the plant. In this area Mayo varied the lighting levels and ventilation and measured the
effect of these changes on productivity. Much to his surprise, with every change – whether to
increase or decrease lighting and ventilation – productivity increased. By interviewing the
employees, he realized that the productivity increase was not caused by the environmental
changes in the workplace. Rather, the productivity increase resulted from the employees
feeling important. This increased productivity, caused by such group influences, is called
“Hawthorne Effect”.
The Hawthorne studies concluded: “That group influences were significant in affecting
individual behavior, that group standards were highly effective in establishing individual


worker output, and that money was less a factor in determining worker output than group
standards, sentiments, and security.”
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory cannot be neatly categorized as either a process or content theory
of motivation because it attempts to explain both why an individual is motivated to behave in
a certain way and how an individual becomes motivated.
The essence of applying reinforcement theory for motivational purposes in the workplace
is to promote desirable employee behaviors by following up any good behaviors with
positive consequences and to deter undesirable employee behaviors by following up any
unwanted behaviors with unpleasant consequences. The type of reinforcement that can be
employed to influence behavior include the following:
Positive reinforcement. An attractive reward for desired behavior.(e.g. praise or a
monetary bonus for exceptional sales.)
Avoidance reinforcement. Removal of an unpleasant consequence following a
desired behavior (e.g. employee comes to work on time because of the negative

consequences of being late.)
Extinction. Withholding of response ( consequence ) for undesirable behavior (e.g.
supervisor ignores employee’s complaints about a co-worker)
Punishment. An undesirable consequence for undesirable behavior (e.g. putting
employee on probation or taking away privileges.)
Managers can use any of these various types of reinforcement to motivate employees.
However, for the best results, managers should be mindful of the following guidelines when
using reinforcement theory to motivate employees:
Generally, positive reinforcement is the best motivator.
Select appropriate rewards; a reward to one person could be considered an insult or
punishment to another.
Punishment is the least effective method of motivating an employee.
Do not reward mediocre or poor performance.
Ensure that employees know what is expected of them.
Despite the fact that punishment is the least effective way to motivate employees, many
managers still rely on it heavily. The use of punishment can be particularly detrimental in
service-oriented organizations where employee satisfaction and customer happiness ate often
inextricably linked.
Employee recognition programs are one way in which positive reinforcement commonly
used in the hospitality industry. (McDonald’s example).


6.1.3 Motivation Techniques
Praise
A simple and effective way to increase motivation is to give praise. Praise is probably the
most powerful, simple, and underused motivational technique.
The following tips are useful when giving praise to employees:
Tell the employee exactly what was done well. Be specific.
Tell the employee why the behavior is important.
Stop for a moment of silence so that the praise can sink in. try accounting to 5.

Encourage a repeat of the performance. For example “Thanks Mary, keep up the
good work.”
Be sincere. Praise is important to the individual’s esteem.
Job Enrichment
Job enrichment refers to the vertical expansion of jobs, raises motivation by making work
more interesting and challenging for employees. It does it by increasing the degree to which
the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of his or her job.
Before implementing job enrichment, managers should ensure that the technique is
suitable to both the job and the employee involved. For job enrichment to be effective,
employees must be in favor of and involved with the change. Managers should be aware that
some employees prefer to seek challenges outside the workplace and should not attempt to
use job enrichment to motive these employees.
In situations where job enrichment is appropriate, there are some relatively simple ways
in which it can be applied.
1.
2.

Form a work group and allow employees to work together.
Make employees responsible for their “piece of pie”. If possible, let the employees
complete the job from beginning to end. In hospitality organization, this means sth. as
simple as allowing an employee to serve the needs of the customer from the beginning to
the end of the transaction.

3.

Give employees the right to organize their work day.

4.

Delegate jobs with more variety and responsibility.

Job Redesign
Job redesign is essentially the idea of “doing it better by doing it differently.”
Any of the following three combinations of individuals and techniques can be used to
improve the design of a job:
1.

Experts can use time and motion studies to determine the way the job should be
done.


2.

Managers, who supervise the job, can suggest improvements based on observed
shortcomings in the current job procedures.

3.

Employees, who are the most knowledgeable about their jobs, can devise new and
better ways to carry out their work.

A Reward System – The Scanlon Plan
This an incentive scheme named for its creator, Joseph Scanlon. Basically, the Scanlon
plan is a gain-sharing plan that works on the premise that employees have the best and most
workable suggestions for the company. The company motivates employees to contribute
ideas by sharing with them the savings or earnings generated by their suggestions.
Because the money is paid directly to the employees and because the reward is perceived
to be fair and equitable, the Scanlon plan works very well so long as employees are
motivated at least in part by the potential for financial gain. The organization benefited not
only by suggestions to increase productivity, but also by increased efficiency, increased

participative management, better relations between employees and management, and a
greater willingness to accept change within the organization.
6.1.4 General Guidelines for applying Motivation Theory
Applying motivation theory well requires integrating individual, group, and
organizational needs, wants, and objectives. The following are some guidelines that may be
helpful in achieving a balance among these things:
1.

Determine the needs of individual employees and work to ensure that those needs
are met.

2.

Establish motivation programs that are suitable for motivating all employees.

3.

Review, on an ongoing basis, the effectiveness of the motivational programs
employed.

4.

Recognize that factors such as organizational culture and climate, group
interaction and group leadership, as well as the individuality of employees, all need to
be examined and considered when designing and implementing motivational
initiatives within a company.

5.

Ensure that employees are capable of performing at the expected level. This may

mean that employees should receive more training or that the organization should
improve its selection process so that it hires more competent individuals.

6.

Ensure that performance requirements and the reward system are clearly
communicated to all employees in the organization.

7.

Remember that most employees will engage in behaviors for which they are
rewarded. Make sure then that employees are rewarded for doing things that
contribute to the overall performance of the organization.

6.2 Training
6.2.1 Definition


Training is a systematic process through which an organization’s human resource gain
knowledge and develop skills by instruction and practical activities that result in improved
corporate performance.
Training, Development, Education
If one wishes to make a distinction between training and development, it would be that
training is directed at helping employees perform better on their current jobs, whereas
development represents a future-oriented investment in employees.
Many discussions of training emphasize a difference between training and education.
Training programs are considered to be designed to limit possible employee responses to
those behaviors preferred by an employer. (专专培专). Education is considered a means by
which the range of possible employee responses is increased rather than reduced. Education
represents a broadening of the individual so that he or she may be prepared to assess a variety

of situations and select the most appropriate response. Although many unskilled, semiskilled,
and skilled positions primarily require training, supervisory and management positions
require elements of education. Recently there has been a blurring of the distinction between
training and education. Training programs have sought to broaden and develop the individual
through education. For instance, employees in the service industries may be required to make
independent decisions regarding their work and their relationships with clients. Hence,
organizations should consider elements of both education and training when planning their
training programs.
6.2.2 The Training Process
Figure 6-2 presents important steps in the training process.
ⅠAssess Objectives & Training Needs
An organization must first assess its objectives: what business are we in? What product
or service do we wish to provide to customers? At what level of quality do we wish to
provide this product or service? Once an organization has answered these and similar
questions, an assessment of human resource requirements should be undertaken. Can our
human resource provide the skills, knowledge, abilities, and other personal attributes that are
necessary? To the extent that they may lack these attributes, training may be required.
The assessment of training needs is perhaps the most important step in the process. Use a
restaurant as an example, table 3-3 shows skills, knowledge, and attitudes need to be used in
planning menus for special occasions.
Table 6-3 Planning Menus for Special Occasions
Task elements
Conferring with organizer
Assessing the circumstances, situation, and occasion
Assessing the potential of the kitchen
Taking account of seasonal variations
Considering the suitability of different menu items


Suggesting a range of prices

Suggesting appropriate menus/beverages
Finalizing the organizer’s requirements
Obtaining agreement
Skills, knowledge, and attitudes
Ability to:
Comprehend, read, write, calculate, and communicate
Use price lists
Suggest dishes, wines, beverages suitable for various occasions
Liaise with kitchen staff
Plan menus
Knowledge of:
Dishes available in the establishment
Suitability of various dishes
Foods in season
Gastronomic rules when planning a menu
Wines and beverages available and their suitability
Planning for various types of special occasions
Types of meals suitable for special occasions
Prices
Establishment’s marketing policy
Legal aspects
Attitudes:
Salesmanship
Courtesy
Imagination
Ⅱ Select Trainees and Training Goals
After needs have been assessed, trainees must be selected and training goals
established. Trainees should be selected with care, ensuring that they and the organization
will benefit from their inclusion in the training program. The training goals should ensure
that the assessed needs will be served.

Ⅲ Select Training methods and Trainers


Once training goals have been established, it is necessary to determine how to conduct
the training. This includes the selection of training techniques and trainers for the
program. Additionally, employees’ ability should be considered when designing the training
program.
Great care must be exercised in choosing effective instructors or trainers. Personal
characteristics (such as the ability to speak well, to write convincingly, to organize the work
of others, to be inventive, and to inspire others to greater achievements) are important
factors in the selection f trainers. HR specialists or hired outside consultants who report to
the HR manager or other top managers are also used to perform a needs analysis and to
conduct the training. Although much formal training is performed by professional trainers,
often operating supervisors may be the best trainers technically, especially if the training
manager helps them prepare the material. Using operating managers as trainers overcomes
the frequent criticism that “training is OK in the classroom, but it won’t work on the shop
floor or back on the job.”
After that the program is run. That includes selection of content and methods to be used
and the actual training method. In many situations a combination of instructional methods
are used.


On-the-job training Probably the most widely used method of training is on the
job training. It is estimated that more than 60% of training occurs on the job. The employees
are placed in the real work situation and shown the job and the tricks of the trade by an
experienced employee or the supervisor. One approach to systematic on the job training is
the job instruction training (JIT) system developed during World War Ⅱ. In this system the
trainers first train the supervisors, who in turn train the employees.
Case method One widespread technique is the case method, which uses a written
description of a real decision-making situation in the organization or a situation that

occurred in another organization. Managers are asked to study the case to identify the
problems, analyze the problems for their significance, propose solutions, choose the best
solution, and implement it. More learning takes place if there is interaction between the
managers and the instructor.


Role-playing Role playing is a cross between the case method and an attitude
development program. Each person is assigned a role in a situation (such as a case) and
asked to play the role and to react to other players’ role playing. The success of this method
depends on the ability of the players to play the assigned roles believably. If done well, role
playing can help a manager become more aware of and more sensitive to the feelings of
others. Although role playing is a cross between the two, comparison of the general forms of
role playing and the case method suggests a few differences between them
Case Study

Role Playing

1.

Presents a problem
analysis and discussion.

for

1.

Places the problem in a real-life
situation.

2.

Uses problems that have
already occurred in the company or
elsewhere.

2.

Uses problems that are now current
or are happening on the job.

3.

Deals with problems in which
participants
themselves
are
involved.

4.

Deals
with
attitudinal.

5.

Emphasis

6.

Trains in emotional control.

7.

Provides practice in interpersonal
skills.

3.

4.

Deals
involving

with

problems
others.

Deals with emotional and
attitudinal aspects in an intellectual
frame of reference.

5.

Emphasis is on using facts
and making assumptions.

6.

Trains in the exercise of
judgments.

7.

Provides practice in analysis
of problems.

emotional

is

on

and

feelings.

In-Basket Technique Another method used to develop managerial decision-making
abilities is the in-basket technique. The participant is given materials (typically memos or
descriptions of things to do) that include typical items from a specific manager’s mails, and a
telephone list. Important and pressing matters, such as complaints by customers and a
demand for a report from a supervisor, are mixed in with routine business matters, such as a
request to speak at a dinner or a decision on the date of the company picnic four weeks
hence. The trainee is analyzed and critique on the number of decisions made on the time
allotted, the quality of the decisions, and the priorities chosen for making them. In order to
generate interest, the in-basket materials must be realistic, job-related, and not impossible to
make decision on.
Management Games management games describe the operating characteristics of a
company, industry, or enterprise. These descriptions take the form of equations that are

manipulated after decisions have been made. Management games emphasize development of
problem solving skills. There are so many kinds of management games, such as
computerized management game procedure, Looking Glass, Simmons Simulator, Financial
Services Industry.
Behavior Modeling A development approach for improving interpersonal skills is
behavior modeling, which is also called interaction management or imitating models. The
key to behavior modeling is learning through observation or imagination. Thus modeling is a
“vicarious process” that emphasizes observation. There are 4 steps in the process: 1.
Modeling of effective behavior – often by use of films. 2. Role playing. 3. Social
reinforcement – trainees and trainers praise effective role playing. 4. Transfer of training to
the job.
Outdoor Oriented Programs Cases, games, modeling, and role playing, are still
popular, but an increasingly popular form of development is outdoor or real-life, actionoriented programs. Leadership, teamwork, and risk-taking are top-priority items in the
outdoor oriented programs.
Ⅳ Evaluation
At the same time, the means to evaluate the program must be established. The means
selected for evaluation must be sensitive to the type of training conducted, the training
techniques used, the training program goals and the initial training needs.
Cost-benefit analysis generally is more feasible for training and development than for
many other HRM functions. Cost are relatively easy to compute: they equal direct costs of
training (trainer, materials, and lost productivity, if training is some on company time) plus
indirect costs (a fair share of the administrative overhead of the HR department).
The evaluation should be made by comparing the results (the benefits) with the objectives
of the training and development program that were set in the assessment phase. It is easier to
evaluate the results of some programs (for example, typing) than others. The criteria used to
evaluate training depend on the objectives of the program and who sets the criteria:
management, trainers, or the trainees.
Criteria for Evaluation

There are three types of criteria for evaluating training: internal, external, and
participants’ reaction. Internal criteria are directly associated with the content of the program
---- for example, whether the employee learned the facts of guidelines covered in the
program. External criteria are related mire to the ultimate purpose of the program ---- for
example, improving the effectiveness of the employee. Possibly external criteria include job
performance rating, the degree of learning transferred from training and development
sessions to on-the-job situations, and increases in sales volume or decreases in turnover.
Participants’ reaction, or how the subjects feel about the benefits of a specific training or
development experience, is commonly used as an internal criterion.
Most experts argue that it is more effective to use multiple criteria to evaluate training.
One view of a multiple-criterion evaluation system was developed by Kirkpatrick. He
suggests measuring the following:


-

Participants’ reaction – whether subjects like or dislike the program, the participant
indicates his or her satisfaction with the program.

-

Learning – the extent to which the subjects have assimilated the knowledge offered
and skills practiced in the training program. Dies the participant score higher on tests
after the training or development than before?

-

Behavior – an external measure of changes or lack of changes in job behavior; the
ratings a participant received in performance appraisal (comparison of “before” and
“after” ratings).

-

Results – the effective of the program on organizational dimensions such as
employee turnover, productivity, volume of sales, or error-free letters typed.

At present, many firms assess tractions, but very few measure behavioral results.
A Matrix Guide for Evaluation
One useful device for addressing the issue of evaluation is a systematic evaluation matrix.
Table 3-4 presets such a matrix, which could be used as a guideline for evaluating any of the
programs and techniques covered in this chapter.
Table 6-4 the matrix for evaluation
Relevant issues to
evaluate

What to measure

What to examine for
answers

How to collect data

1.

Participants’ attitudes
or skills before and
after (even during)
training or
development sessions.

Comments

Interviews,
questionnaires,
records,
observations

Participants’ on-thejob performance,
behavior, and style.

Subordinates’
performance, attitudes,
and style

Foxed and variable
costs of conducting
training or
development.

Cost of trainers,
participants’ time, travel
expenses, consultants’
fee, training aids, rent,
utilities

Are the
participants
learning,
changing
attitudes, or

improving skills.

2.

Are the training
or development
materials used in
the job?

3.

What are the
costs of training
and development
programs and
techniques?

4.

How long does
the training or
development
have an effect on
participants?

Participants’ on-thejob performance,
behavior, and style
over an extended
period of time

Method of participation
Co-workers
Supervisors

Subordinates’
performance, attitudes,
and style.

records,
Interviews,
questionnaires,
critical incidents
observations

budget records

records,
Interviews,
questionnaires,
critical incidents
observations
(collect a number
of times)


Ⅴ Monitoring
As training is being conducted, provision must be made for ensuring that the program is
proceed as planned. Without monitoring the training process, it is possible that a welldesigned training program may be conducted improperly or otherwise fail to accomplish its
goals.
In sum, formal training and development have been shown to be more effective than

informal or no training and development.
6.3 Management Development
Organizations and their environments are dynamic and constantly changing. New
technologies are developed, competitors enter and leave markets, inflation increases, and
productivity fluctuates. These are the kinds of changes that managers face. It is an area of
study directed toward using behavioral science knowledge to deal with problems of change.
Management development should be planned, since it requires systematic diagnosis,
development of a program, and the mobilization of resources. It involves either the entire
system or an entire unit. It must have top-management commitment if it is to be a success.
Figure 6-2 lists a variety of development approaches that are available to managers.
There is no one best approach. The crucial point to consider is what the diagnosis shows.