practical perspectives on science education

Practical Perspectives
on Science Education



Practical Perspectives
on Science Education
A useful compilation of articles on science education—based upon
55 years of teaching experience—that offers numerous proven
teaching tips that will be valuable to science educators.

by
Marvin Druger

Managing Editor
Susan Ernst

American Society of Agronomy, Inc.
677 S. Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711
www.agronomy.org
2010


Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Agronomy, Inc.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER THE U.S. COPYRIGHT LAW
OF 1976 (P.L. 94-553)
Any and all uses beyond the “fair use” provision of the law require written permission
from the publisher and/or author(s); not applicable to contributions prepared by officers
or employees of the U.S. Government as a part of their official business.

ISBN: 978-0-89118-174-3
American Society of Agronomy, Inc.
677 S. Segoe Road, Madison, Wisconsin 53711 USA

Printed in the United States of America


Contents
Section 1: Perspectives In General
A Realistic Perspective on Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Our Mission in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
It All Depends: A Perspective on Science Teaching at All Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Status of College Science Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Reform in Undergraduate Science Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Are Standards the Answer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Teaching Versus Research—An Ongoing Issue at the College Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Concept of Creative Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Teacher Education and Leadership: Keys to the Future of Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Take Me to Your Leader: A Perspective on University Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
A Study of the Role of Research Scientists in K–12 Science Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Grant-Free Projects in Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The Concept of FYST: An Association for First-Year Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
A Summer Biology Program for High-Ability Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
What’s Next in Science Education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Section 2: Perspectives In The Classroom
Some Thoughts on College Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Inner Guidelines for Undergraduate Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Education for Life: A Perspective on Teaching Introductory College Science . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Development of Specialists for Teaching Introductory College Science Courses . . . . . . . . . 95

Humanizing the Introductory College Biology Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Creating a Motivational Learning Environment in Large, Introductory Science Courses . . 107
Being There: A Perspective on Class Attendance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A Perspective on Exams and Grading: Some Tricks of the Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Decorum in the Large Lecture Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Improving Our Teaching: Practice Makes Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
20 Practical Tips for College Science Teachers: How to Get Off to a Good Start . . . . . . . . 129
Lessons from Teaching Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135


Preface & Acknowledgments
Promoting learning and a desire to learn are challenges for all teachers. The process
is unimaginably complex, especially in science and mathematics. I have taught science for 55 years, mainly introductory biology at Syracuse University. One day, I was
thinking about the goals of education. Suddenly, the overall mission of teaching came
to me. I was so excited that I wrote an essay in less than an hour, and it is published in
this book. That broad mission is to provide meaningful, motivational experiences that
enrich the lives of students and help them identify their unique traits and where they fit
in life. Each part of this mission can be elaborated upon, but this statement provides the
broad essence of what an education should be all about.
This book contains essays about different aspects of college science teaching.
They represent my personal reflections, based upon my experience in teaching more
than 40,000 students in my career. Most of the articles were published in the Journal
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education under the heading of “Druger’s
Notebook on Science Education.” Hopefully, the articles will stimulate your thinking
about science education, and will help contribute to the accomplishment of the overall
mission.
This book would not have been possible without the encouragement, support, and
expertise of Susan Ernst, Managing Editor of the Journal of Natural Resources and
Life Sciences Education. Her talents, dedication, friendship, and perseverance made it
happen. I also want to thank my wife, Pat, for her love, support, and technical assistance. My three children and my seven grandchildren provided a family environment

that enabled me to be reflective about science teaching and about life. Also, I want to
thank the many thousands of students and many faculty colleagues who I have had the
privilege to interact with over the years. They provided the teaching perspectives that
serve as the basis for the articles in this book.

vi


About the Author…
Photo credit: Steve Sartori, Syracuse University.

Marvin Druger officially
retired on August 15, 2009. He is
now professor emeritus of biology
science education and his contact
information at Syracuse University remains the same (mdruger@
syr.edu).

and

Marvin has a Ph.D. in zoology (genetics) from Columbia
University and has taught biology
to more than 40,000 students over
a
span of 55 years. He has served as
president of three national science
education organizations: The Society
for College Science Teachers
(twice), the Association for the
Education of Teachers in Science (now the Association for Science Teacher Education),

and the National Science Teachers Association. He also served as secretary and chair of
the Education Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Marvin contributed a number of articles about science education to the Journal of
Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education and other publications, most of which
are reprinted in this book. These articles are based upon his many years of teaching
experience and provide many practical teaching tips and insights about science teaching that will be useful to science educators.
Besides following his wife around all day, he has two other books in progress. One
book is The Misadventures of Marvin, which will be published in the spring 2010 by
Syracuse University Press. This book describes many of the “stupid” things that Marvin
has done in his lifetime that readers can relate to and laugh at. (His wife said, “It’s a
very fat book.”)
A second forthcoming book is a sequel to his poetry book for children of all ages,
Strange Creatures and Other Poems. The new book, entitled Even Stranger Creatures
and Other Poems, will consist of a collection of new poems about life that children and
adults can enjoy. The poetry books are available directly from Marvin (mdruger@syr.
edu) or the Syracuse University Bookstore ().
Marvin expects to stay active in science education and is currently directing a
Saturday science enrichment program for high school students; supervising the Project
Advance Biology Program, whereby his college biology course is taught in the high
schools by high school teachers for college credit; and teaching an orientation class for
first-year college students. Marvin has contributed to science education in countless
ways during his long career, and he continues to do so.

vii


Other Books of Interest
Books by Marvin Druger
Strange Creatures & Other Poems
This book reflects on our everyday experiences and our environments. Each poem

carries a thoughtful message about life and the world around us. Softcover, 109 pages.
To order: ;
Coming soon:
Even Stranger Creatures & Other Poems
This book will consist of a collection of new poems about life that children and
adults can enjoy. To order: ;
The Misadventures of Marvin
This book will be published in the spring of 2010 by Syracuse University Press.
The book describes memorable and humorous episodes in Marvin’s career and life.

Books published by ASA–CSSA–SSSA
Case Studies
A compilation (48 reprints) of the case studies published in the Journal of Natural
Resources & Life Sciences Education (www.jnrlse.org), 1992-2005, a publication of
ASA. Softcover, 336 pages. Item Number: BPNLE. To order: ;
www.societystore.org.
Genetics: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd edition
Students will learn the experimental aspects of genetics through 15 three-hour laboratory exercises with bacterial, plant, and animal organisms. 2009. Moisture-resistant
soft cover with spiral binding, 112 pages. ASA and CSSA. ISBN: 978-0-89118-561-1.
Item Number: B21723. To order: ; www.societystore.org.
Soil Science: Step-by-Step Field Analysis
Readers will learn both new procedures and tips for improved performance in the
field, without a lot of background theory and with a focus on usefulness for real-life
applications. Water-resistant softcover with coil binding, 255 pages, 2008; SSSA.
ISBN: 978-089118-849-0. Item Number: B60915. To order: ;
www.societystore.org.
Soil! Get the Inside Scoop
Written for children ages 9–12, this full-color book explores how soil is part of our
life—the food we eat, the air we breathe, the water we drink, the houses we live in, and
more. Along the way, readers learn about different kinds of soil and meet the scientists who

work with soil every day. Softcover, 32 pages, 2008; SSSA. ISBN: 978-089118-848-3.
Item Number: B60913. To order: ; www.societystore.org.

viii


A Realistic Perspective
on Science Education

A

fter 55 years of teaching science, I have reached the conclusion that we can do a
much better job in science education at all levels. We are constantly reforming science education, but we never seem to be able to get it “right.” Maybe that’s because there
is no “right” way to do things in science education. Much of what we do is based upon
common sense, for which sophisticated names have been invented such as “constructivism,” authentic assessment,” “self-efficacy,” “inquiry teaching,” “active learning,” “pedagogical content knowledge,” “cooperative learning,” and so forth. We have new words to
describe common-sense concepts.
Generalizations are rare, since what happens in one classroom setting is different from
what happens in another classroom setting. The concept of “wait time” seems to have
universal applications (Rowe, 1986). If a teacher waits at least three seconds for a student
response after asking a question, rather than answering the question immediately, there
are positive outcomes for the student and the teacher. For example, more students volunteer responses and answers tend to be more accurate. Also, the teachers tend to ask fewer
questions and increase the quality of their questions. However, many education research
findings are not generalizable, or they are simply obvious. This is true for many “innovations” in science teaching. Having students build their own knowledge from what they
already know, that is, constructivism, seems obvious. Indeed, any good teacher would use
this concept intuitively.
I don’t want to belittle the value of educational research. We do need to know more
about what’s going on. However, education researchers sometimes get caught up in insignificant debates, for example, whether a study is qualitative or quantitative, or whether
a research instrument is a survey or a questionnaire. These debates sometimes cause the
researcher to lose sight of the goal of the research, namely to find out something important. Also, if research does produce some new ideas, they often get lost in the application.
Finding generalizations through educational research is extremely difficult, considering

the complexity of the human mind and of human behavior. Every teacher, every student,
Reprinted from J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ. 38:209–214 (2009).

Practical Perspectives on Science Education. Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Agronomy,
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA.

Practical Perspectives on Science Education

3


every classroom setting, every lesson, is different and unique. So, setting standards about
what constitutes good teaching and learning outcomes is dependent upon all sorts of
uncontrollable variables. Outcomes may depend upon class size, the topic, the mood of
the teacher, the individual student, the strategy, the physical setting, the time frame, and
even the weather. It all depends (Druger, 2002).
I am always puzzled when a student cannot seem to understand a basic science concept that seems so simple to other students. I think one of the most promising and exciting areas of research involves studies that link the science of the brain and learning. Such
research can provide powerful tools for the teacher in the classroom (National Research
Council, 2000).

Bandwagons and Experiences
At the present time, we are caught in a trap of our own making. We have created bandwagons about teaching and learning that teachers are compelled to jump on. If we give
a long lecture, instead of doing an inquiry lesson, we are accused of doing it the wrong
way. If we do not teach according to the National Science Education Standards (NRC,
1996), then we are accused of doing it incorrectly. If students don’t pass standardized
tests, we are supposedly not teaching them anything. But we learn from everything that
we do, and everything that we do becomes part of what we are. So, students learn from
every experience, even if they don’t master testable information. Attitudes, appreciation
of the subject, motivation to learn, and other affective outcomes may be far more important for a student’s real life than memorizing subject matter to pass a test.
Motivating students is extremely important. If we teach students to want to learn, and

provide them with the skills and resources, learning will follow. As one colleague stated:
“Our job as teachers is to inform and motivate students, but, if we motivate them, they
inform themselves.”
Also, each student learns differently. My 10-year-old grandson who has Aspberger’s
Syndrome (a mild form of autism) fails school tests; yet he has memorized and can discuss every poem in my poetry book Strange Creatures and Other Poems (Druger, 2004),
and he was escorting the family around the zoo by reading a complicated map. Different
learners require different approaches. Yet, our modern society tends to ignore these subtle
aspects and outcomes of teaching and learning.
We forget that we forget information, but we remember experiences. Experiences
make us who we are. After many years of teaching about photosynthesis, I still had to
check my notes each year to recall the details. Yet, I vividly recall almost raising the
American flag on the wrong flagpole in the Coast Guard Reserve while the troops and the
base commander looked on.
So, the broader mission of teachers becomes clear. Beyond teaching concepts and
facts and skills, we want to provide meaningful, motivational learning experiences that
enrich the lives of students and help them identify their unique talents and where they fit
in life.
When I was president of the National Science Teachers Association, I met with the
administrator in charge of the development of the National Science Education Standards.
He boasted to me that many organizations were involved in development of the standards.
4

Practical Perspectives on Science Education


“Suppose I had a criticism or suggestion, what would happen to it?” I asked. “We
would put it in the computer data bank,” he replied.
“But what would happen to my suggestion?” I persisted.
Finally, it became clear that a small committee of experienced, well-intentioned
professionals would make a decision about my suggestion. If they liked it, it might get

incorporated. If not, it would be discarded. Why does the committee know any more than
I, or any other science educator? The answer is that the “buck” has to stop somewhere.

We forget information, but we remember experiences.
Experiences make us who we are.
Members of the committee have to use their expertise and best judgment to make the best
possible choices. Then, professionals who develop state standards follow along with the
national standards and, before long, the National Science Education Standards became
like the bible for science education. When I first read the National Science Education
Standards, I thought that, given a few hours, my class of graduate students in science
teaching would come up with the same standards. They are common sense and offer a
guide to where we would like to go in science education. Since outcomes all depend on
many uncontrollable variables, the standards should not be regarded as law.
We have been preaching the same ideas for many years, but the application is lacking.
We try to form a consensus about what we’d like science education to accomplish, but
getting there is another story. Even the consensus is controversial. This is the nature of
the beast when we are trying to deal with human beings and society. There is no “right”
way to do things. It’s a matter of what “experts think” we need to do, often based upon
opinions or poorly done or ambiguous research.
My faith in finding “truth” in education is not great. Every science educator that I
know has good intentions. They want to see more effective science education and are
willing to contribute as much as possible toward that end. Their research adds things to
think about, but does not usually give definitive answers or generalizations.

Doing It Over Again
Suppose we did not have a system for science education and suppose we could start
all over again to design a sensible, practical system. Suppose we could re-do or revise the
entire system. What are some of the important features to keep in mind?

Physical Facilities

Although some people do home-schooling for their children, that is not the rule. For
some students, home-schooling may be appropriate and effective. Online courses may be
good for learning information, but they lack the human contact experiences that a school
and a teacher can provide. Schools serve as a gathering place for meaningful experiences
among teachers and students.
Schools should be modern, clean, safe, and well-equipped with as many learning aids as possible. Students should feel comfortable going to school. Security has
become a major issue, and school officials need to pay considerable attention to this
Practical Perspectives on Science Education

5


issue. Many security systems used in schools don’t work very well to secure the school
against intruders. I have made many visits to various high schools; some high school
teachers teach my biology course to their students for college credit (Edmonds and
Signorelli, 2009; Project Advance Program Guide, 2007). Many times I have encountered locked outside school doors, but there has always been some innocent student
willing to open the door and let me in. I have signed in and received a pass to wear
on my clothing. I usually don’t wear the pass, yet nobody has ever confronted me in a
hallway to ask about my pass. I sign in when I enter a school, but I rarely remember to
sign out when I leave.
Also, schools need to provide a sense of constancy of physical features. Young
children feel more secure if the room is set up the same way each time; schools need to
provide a secure, stable environment for the child. Schools should be physically attractive, and create a sense of warmth, comfort, and pride for students, teachers, and staff.
Some high schools that I visit convey these feelings; others remind me of a prison.

Administrators
Administrators play an essential role in the success of science education in a school.
Specifically, administrators should be aware of the special needs of science teachers,
and allocate essential resources. Administrators need to recognize that science teaching involves laboratory work and preparation time, and that equipment and supplies are
necessary to effectively teach the subject. In general, administrators need to be caring,

organized, intelligent, good people-managers and wise decision-makers. They need to
put themselves in the place of the teachers and students, and make decisions accordingly.
They need to be future-oriented in their thinking. What impact will their decision have
on the students, the teachers, the staff, and the status of the school 10 or 20 years from
now? Good leaders seek input and listen to the complaints as well as ideas of others, and
then act according to their best judgment. Administrators should explain and defend the
rationale for major decisions. If what is done does not have a good rationale, then don’t
do it. Nowadays, good budget management is an important part of good leadership. What
should be their priorities for spending funds? How do we get the most out of what funding we have, and how can we get more funding? Administrators must be good managers
as well as good leaders. Every effort must be made to develop rapport and trust. This can
be done by administrators setting an example and going out of their way to do things that
demonstrate that the administrators really care.
An effective administrator should find ways to maximize the potential of each
teacher and demonstrate sincerity in this effort. I have always admired the Project
Advance administrators at Syracuse University. They do not see their role as being
“bosses.” They try in every way possible to help the faculty do their job better. To me,
that’s good administration.

Teacher Preparation
The most important component of education is the teacher. My belief is, if you have
a well-prepared teacher in front of the class, students will learn, regardless of methods
used. Currently, we indoctrinate preservice teachers with the sacred doctrines that have
been articulated by “experts,” and we expect them to teach accordingly. Many education
6

Practical Perspectives on Science Education


courses involve reading selected articles and discussing and reflecting on them. Reflecting is good, as long as it doesn’t preclude “doing.” We do want reflective practitioners
in the classroom, but there’s more to science teaching than that. Our preservice science

teachers’ classes should be filled with hands-on, science experiences. Peer teaching,
videotaping and self-analysis, and peer analysis should be incorporated into all preservice courses. The emphasis should be to help the prospective teacher identify teaching
strengths and weaknesses and make improvements. Self-awareness of teaching skills is an
important step toward becoming an effective teacher.
Teachers are often “told” too much and are not “asked” to do creative things. But,
if we ask them to do creative things, we have to allow them the time to do them. Most
teachers I know complain that they do not have enough time to be creative. They are
obliged to use the kit or lesson produced by someone else rather than tailor-make the
lesson creatively for their own unique situation. There are many good tools on the market,
but selecting what’s useful takes some time. Teachers do not have enough time to maximize their creative potential. “Free periods” are rarely free and rarely provide sufficient
preparation time.
Society needs to appreciate teachers and make teachers feel that they are important.
When I was talking to a group of seventh graders, I said, “Doctors and lawyers get lots
of respect; teachers don’t.” A student responded, “But without teachers, there wouldn’t
be any doctors or lawyers, or anybody.” Yet, our society values money-makers more than
teachers. Doctors help your body; teachers help your mind. Both professions deserve
equal respect and compensation.

Components of Teacher Development
We need to remember that a teacher is a human being, and all the aspects of psychology should be applied when developing a mature, knowledgeable, creative, conscientious
teacher who can effectively do the job of helping students learn.
First, we need to identify those individuals at an early age who have talents for teaching. This is a very difficult task, but certain youngsters display traits that might lead to
being an effective teacher. For example, some children communicate well, take a leadership role in a group, are creative, have a positive self-image, and enjoy interacting with
everyone. As a child, my daughter demonstrated these traits, and she is now a second
grade elementary school teacher. My granddaughter exhibits similar traits and, if she
chooses to be a teacher, I know that she will be an excellent one.
Before they are exposed to formal training, a number of young students do have a
career interest in becoming a teacher. When I visit high schools and talk with students, I
usually ask, “Who wants to become a teacher?” A few students raise their hands.
Once we have identified students with talent for teaching, how should we prepare

them to do the job effectively? I believe that we should do it by offering them a great
variety of different experiences—many unrelated to formal teacher education—that
enrich their lives and make them more knowledgeable about themselves and the
world. We should provide them with opportunities to actually teach others throughout their preparation, perhaps starting with teenage summer camp experiences as
counselors.
Practical Perspectives on Science Education

7


Traditionally, we offer a core of courses in different aspects of education. Some of these
courses seem repetitious. Students may sit in a variety of courses where they read papers and
then reflect in groups about these papers. I believe preservice teachers need such courses, but
they do not have to be a full semester. My suggestion would be to modularize such courses and
condense them into shorter time frames, thus leaving room for more science content experiences.

We should offer students a great variety of different
experiences that enrich their lives.
I once offered a two-week course on teaching to engineers and other science professionals in the Peace Corps who were going to teach sixth graders in Malawi. They knew
virtually nothing about teaching, in a formal sense. They were intelligent, enthusiastic,
knew science well, communicated well, and were eager to learn how to do a good job
of teaching. In two weeks they became transformed into able teachers. How long does
it take to learn how to create a lesson plan? Or learn about the concepts of constructivism or inquiry teaching? Getting at the essence of what teaching is all about doesn’t take
a sequence of full-semester courses, dictated as “requirements for certification.” Such
courses are valuable, but we should greatly condense what we now require as formal
education courses for certification. The entire preservice teacher preparation program
should enrich the lives of prospective teachers and provide them with a vast repertoire of
experiences that they can pass on to their students.
What are some of the experiences that I believe are important for prospective teachers?
1. Courses in all sciences at the introductory level. Thorough knowledge of the

subject matter is critical to the success of a teacher. We should require preservice
teachers to complete introductory courses that show the relationships among the
disciplines. A one-credit seminar that emphasizes how to teach the content could
accompany each basic science course. A course on the application of mathematics
to analysis of scientific data should also be required.
2. Overseas travel. Being in another culture provides important insights about life and
people. My children attended school in Australia. They learned what it was like to
be in the minority, and they learned tolerance for others not like themselves. My
wife and I traveled extensively and experienced Australia, China, the Netherlands,
Spain, France, England, Bali, Tahiti, Hawaii, Costa Rica, Fiji, South Africa, and
other places. When students asked me which was my favorite place, my response
is, “Every place was my favorite, since each place offered special experiences that
I will never forget.” As a result of visiting the Great Barrier Reef, I was able to
develop a unit on the abundance and diversity of life that students remembered long
after the course ended. Many colleges have programs for study abroad. Prospective teachers should be required to participate in such a program. Such experiences
provide multicultural sensitivity that is so important in our schools and in society.
3. Membership in professional science education organizations, such as the National
Science Teachers Association (NSTA). Student NSTA chapters function at different
institutions to involve preservice teachers in professional activities. Attending conventions provides important interactions and an avenue toward professionalism.
8

Practical Perspectives on Science Education


4. Part-time jobs that have nothing to do with teaching. In my youth, I was a
Western Union messenger, an usher in the Roxy Theater, a camp counselor, a
ceiling painter, and I sprinkled nuts on fruit cakes travelling along a conveyor belt
in a bakery. Each job helped shape my understanding of myself and others, and
provided me with an enriched perspective for teaching.
5. A course in public speaking and drama. No matter what career a student chooses,

he/she will have to stand up in front of a group and give a presentation. Preservice
students often do not have sufficient opportunities to practice and improve their
presentation skills. A course in public speaking or drama would be very useful. A
conversation with a faculty member who teaches drama convinced me that acting is
a content area. There are facial gestures, hand gestures, and body movements that
can be taught. Such skills can greatly enhance the effectiveness of a teacher.
6. A course in use of computers and technology in the classroom. Certainly, more
technology will be used in classrooms in the future. Students already seem to be
proficient in this regard. They are constantly text messaging and using their cell
phones. I am amazed at how well students know all forms of technology; the problem is that they seem to use it endlessly.
7. A course in management. Teachers have to be effective managers. They have to
handle all sorts of student records and data. Management of records and people are
critical parts of a teacher’s day, yet they are usually not formally prepared for this
part of a teacher’s job.
8. A course in behavioral psychology. This is a critical feature that is involved in
every part of teaching, specifically curriculum development, discipline control,
establishing rapport, motivating students, and enhancing learning. How can a
teacher effectively reach into the brains of students and teach them to want to learn?
A colleague told me that his chemistry students were completely bored and unmotivated when they were given a white powder and were simply told to analyze its
composition as a part of chemistry lab. This relatively boring activity suddenly
became an exciting experience when the teacher announced that the powder was
found at a crime scene, and the analysis was needed to solve the crime. This was a
good example of the application of psychology to student learning.
The behavioral psychology course should include a section on dealing with
students with disabilities and special needs. Teaching such students poses
challenges, and teachers need to know ways of helping these students learn. A
colleague who has a son with autism provided me with an important perspective about students with learning disabilities. He said, “They aren’t mentally ill.
They’re just different.”
9. A course in the history and philosophy of science. Students and teachers often do
not appreciate the lessons that the past can teach us. For example, learning about

historical frauds in science help us predict the future. We have had scientific frauds
in the past, we have them now, and we will likely have them in the future. We need
to consider the past when planning the future.
10. Active involvement of the student teacher in the culture of the school. Most
teachers will state that the most valuable part of their teacher preparation program
Practical Perspectives on Science Education

9


was student teaching. Usually, student teachers are assigned to a mentor teacher.
The benefits to the student teacher depend on how the mentor teacher does the job
of mentoring. Oftentimes, it is a matter of “Do as I do” rather than use your own
ideas and special skills. We need to establish training programs for mentor teachers,
so that the benefits of student teaching can be maximized.
Also, we assign the student teacher to one master teacher. A more effective
approach might be to assign the student teacher to several teachers in the department. The student teacher could even be assigned to the school, and get experiences
in all aspects of the school culture. For example, helpful mentors in the schools
might be the custodian or the librarian. These people in non-threatening positions
can provide many hints about teaching. The student teacher thus can learn the culture of the school, as well as how to teach a particular subject.
11. Many opportunities for self-awareness of teaching skills through videotaping,
peer critiques, self-critiques, and providing avenues for improvements where needed.
12. A significant science research experience. Oftentimes, teachers are teaching
about scientific methodology when they, themselves, have never done any scientific
research. Moreover, we have science educators without scientific research experience who are teaching preservice teachers how to teach science. An interesting
question is: Can someone be a great coach without ever having been a player?
Preservice teachers should be required to spend some time during the summer in a
laboratory doing actual scientific research. Also, science methods courses should
ideally be taught jointly by an experienced science teacher and a college science
faculty member. Science faculty should be working together with science educators

in the overall preparation of science teachers.
In the 1970s, teacher preparation programs emphasized modules to provide teachers
with competencies that would be needed by a teacher (Whitty and Willmott, 1991). The
list of competencies seemed endless, and this proved to be a piecemeal approach that was
very difficult to implement. I am not suggesting that we return to this framework. What
I am suggesting is that we need to set priorities and decide which preservice experiences are most valuable, and then structure courses and learning experiences accordingly
(Whitty and Willmott, 1991; Valli and Rennert-Ariev, 2002).

The New Teacher
Too often the new teacher does not get the support that is desirable. The new teacher
has learned the theoretical aspects of educational practice, but they really are not prepared
to teach the specific curriculum that they have to teach. One helpful approach would be to
offer short courses on teaching the specific curriculum that has to be taught. Another suggestion would be to recruit the best teachers in a locale to teach approaches to a specific
topic—for example, DNA technology—in the classroom. These short courses could be
on weekends, and they would be taught by experienced teachers who teach that topic
effectively in the classroom.
In the mid-1960s, I established an informal science teacher organization in Syracuse,
NY, called FYST (First Year Science Teachers) (Druger, 1968). The teachers met monthly
and we organized a great variety of practical experiences, often involving experienced
10

Practical Perspectives on Science Education


teachers. We had membership cards, a FYST newsletter, workshops, and so forth. The
program eventually faded, largely because of the shortage of new teachers and the surge
of experienced teachers who wanted the activities.
Summer institutes provide wonderful experiences for new and experienced teachers.
For several years, I directed a summer institute for new teachers of Regents Biology in
New York State. This was a 10-day institute that involved hands-on experiences on specific Regents biology topics. The workshop was taught by a team of outstanding biology

teachers from the local area. The institute not only provided content skills and classroom
activities, but also boosted morale of the new teachers. Such experiences were very valuable for the participants.
I believe that teachers teaching teachers is an effective approach to teacher preparation. Too often, science methods courses are taught by college faculty members who are
not engaged in teaching in the schools. People in the best position to teach new teachers
are the experienced teachers.
Moreover, I strongly support the idea that mini-workshops and the like should be
provided onsite in schools. Going to a workshop outside of a school requires time and
effort. Having onsite opportunities would be ideal, and might attract the teachers who are
usually not likely to attend workshops.
Involving uninvolved teachers is a problem. An NSF official was once boasting to
me about how many science teachers were being trained through the NSF-sponsored
workshops. I did some site visits and discovered that there were “institute addicts.”
The same teachers were attending more than one workshop. The uninvolved were still
uninvolved.

The Bottom Line
In my view, the teacher is the critical element in educating students. Important steps in
teacher preparation involve: identifying potential teachers early; enriching the individual
with meaningful experiences; making sure that the preservice teacher knows the content
and the skills of pedagogy; emphasizing self-awareness through videotaping, peer
critiques, and self-critiques; providing avenues for improvement; and then turning the
teacher loose.
How can all of the above suggestions be incorporated into a teacher preparation
program? How can we find enough time? One answer is to adopt a medical school
model. To earn certification as a physician, an individual has to complete two years
of post-baccalaureate basic training, two years of clinical experience, an internship of
one or more years, and a residency. Yet, to become certified as a teacher, the individual
needs only two years of post-baccalaureate work, leading to a master’s degree. If we
truly want excellence in teachers who work on students’ minds, then perhaps we need
to make the preparation as extensive as that of a physician. Six-year post-baccalaureate

programs leading to certification would seem more effective than the current requirements. Of course, if this is done, the compensation should be comparable. That’s not
very likely in today’s society.
We now have considerable dogma in education. If a teacher does not follow the prescribed standards, the teacher is supposedly doing it wrong. Not using inquiry methods
Practical Perspectives on Science Education

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in the class is almost heresy. Teachers are confined to the dogma whether or not it fits
their particular style or skills. I’d rather have a great lecture by a teacher who knows
how to lecture well, than an inquiry lesson by that same teacher who doesn’t do well
at using inquiry methods. If we really knew all the answers in education, then student
achievement levels would be much higher. We really do not know the answers, and
every individual teacher should have extensive teacher preparation, identify his/her best
teaching attributes, and be free to teach accordingly. Give such teachers enough time
and onsite support, and they will develop their own innovative approaches. Then we
would have much better learning by students.

References
Druger, M. 1968. The concept of FYST: An association for first-year science teachers. Sci. Teach. 35(6):35–36.
Druger, M. 2002. It all depends: A perspective on science teaching at all levels. J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ.
31:94–95.
Druger, M. 2004. Strange creatures and other poems. Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.
Edmonds, G., and S. Signorelli (ed.). 2009. Our courses your classroom: Research on Syracuse University courses
taught in high schools. Lulu Publishing.
National Research Council (NRC). 1996. National science education standards. National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
National Research Council. 2000. How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Expanded Edition.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Project Advance Program Guide. 2007. Our courses your classroom. Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.

Rowe, M.B. 1986. Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up. J. Teach. Educ. 37(1):43–50.
Whitty, G., and E. Willmott. 1991. Competence-based teacher education: approaches and issues. Camb. J. Educ.
21(3):309–318.
Valli, L., and P. Rennert-Ariev. 2002. New standards and assessment? Curriculum, transformation in teacher
education. J. Curric. Stud. 34(2):201–225.

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Our Mission in Education

I

have been teaching science since 1954, and am still doing it. I didn’t believe that I had
been teaching for 53 years, so I requested my undergraduate transcript from Brooklyn
College. Indeed, I did student teaching at Midwood High School in Brooklyn in 1954.
Then, I earned my masters and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia University in zoology
(genetics). After an NIH postdoctoral fellowship in Australia, I was hired as an assistant professor at Syracuse University to teach introductory biology, mostly to first-year
students. I have done that job at Syracuse University since 1962, and have evolved many
themes for my teaching. In this essay, I’d like to reinforce some of these major themes
that have guided my teaching for so many years.
First, I want first-year students to gain subject matter competency. What this means
is to provide them with the vocabulary in the field with an emphasis on how to use this
vocabulary to communicate and understand concepts. Although development of critical thinking skills is a very important goal, my belief is that you can’t critically think
about nothing. Students need to build a vocabulary base and meanings to increase subject
matter competency. I try to incorporate critical thinking into my teaching, but I’m not
optimistic about its effectiveness. At the introductory-course level, I believe vocabularybuilding and use of vocabulary are important.
We often hear that “less is more.” The belief by many is that we can’t teach everything, and that we should be selective and go into greater depth. My view is that, at the

first-year introductory level, “more is more.” I believe that we should teach first-year students something about everything in the field. I don’t want my students to become seniors
and say, “I wish I had known about electron microscopy when I was a first-year student.
I would have explored that field in greater depth.” As students move on to advanced
courses, “less is more,” and greater depth and specialization are appropriate.
I also want students to recognize that science is the attempt of humans to make logical
sense out of nature. Humans are fallible. There are poorly designed experiments, faulty
conclusions, and even fraud. This theme helps students focus on the nature of science and
its positive and negative features.
Many students believe that there is a conflict between science and religion, and they
Reprinted from J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ. 36:159–160 (2007).
Practical Perspectives on Science Education. Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Agronomy,
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA.

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13


take an either/or position. My resolution of this issue is to point out to students that
science is not a naturally occurring entity in the environment. It is a body of knowledge
and a logical process that humans invented to better understand how the world works.
Religion is another way that humans explain the world. This view is based upon faith and
the Bible. Thus, science and religion are different ways of looking at the world, and they
are not in conflict. Many scientists are religious. I tell students that we cannot explore
religion through science, since they have different criteria for “truth.” We can’t design an
experiment that has God in one test tube and not in another as a control. The final point is
that nobody really knows which way of looking at the world is correct, but, in a science
class, I teach the scientific perspective. This approach does not offend religious or scientific beliefs, and students seem satisfied.
Relevance of science is another important theme. Whenever possible, we should make
students aware of why science is meaningful to them. We should ask the question, “If I

was a student in this class, what would I want to know about the subject, and why?” and
teach accordingly. We must also recognize that everything we teach in a science course
is not practically relevant. Some topics are simply interesting and are relevant to our
intellect. It’s nice to know about coral reefs and how they form, even though that information will not be put to practical use when the student is a surgeon removing an inflamed
appendix. Some students do not readily appreciate intellectual relevance, so I simply
explain my philosophy to them at the start of the course.
Perhaps the greatest change in society over the past years has been the use of computers and technology in society. We cannot escape technology. It pervades almost everything
we do and this trend will undoubtedly continue in the future. So, another goal is to help
students gain skills in using technology for learning science. iPods and cell phones will not
go away, so we should be finding ways to use technology to enhance learning.
The most important themes in our teaching should be motivation and attitudes. A
colleague wisely proclaimed, “Our job as teachers is to inform and motivate students but,
if we motivate them, they inform themselves.” A major guiding principle is to “teach students to want to learn.” When students tell me that science is too difficult, and they can’t
learn it, I always tell them that they can learn anything they want to learn, if they really
want to learn it.

Keep in mind…
• More is more. Teach something about everything.
• We learn from everything we do, and everything we do becomes part of who we are.
• Provide students with the vocabulary in the field and emphasize how to use it.
• Science is the attempt of humans to make logical sense out of nature.
• Science and religion are different ways of looking at the world, they are not in conflict.
• Make students aware of why science is meaningful and relevant to them.
• Help students gain skills in using technology in learning science.
• Teach students to want to learn.
• Design courses to include many experiences students will remember and appreciate.
• Provide meaningful experiences and help students find where they fit in life.

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In an introductory college science course, many students may not be motivated
toward learning science. Many are just taking the course to fulfill a core requirement.
So, motivating these students presents a major challenge for the instructor. There are
many ways for meeting this challenge, but providing meaningful, exciting, and unusual
experiences is a key factor. We forget content, but we remember experiences. Thus,
each instructor should design the introductory course to include many such experiences
that students will remember and appreciate many years later. My guiding principle in
this regard is that “We learn from everything that we do, and everything that we do
becomes part of what we are.”

I don’t want my students to become seniors and say,
“I wish I had known about electron microscopy
when I was a first-year student.”
All of the above features have been part of my teaching for 53 years, and I highly
recommend them for others to consider. One day, as I was thinking about what teaching
and education are all about, it suddenly all came together in a flash of insight. I suddenly
realized that our main purpose is to “Provide meaningful experiences that enrich the lives
of students and help them find where they fit in life.”
The memorization of content, writing papers, grades, course requirements, and so
forth are all incidental, compared to this overall mission. We all know people who have
“jobs” or “careers,” but can’t wait to retire. We also know people who have found where
they fit in life, and they never want to retire. Also, we know that people can fit into different roles at different times in their lives. Regardless of the subject matter that we teach,
we should keep this mission at the forefront of everything we do in our classes and in our
personal interactions with students. I have had many letters from former students who
thanked me many years later for helping them find where they fit in life.
A few years ago, I underwent abdominal surgery for a twisted colon, and spent a
month in the hospital. The last week of my stay, a resident physician came in daily and

attended to my wound. My last day in the hospital, the resident came in and shook my
hand warmly and enthusiastically. He said, “I want to thank you for all you did for me.”
I was mystified. I didn’t have a clue as to who the resident was, and what I possibly
could have done for him. He explained that he took my introductory biology course as a
first-year student. He intended to become a geology major, and he came into my office
one day to talk about his future plans. I apparently spotted other talents, and I suggested
that he look into a medical career. He took my advice, and was now immersed in medical
practice. He loved it. Unknowingly, I had helped steer him toward where he fit in life. I
had tears in my eyes, when the patient in the bed next to me behind a curtain announced,
“And my daughter-in-law took your course also.”
What greater satisfaction can there be for a teacher than to help students find where
they fit in life? The smallest experience can have a monumental effect, and I always keep
this in mind when dealing with students. You never know…

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It All Depends: A Perspective
on Science Teaching at All Levels

I

recently read an inspiring book that presented profound insights about the nature of
science. The book was written by a distinguished scientist, Francois Jacob (1998). A
major theme of the book is that all living things are built of common building blocks, and
diversity involves evolutionary combinations of these common ingredients. He uses the
analogy of the world resembling a giant erector set. Further, Jacob distinguishes between

day science and night science. He encourages the latter, which involves explorations
of creative and bizarre ideas. “In art as well as in science, what is important is to try,”
whether or not the trial will lead anywhere. He states, “But, once in a while, a totally
outrageous experiment opens a new avenue.”
It may well be appropriate to apply Jacob’s philosophy to the enterprise of science
education. Unlike science, education has few generalizations. If 100 scientists measure
a fly’s wing, the resulting measurements will be similar. If 100 science educators carry
out a learning experiment, we can expect great diversity in the outcomes. The result of
almost everything we do in science education depends. It depends on the teacher, the
subject matter, the age of the students, the time of day, the physical setting, the mood of
the students, and a multitude of other complex factors that cannot easily be controlled.
Human behavior is so complex that research in this field often produces vague, unrepeatable results.
Many of the accepted pedagogical approaches seem to be based on common sense
and advocacy. Reforms seem more based on the opinions of leaders in the field, rather
than on reality. Research-based reform becomes extremely difficult for at least two major
reasons. First, the complexity of human behavior makes it difficult to reach valid, generalized conclusions. Second, even if we could derive generalizations based on research,
application of such findings would be extremely difficult since there are so many variables in different settings.
For example, inquiry teaching is advocated by many science educators. It makes

Reprinted with permission from NSTA Publications, Vol. XXXI, No. 7, 2002, from Journal of College Science Teaching, National Science Teachers Association, 1840 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201-3000.
Reprinted from J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ. 31:94–95 (2002).
Practical Perspectives on Science Education. Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Agronomy,
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA.

Practical Perspectives on Science Education

17


good common sense and establishes a desirable outcome for students. Yet, even this

widely accepted approach depends. Young children may well learn best through hands-on
inquiry experiences. However, does an adult learner learn best by inquiry or can a good
lecture achieve similar learning outcomes? Adult learners can simulate inquiry experiences in their minds and can have effective learning.

No single approach is best for all students and teachers.
It all depends.
Also, inquiry lessons pose many practical difficulties. They take a lot of teacher time
and ingenuity; group activities often mean that one student does the inquiring, and the
others watch; students may have so much fun inquiring that content acquisition is lost;
inquiry lessons seem to take a long time, yet desired outcomes may not be attained in
the time available. Also, students cannot inquire about nothing. They might learn more
if they have some vocabulary and content knowledge as background to make an inquiry
lesson meaningful. It all depends.
How does all of the above relate to Jacob’s views on the nature of science? If we apply
Jacob’s perspective to science education, there may be hope for a brighter future. We might
consider current educational practices to be like a giant erector set. There are common educational practices that have evolved and organized into different combinations over time.
A new approach is really a recent modification and a new combination of basic elements
that already exist. My perception is that we have been advocating the same goals for many
years. The problem is that we have yet to attain these goals.
An example is a quote in a textbook:
…it should be the constant aim of the teacher to lead the pupils to apply as
far as possible the principles of the scientific method in discovering truths
for themselves. To be sure all this is time consuming, and there is the everpresent vision of examinations and requirements of subject-matter; but the
emphasis upon scientific discipline is well worth more than one-half the
time of a course. Perhaps some day those responsible for the requirements
in knowledge of subject matter, particularly those who set college-admission
requirements, will come to take account, not simply of what facts a pupil
holds in memory, but also of what scientific training has been received while
getting the facts.
One might think the quote is from a modern text, but the quote is from a text published in 1907 (Lloyd and Bigelow, 1907).

What are some basic foundations for making real progress in science education? First,
we must recognize and appreciate the uniqueness of individuals. Each teacher is unique,
as is each student. Individual creativity should be fostered in teaching and learning.
No single approach is best for all teachers and students. Rather than promote popular
approaches, we should encourage trials of innovative ideas that may work for an individual teacher or learner, but not for other teachers and learners. It all depends.
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Practical Perspectives on Science Education


We are told that lectures are a less desirable approach in teaching. Yet, one of the
best lectures I ever heard was by Paul Brandwein, a distinguished science educator who
is now deceased. The lecture was about why you should not lecture. It was brilliant, and
I still remember it many years later. After the session, I approached him and said that
his lecture was excellent, but that it was about why we should not lecture. He said that
this group was mature enough to learn from a lecture approach. The fact that I recall his
lecture many years later validates his remark.
In my opinion, the most crucial it depends is that it depends on the individual teacher.
If we can identify and nurture mature, caring, knowledgeable teachers, learning by students will occur. Curriculum materials are certainly important, but good teachers need the
opportunity and encouragement to create their own meaningful, worthwhile curriculum
materials. The National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) and state and local
standards are important because they articulate current thinking in the field. However, just
because standards reflect current thinking does not mean that they are right. Education is
largely a social construct and so, it depends.
In my view, standards can be useful, but setting standards implies uniformity of complex human factors. This may be an inappropriate focus, since attainment of standards
depends upon so many complex, nonuniform elements. As we focus more on teacher
development, we can expect teachers to internalize their own standards and not seek outside sources for such standards. Also, articulating standards is one thing; implementing
them effectively is another. Raising the bar does not necessarily mean that students jump
higher. Curriculum, standards, etc. should be viewed as basic resources for individual
decisions about teaching, not as bandwagons that everyone must jump aboard because it

is the right thing to do.
Funding agencies should not be prescriptive, but should be seeking creative, even
bizarre, ideas and helping to shape these ideas into feasible projects that have good
assessment plans. Funding agencies should be seeking to support Jacob’s night science,
as well as day science.
Professional development programs need to provide teachers with a broad repertoire
of techniques and strategies and help teachers discover their own unique strengths and
weaknesses. Then, the need is to help teachers nurture their individual strengths, regardless of whether it is in inquiry teaching or lecturing or other pedagogical approaches. I
believe the most effective student learning occurs when a teacher is equipped with all the
tools of the trade, is self-aware and reflective, and is then encouraged to use the techniques and strategies most suitable to that individual teacher. There is no one best way to
teach. It all depends.

References
Jacob, F. 1998. Of flies, mice and men. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.
Lloyd, F.E., and M.A. Bigelow. 1907. The teaching of biology in the secondary school. Longmans, Green & Co.,
London, UK.
National Research Council. 1996. National science education standards. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

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