a study on beliefs of teachers of english at duong xa high school gia lam hanoi about leaner autonomy

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*************

NGUYỄN THỊ TOÀN

A STUDY ON BELIEFS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH
AT DUONG XA HIGH SCHOOL, GIA LAM, HA NOI
ABOUT LEANER AUTONOMY
(Nghiên cứu về niềm tin của giáo viên tiếng anh tại trường THPT
Dương Xá, Gia Lâm, Hà Nội về tính tự chủ của người học)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Language Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

Hanoi, 2015


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*************

NGUYỄN THỊ TOÀN

A STUDY ON BELIEFS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH
AT DUONG XA HIGH SCHOOL, GIA LAM, HA NOI
ABOUT LEANER AUTONOMY

(Nghiên cứu về niềm tin của giáo viên tiếng anh tại trường THPT
Dương Xá, Gia Lâm, Hà Nội về tính tự chủ của người học)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Language Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Mai Thi Loan, Ph.D

Hanoi, 2015


DECLARATION
The material contained in this dissertation is all my own work. When the work of
others has been adopted/paraphrased (e.g. books, articles, handouts, conference
reports, questionnaires, interview questions, etc), it has been acknowledged
according to appropriate academic convention. Sources of direct quotations are
clearly identified. I have read and understood the University‟s statement concerning
plagiarism and collusion.
Hanoi 2015

Nguyễn Thị Toàn

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor, Mrs Mai Thi Loan, for
her generous assistance and guidance while I was doing this project. I am really
grateful for her precious advice and constant support.

I would also like to send my sincere thanks to the teachers of English in Duong Xa
High School for their participation.
I am also in debt to my lecturers, my friends, my classmates as well as my
colleagues for their invaluable comments and criticism.
Last but not least, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my beloved
people, my parents, my sister, my brother who have always encouraged me to
complete this study.

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ABSTRACT
This research investigated the extent to which high school teachers of English in
Vietnam understood the concept of learner autonomy and their beliefs about this
concept. Despite the fact that learner autonomy is gaining momentum as an
educational phenomenon and various research has sought to create solutions for
fostering learner autonomy in Asian countries, there is very little research on
how high school teachers‟ beliefs have been conducted, especially in Vietnamese
context. Data were collected through two phases of the study, utilizing both
quantitative methods (questionnaire) and qualitative methods (interviews).
study

found

that, due to many obstacles, teachers

This

generally do not fully

understand about learner autonomy. The findings of this study will provide teachers
and policy-makers new insights into learner autonomy against the backdrop of
educational reforms in Vietnam.

iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... i
DECLARATION .........................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................iii
TABLES OF CONTENT ........................................................................................... iv

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................... vii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................... viii
PART A. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
1. Rationale .................................................................................................................... 1
2. Aims and objectives of the study ............................................................................... 1
3. Research questions ..................................................................................................... 2
4. Scope of the study ...................................................................................................... 2
5. Significance of the study............................................................................................ 2
6. Method of the study ................................................................................................... 3
7. Design of the study .................................................................................................... 3
PART B. DEVELOPMENT........................................................................................ 5
Chapter I. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 5
1.1. Leaner autonomy .................................................................................................... 5
1.1.1. Definitions of learner autonomy .......................................................................... 5
1.1.2. Principle of learner autonomy.............................................................................. 9
1.1.3. Characteristic of autonomous leaners ................................................................ 10
1.1.4. Characteristic of autonomous classroom ........................................................... 11

1.1.5. Approaches to fostering learner autonomy ........................................................ 13
1.1.5.1. Resource-based approaches ............................................................................ 13
1.1.5.2. Technology-based approaches ........................................................................ 14
1.1.5.3. Curriculum-based approaches ......................................................................... 14
1.1.5.4. Teacher-based approaches .............................................................................. 15
1.1.5.5. Classroom-based approaches .......................................................................... 15
1.1.5.6. Learner-based approaches ............................................................................... 16
1.2. The learners‟ roles / teachers‟ roles in developing learner autonomy .................. 17
1.2.1. The learner‟s roles ............................................................................................. 17
1.2.2. The teachers‟ roles ............................................................................................. 18
1.3. Teachers‟ beliefs ................................................................................................... 20
1.3.1. Definition of teachers‟ beliefs............................................................................ 20
1.3.2. Teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy ......................................................... 20
1.3.3. Factors affecting teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy ............................... 22
1.4. Review of related studies ...................................................................................... 23
1.5. Summary.............................................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER II: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 29
2.1. Setting of the study ............................................................................................... 29

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2.1.1 The school ........................................................................................................... 29
2.1.2. Teachers background information ..................................................................... 29
2.2. Instruments............................................................................................................ 32
2.2.1. Interviews........................................................................................................... 32
2.2.2. Class observations.............................................................................................. 33
2.3. Data collection procedure ..................................................................................... 34
2.3.1. Interviews........................................................................................................... 34
2.3.2. Class observation ............................................................................................... 35

2.4. Data analysis procedure ........................................................................................ 35
2.5. Summary ............................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER III. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ........................................... 37
3.1 Restatement of the question ................................................................................... 37
3.2. Data analysis of interviews for teachers ............................................................... 37
3.2.1. High school teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy ................................ 37
3.2.1.1. High school teachers‟ understandings of learner autonomy ................... 37
3.2.1.2. Teachers beliefs about teachers‟ responsibilities in autonomous classroom. . 42
3.2.1.3. Teachers‟ beliefs about students‟ ability to become autonomous .................. 45
3.2.1.4. Teachers‟ attitude to practicality of learner autonomy ................................... 47
3.2.2. Suggestions to improve leaner autonomy at high school .................................. 48
3.2.2.1. Factors affecting the implementation of learner autonomy in high school
context ......................................................................................................................... 48
3.2.2.2. Solution to foster learner autonomy at DXHS ........................................... 51
3.3. Data analysis from Class observation - Teachers‟ actual teaching practice ......... 52
3.4. Discussion of the findings..................................................................................... 58
3.4.1. Teachers‟ understanding of learner autonomy................................................... 58
3.4.2. Teachers‟ roles in fostering learner autonomy .................................................. 58
3.4.3. Ability student become autonomous.................................................................. 59
3.4.4. The degree of alignment between teachers‟ beliefs and practices ..................... 60
3.4.5. Suggestion to developing learner autonomy at high school context. ................ 61
3.5. Summary ............................................................................................................... 62
PART C: CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 63
4.1. Recapitulation ....................................................................................................... 63
4.2. Pedagogical contributions ..................................................................................... 63
4.3. Limitations ............................................................................................................ 65
4.4. Suggestions for further study ................................................................................ 66
4.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 66
LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................I

APPENDIX A1 ..............................................................................................................I
APPENDIX A2 ............................................................................................................ II
APPENDIX A3 ........................................................................................................... III

v


APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................... XIX
APPENDIX C .......................................................................................................... XXI

vi


LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS
DXHS: Duong Xa High School
LA: Learner autonomy
AL: Autonomous learner
ELT: English Language Teaching
ESL: English as Second Language
IQ: Interview question

vii


LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Participants‟ profile ............................................................................ 30
Table 2: Participants‟ understanding of leaner autonomy................................ 38
Table 2.1: Grouping participants‟ understanding of leaner autonomy ............ 40
Table 2.2: Teacher beliefs about autonomous learner ..................................... 41
Table 3.1: Teachers‟ beliefs about person in charge of fostering learner

autonomy ........................................................................................................... 43
Table 3.2: Participants‟ beliefs towards teachers‟ responsibilities in
autonomous classroom ...................................................................................... 44
Table 4: Participants‟ belief towards students‟ ability to become autonomous45
Table 5: Participants‟ beliefs towards developing learner autonomy .............. 47
Table 6: Factors impacting the extent of learner autonomy implementation ... 48
Table 7: Solution to fostering learner autonomy at DXHS ............................... 51
Table 8: Teachers – students exchanging learning procedure and objectives .. 53
Table 9: Teachers‟ instructional behaviors ....................................................... 53
Table 10: Teachers‟ monitoring strategies ........................................................ 55
Table 11: Teachers‟ instructional tools ............................................................. 56
Table 12: Teachers‟ assessment ........................................................................ 57

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PART A. INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
As many other subjects, learning English is considered as a lifelong endeavor
(Thomson, 1996:78). Regarding to this, learner autonomy has become an important
issue in teaching and learning English recently. In the last forty years, the idea that
learners need to be able to take control over their own learning to be successful not
just in class, but also to learn independently without a teacher outside the class, has
become widely accepted in mainstream language teaching (Benson, 2001).
Along with this, the role of teachers in developing learner autonomy is
recognized more widely. For teachers, to foster learner autonomy, they should have
an understanding of the concept and an understanding of what strategies would be
effective for them to use to foster the development of learner autonomy.
Furthermore, teachers must have a belief that learner autonomy is worth
incorporating into their pedagogy.

In context of Vietnam, while there have been many researches investing on
learner autonomy under perspective of students; teachers‟ voices have, however,
been largely absent from such analyses, and little is actually known about what
learner autonomy means to language teachers. This study addressed this gap by
examining what learner autonomy means to English language teachers in Vietnam.
2. Aims and objectives of the study
Being aware of the necessity of learner autonomy in quality of learning
English and the significant role of teachers of English on promoting autonomy in
learners, this research is conducted with the aim of finding out teachers‟ beliefs on
leaner autonomy in high school context. The aim is fulfilled with three objectives:
a) Investigate high school teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy.
b) Find out how high school teachers of English promote leaner autonomy among
their students.
c, Find out constraints to promoting leaner autonomy at high school context and
solutions to these obstacles.
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3. Research questions
These objectives of this study are addressed through three main following
research questions:
1- What does the term “learner autonomy” mean to high school teachers of
English?
2- To what extent, teachers of English promote learner autonomy in their actual
teaching practice regarding their beliefs about learner autonomy?
3- What are teachers’ beliefs about constraints to promote leaner autonomy at
high school context and solutions to these obstacles?
4. Scope of the study
Firstly, the scope of this research is confined in its population; only eight
Vietnamese high school teachers will be investigated. Data collection and analysis

focus on only that small number of high school teachers of English which were
selected to yield the most information for the research questions. Although unique
in their own ways, the participating teachers are all considered highly proficient
teachers and almost all of them have got master degree or are pursuing them. This
study may help to build knowledge and understanding of teachers‟ beliefs on leaner
autonomy, but it is unable to generalize the research results to the variety of high
schools. The purpose of this study is only of the benefit of learner autonomy at a
specific high school, so the results may be unable to be applied universally.
Secondly, this research studies about learner autonomy from the view of
teachers only. Opinions of students on aspects of this theory are neglected in this
work.
5. Significance of the study
Theoretically, this thesis will be a small contribution to the theory of ELT on
the learner autonomy under the perspective of high school English teachers. For the
actual situation, information obtained from this study will help educational planners
in deciding what priorities and strategies/principles are needed to apply to promote
leaner autonomy. Its findings may also imply materials for in-service training for

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high school English teachers in creating autonomous class. Lastly, the author hopes
to draw up changes in curriculum and framework in teaching and learning English
at high school.
6. Method of the study
This study was carried out through the steps below
First, personal interviews with eight teachers were conducted with the
purposes of:
-

Investigating teachers‟ understandings on concept of learner autonomy

-

Fingering out teachers‟ beliefs on their responsibilities in promoting
learner autonomy

-

Determining teachers‟ difficulties in developing learner autonomy

-

Finding out their suggestions to develop learner autonomy

Second, class observations were made to study teachers‟ teaching method
regarding to developing learner autonomy as well as their difficulties in enhancing
learner autonomy in their classrooms.
After the data were collected, sorted and analyzed, realistic results were
obtained.
To end with, pedagogical implications for enhancing learner autonomy at
high school context were proposed based on the results found from all data
collections instruments.
7. Design of the study
The research consists of three main parts: Introduction, Development and
Conclusion.
The first part – Introduction presents the rationale, the aims and objectives,
the scope, the significance of the study, and the overview on the method and design
of the study.
The second part - Development is sub-divided into three chapters. Chapter

one, Literature review, provides a thorough review of the research and literature
about learner autonomy, the role of teacher and learner in developing learner

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autonomy as well as teachers‟ beliefs and practices in relation to learner autonomy.
In addition, previous related studies are summarized in brief.
Chapter two, Methodology, explains the methodology used in the study
including the participants‟ information, instrumentation, data collection and data
analysis.
Chapter three presents the main content with findings and discussions basing
on the results from class observations and interviews.
The last part - Conclusion offers a summary of the findings and further
implication for fostering learner autonomy in Vietnam high school.

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PART B. DEVELOPMENT
Chapter I. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews literature on topics relating to learner autonomy,
teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy and how teachers‟ beliefs are manifest in
classroom practices to support learner autonomy. The chapter begins with a
comprehensive definition of learner autonomy which outlines the nature of learner
autonomy, as well as the characteristics of autonomous learners and autonomous
classroom. Following is a description of the different approaches and perspectives
to foster and develop learner autonomy. This is followed by a discussion about the
application of learner autonomy in Vietnam which highlights the role of teacher in
fostering learner autonomy. The subsequent section is devoted to the discussion

of teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy. A working definition of beliefs is
provided, which outlines the roles of beliefs in teaching in general and fostering
learner autonomy in particular. The next section provides a discussion of teaching
behaviors in relation to fostering learner autonomy, which explores the association
between teachers‟ beliefs about learner autonomy and their teaching practices
to foster learner autonomy. Reviews of related studies will be presented in the last
sections.
1.1. Leaner autonomy
1.1.1. Definitions of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy in learning English as a foreign language education has
received great interest from researchers, there are a number of definitions of learner
autonomy exist in education generally and in second language learning in
particular. This section describes the different terms employed in the field. Holec‟s
seminal work provided a definition of learner autonomy as the “ability to take
charge of one‟s own learning” (Holec,1981:3). He stated that being an autonomous
learner means that one is able to take the responsibility in deciding all aspects of
his/her learning, i.e. determining the objectives; defining the contents and
progressions; selecting methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the

5


procedures of acquisition properly speaking (rhythm, time, place, etc.); evaluating
what has been acquired.”
There are four characteristics in Holec‟s definition. First, autonomy are skills
that students acquired to take responsibility of their own learning which means
learner autonomy is an attribute of learner, not the process. Second, this attribute is
not innate or in-born but necessarily is acquired through systematic and
purposeful learning process. Third, it describes a potential capacity to act in a
learning situation, and not the actual behavior of an individual in that situation. In

other words, learner autonomy cannot be identified as one single simple behavior
in a particular learning situation. The fourth feature is related to learners‟ ability to
take control of their learning by becoming responsible for the decisions made in all
the aspects of the learning process. This definition highlights responsibility and
capacity as key features of learner autonomy. From this broad definition, many
definitions of learner autonomy have followed.
In other definitions of learner autonomy, the words “ability” and “take
charge of” employed in Holec‟s definition have often been replaced by „capacity‟
and „take responsibility for‟ respectively (Đặng, 2012:35). Đàm (1995) defined
autonomous learners as people who are able to take charge of their learning,
act independently, and are motivated in the learning process. In another example,
Littlewood (1996:427-428) described the notion of autonomy as learners‟ ability
and willingness to make choices independently. He argued that this capacity
depends on two main components: ability and willingness. These two components
are interdependent and are divided into subcomponents. According to Littlewood
(1996), ability depends on knowledge about the alternative choices and skills
available for carrying out appropriate choices. Willingness depends on the
motivation and confidence a person must have to take responsibility for necessary
choices. In order to obtain success in acting autonomously, Littlewood suggested
that a person needs to have four subcomponents: knowledge, skills, motivation,
and confidence. He suggested that these components be honored in the development

6


of learner autonomy.
From another perspective, Benson (1997) took the political view of learner
autonomy and defined it as learner‟s rights. These various word substitutions seem
to be a matter of linguistics, which has led to learner autonomy being understood
and translated into practice in various ways. Oxford (2003:83) has suggested that

when all related perspectives are deliberated, a stronger, richer understanding of
learner autonomy will be reached. The following section examines the perspectives
that researchers have employed to explore learner autonomy.
With the psychological perspective, some researchers (Benson, 2001,
2007; Holec, 1981; Little, 1995) take learners‟ „ability‟ or „capacity‟ into account.
Little‟s definition (1995) involves an element of awareness in that capacity.
Benson (2001) considered learner autonomy as a capacity consisting of two
interrelated elements, namely behavioral and cognitive. These two elements allow
learners to initiate, monitor, and evaluate their learning processes. This perspective
fits closely with Oxford‟s (2003:83) that stated psychological perspective of the
learners, who are considered as individuals of a sociocultural group, are checked
through their mental and emotional characteristics.
Littlewood (1999:75) classified learner autonomy into two levels: proactive
autonomy and reactive autonomy. Proactive autonomy is where learners are
able to plan, monitor, and access their learning. In this way, learners establish
their own personal learning agenda and their own directions for learning. This level
of autonomy is often seen as the autonomy generally attributed to students in
Western cultures, such as Australia. However, in education in general and in
language education in particular, Littlewood argued that it is necessary to mention
and pay attention to the second level called reactive autonomy. Reactive
autonomy does not create learning directions, but learners use initiated direction to
organize their resources autonomously to reach their goal. Reactive autonomy is
seen as lower order autonomy than proactive and is considered a preliminary step
towards proactive autonomy. It can be inferred that with reactive autonomy, the

7


level of decision making in class merely complements rather than challenges
the traditional structures of knowledge and authority. This classification is worth

attention in Asian educational contexts where the concept of learner autonomy is
only recently being explored and where one must consider cultural and social
constraints that are different to those of Western cultures (Benson, 2000; Little,
1997; Littlewood, 1999; Smith, 2008). It is not known at present how Vietnamese
teachers understand the concept of learner autonomy. However, as it is now
mandated by government to be included in pedagogy, it is important to study
teachers‟ understanding about the notion of learner autonomy in education, focus
on English language learning. How this understanding can be applied to their
teaching practices, besides, need studying.
Although there are different definitions of learner autonomy in the
world, Sinclair (2000:5) pointed out some common characteristics of learner
autonomy which are generally agreed. These include five aspects as follow.
Autonomy is an ability that is not instinctive but created. Autonomy indicates
learners‟ willingness to be responsible for their own learning. Autonomy consists of
two degrees which are unstable and changeable. Autonomy can develop inside and
outside the classroom. Autonomy includes both social and individual dimension.
Lastly, promotion of autonomy requires conscious awareness of the learning
process.
In this research, learner autonomy is defined as: learner‟ willingness and
ability to take responsibility, to plan, implement and evaluate his/her learning with
tasks that are constructed in negotiation with and support from the teacher. For
teachers, helping students develop learner autonomy requires attention paid to the
negotiation and support of their students. In order to foster learner autonomy, the
autonomous learners must be willing to be involved in their learning. This means
that they must be motivated and active towards their studies.

8


1.1.2. Principle of learner autonomy

To define the learner autonomy accurately, it is necessary to name clearly its
principles. Same as with the definition, the most widely recognized set of principles
and traits of autonomy was created by Holec (1981). He details that for developing
autonomy, the students need to take responsibility for the decisions concerning all
the aspects of their learning. In other words, they should be able to determine the
objectives, define the contents and progressions, select methods and techniques to
be used, monitor the procedures of acquisition and evaluate what has been acquired
in the course of their studies. Benson (2001) narrows those parts of the learning
process into three areas at which learner control may be exercised. They are named
as control over learning management, control over cognitive process and control
over learning content.
Apple (2009) claims that the learner‟s progress to autonomy include five
steps: setting goals, determining learning content, choosing appropriate methods,
monitoring learning progress and reflecting on what has been learned. Dafei
(2007:6) paraphrases and summarizes the various sets of principles and states there
is an agreement that the practice of learner autonomy requires insight, a positive
attitude, a capacity for reflection, and a readiness to be proactive in selfmanagement and in interaction with others.
While Lamb (2009) confesses that scientists know relatively little about
development of learner autonomy, Paran and Sercu (2010:85) mentions that
autonomy requires a capacity and willingness to act independently and in
cooperation with others as an individual of a society. Likewise, Fenner and Newby
(2000:79) emphasized the fact that autonomy is not a solitary matter to be achieved
independently and without some assistance from others. It is a complex process that
is not natural but needs learning. However, holding opposite view, Wenden
(1987:4) defines autonomy as a natural occurrence which is innate to every person
and just needs to be shown, not forced or trained by anyone.

9

Though, there are many ideas about principles of learner autonomy, the
researcher of this study is favor of the theory of Holec that to achieve learner
autonomy students need to show their activeness and willingness to take responsible
for all the aspects of their learning. Learner autonomy needs to be practiced and
trained gradually.
1.1.3. Characteristic of autonomous leaners
The difficulty of defining learner autonomy in terms of its most important
components has also been expressed by two assumptions: the degrees of learner
autonomy and the behaviours of autonomous learners (Nunan: 1997: 192-203).
Though Wenden (1987:8) does not state a definition for autonomy itself, she
describes the autonomous language learners as those who, in the course of their
studies, become not only more efficient at learning and using their second language
but also more capable of self-directing these endeavors. Holec (1981:147), speaking
of autonomous learners, characterizes them as “learners who are capable of
assuming the role of manager of their learning. They know how to make all the
decisions involved. In other words, they know how to learn”. Dam (1995:102)
identified an autonomous learner as an active learner in the learning processes of
classroom context. These learners interpret actively new information basing on
what they know uniquely. Then, they know how to learn and apply their
knowledge in any learning situations they may encounter at any stage in their life.
Little (1995) stated that autonomous learners are motivated learners.
Motivated autonomous learners are able to apply their knowledge and abilities
further. In the context of English language learning, autonomous learners can
freely apply their language and skills outside the immediate context of learning.
Wenden (1987:9) emphasized the importance of learner training in how to
learn. He stated that to be willing to learn, it is important for learners to understand
the tasks they have been given to do, which calls on the importance of the teacher in
the process. Second, when they are willing to learn, it is important to know how to
learn and how to take the responsibility. He suggested even successful, expert or

10


intelligent learners have learned how to become autonomous. All learners have to
acquire effective learning strategies, knowledge about learning, attitudes that enable
them to use their skills and knowledge confidently, flexibly, appropriately and
independently of a teacher. When they can do this, they are autonomous learners. In
another words, if learners are willing to learn and have strategies to take control,
they will become autonomous.
In this research, researcher regards learner autonomy is the denotations of
students‟ ability to take responsibility of learning with teachers‟ orientation.
Autonomous learners, with the support of teachers, know how to learn and have
their responsibility for their learning as well as make effort in their improvement.
1.1.4. Characteristic of autonomous classroom
Autonomous classroom is defined as one important factor in training
students become autonomous. Dam (2000:20) and Lacey (2007:5) defined
autonomous classrooms as an environment when students take the ownership of
their learning. In that classroom, learners are able to be consciously involved in
their own learning. They are made aware of the various elements involved in the
learning process by being expected to be actively engaged in their own. The teacher
no longer sets standard answers, meaning that communication in the EFL classroom
becomes authentic and the language becomes the means, as well as the goal.
Dam (2000) points out some of the prerequisites for establishing such an
environment, which are:
-

A willingness on the part of the teacher to let go, and on the part of the
learners to take hold;

-

An understanding of what to do and why and how it should be done, this
applies to teachers as well as learners;

-

An experience-based insight into the learning process for both teachers and
learners;

-

An atmosphere of security, trust and respect;

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Camilleri (1999) shares the same view with two authors above when she
expresses that student may manage learners‟ learning process when the teacher
negotiates with them the course content and methodology. At the same time, the
learners are informed of the learning process and discuss it. The learner forms his
own conclusions about learning and is respected for his individual points of view.
This process starts at the beginning of each school year and continues throughout. It
is a continuous cycle of learning; each step leads to the next. Learners negotiate a
project, and decide upon both material and process. The outcome is discussed and
reflected upon; the next step is a consequence of the one taken before.
Little & Dam (1998: 18-37) call autonomous classrooms a learning
community and the target language is one of the principal tools with which the
collaborative process is shaped. Little, Ridley& Ushioda (2003), in their work,
express one of the characteristics of autonomous classroom is that target language
becomes a channel for learning, and a tool for reflection. The teaching is not steered

by the textbook, but the needs and experiences of the learners.
One of the things that characterize the autonomous classroom is a strong
emphasis on pair and group work as means to develop learner autonomy. Jacobs &
Farrell (2001) and Lacey (2007) share the same opinion. Following their idea, pair
and group work help learners become less dependent on the teacher by learning to
collaborate with their peers. Group activities play a large part in this because
learners acquire a lot of learning strategies when collaborating with, and receiving
support from their peers and not just the teacher. The learners form groups basing
on their interests or other criteria chosen by them. The differences between able and
low ability learners are less obvious because the learners work on self-assigned
tasks as a part of a class and not a divided one.
These types of collaborative group work and autonomous learning
environment call for different communication skills. The use of the target language,
more learner-learner interaction and communication due to group work as well as
general discussion, opens up a whole new world of speaking exercises and peer

12


scaffolding. Learners also learn to work with different people and gain
communicative skills.
From these theories, it is believed that, autonomous classroom would be an
environment where teacher and students co-operate friendly and respectfully with
each other. Students take charge of their learning under the support and orientation
of the teachers.
1.1.5. Approaches to fostering learner autonomy
Understanding the characteristics of students who are autonomous in their
learning is important; however, it is equally important to understand how teachers
can foster learner autonomy in their classrooms. The following section describes
the six approaches to promote autonomy classified by Benson (2001). These

approaches are resource-based, technology-based, curriculum-based, teacher-based,
classroom-based, and learner-based.
1.1.5.1. Resource-based approaches
Resource-based approaches denote the ability of students to use learning
materials independently. The strength of resource-based approaches lies in the
provision of opportunities for self-directed learning. However, opportunities alone
do not lead to improved LA. Neither do they result in learners‟ enhanced language
proficiency. The two key issues remain the lack of authentic interaction and the
learners‟ withdrawal from the collective and social process of learning (Benson.
2001). Research has mainly focused on how the approaches can be implemented.
Still there has not been sufficient evidence on the effectiveness of these
approaches in the promote ion of LA and language learning except for some study
counselling. For greater effectiveness, the following points should be taken into
consideration:
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learner training and support mechanism

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appropriate use of technology

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self-access systems to support self-direction

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teacher and learner involvement

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integration of self-access centers with the curriculum.

1.1.5.2. Technology-based approaches
The typical forms of this approach are computer-assisted language learning
and computer mediated communication. Technological advancements enable learners
to learn language in a variety of ways with or without the presence of a teacher. In
this regard, it is worth considering, Littlemore (2001: 43) who supports the view that
new technologies can be used to encourage different types of independent learning
but do not automatically do so. It requires effort to replace teacher dependency with
machine dependency. Learners need to be trained in the strategies required to make
the most of the opportunities offered by the new technologies. It is important that
learners continue to have support from their teachers.
Similar to resource-based approaches, technology-based approaches also
assume the usefulness of learner opportunities made available by diverse forms of
technology. However, apart from the offering of opportunities for self-directed
learning, some forms of technology can provide opportunities for collaboration which
self-access learning often fails to achieve. Both teachers and learners have started
integrating the use of multimedia and interactive technologies to promote language
learning. However, very little research evidence is available in support of the
usefulness of technology-based approaches and the development of learner
autonomy.
1.1.5.3. Curriculum-based approaches
The focus of curriculum-based approaches is positioned in the negotiation
between teachers and learners. This is aimed at enhancing learners‟ participation in
making decisions on learning content, activities, and tasks as well as at evaluating

learning. These approaches are characterized by learners exercising their autonomy
at different levels and degrees of responsibility.
The effectiveness of curriculum-based approaches depends on the
scaffolding and support learners receive from their teachers. Research has so far
focused on understanding teacher and learner responsibility, beliefs and attitudes to
learner autonomy. Some studies have described positive feedback and learning

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behaviors learners have gained as a result of the implementation of either the weak
or the strong version of curriculum-based approaches. In order to judge the
effectiveness of curriculum-based approaches, much more empirically data-driven
research is needed.
1.1.5.4. Teacher-based approaches
The focus of teacher-based approaches is on teacher professional
development and teacher education. These approaches have been developed on the
assumption that changing teachers‟ beliefs about autonomy, building their
commitment to autonomy, and encouraging practices to support learner autonomy
will result in classroom changes, which are in favor of learner autonomy. To put it
differently, learner autonomy is dependent on teacher autonomy. Little (1995)
argues that learner autonomy depends on teacher autonomy for two reasons. Firstly,
teachers themselves must be autonomous if they expect their students to exercise
autonomy. Secondly, teachers must be able to make the most of their
professional skills autonomously.
The effectiveness of teacher-based approaches to the development of learner
autonomy depends on teachers‟ commitment to autonomy and their professional
skills. So far research has merely focused on understanding the concept of teacher
autonomy and on working out principles to foster it. Little is known about the
dependence of the achievement of learner autonomy on the promotion of teacher

autonomy.
1.1.5.5. Classroom-based approaches
Classroom-based approaches assume that learners will be able to develop
learner autonomy through the management of their learning within the classroom
context where they can collaborate with peers and make use of support from
teachers. Classroom-based approaches emphasize changing the relationships and
classroom practices. The changes enable teachers to transfer responsibility and
control over learning goals, learning process, and assessment of learning outcomes
to learners. Studies designed to encourage learners to actively engage in planning
and assessing classroom teaching have shown positive results. In essence, having

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