critical thinking use for the inference exercises in mosaic 1, 4th edition

Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

1

Cantho University
School of Education
English Department

Critical Thinking Use for the Inference
Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition
Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần B.A.
Thơ@Tài
Thesis liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
Field of study: English Language Learning

Supervisor: Mr. Nguyeãn Hoàng Chí

Researcher: Voõ Thò Thu Thaûo
Code: 7044867
NN0454A3
Course 30

Cantho, May 2008


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Contents
Contents .....................................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................iii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................iv
List of tables and figures…………………………………………………………………. ....v
Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………………. ....1
1.1 Background information……………………………………………………………….. ....1
1.2 The need of CT in education…………………………………………………………… ...2
1.3 The expansion of CT…………………………………………………………………… ...2
1.4 CT and English language learning……………………………………………………....... 3
1.5 The thesis organization………………………………………………………………… ....4
Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………. ......5
2.1 Concepts of CT……………………………………………………………………….. ......5
2.1.1 Definitions of CT……………………………………………………………….. ......5
2.1.2 Relationship between CT skills and dispositions……………………………….. .....8

Trung
tâm
Học liệu
ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên......8
cứu
2.2 CT
and Academic
achievement………………………………………………………..
2.3 CT and Social achievement……………………………………………………………. .....9
2.4 CT and reading comprehension ……………………………………………………….......9
2.5 Definitions of inference ………………………………………………………………. ...11
2.6 The possible relationship between CT and making inference………………………… ...12
Chapter Three: Research Methodology……………………………………………….. ....15
3.1 Research designs………………………………………………………………………. ...15
3.2 Participants……………………………………………………………………………. ...16
3.3 Materials………………………………………………………………………………. ...16

3.4 Research instruments…………………………………………………………………. ....17
3.4.1 Reading selection……………………………………………………………….. ....17
3.4.2 Questionnaire on CT use for inference exercises……………………………….. ... 18
3.5 Procedure……………………………………………………………………………… ...20
Chapter Four: Results of the Data Collation And
Discussions about the Research Findings.............................................................................21
4.1 Students’ level of CT use for the inference exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th edition……….. ...21


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

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4.1.1 The mean scores of students’ CT use ……………………................................... ...21
4.1.2 The differences in the levels of CT skills and disposition ……………………... .... 23
4.2 Students’ choices of general CT use for inference exercises…………………………. ...24
4.2.1 The use of other techniques for inference questions……………………………. ...24
4.2.2 Students’ choices of general CT use for inference exercises…………………… ...25
4.3 Discussions about the research findings……………………………………………… ....29
4.4 Classroom implication………………………………………………………………... ....30
Chapter Five: Limitations and Directions for Further Research……………………. ....31
5.1 Limitations……………………………………………………………………………. ....31
5.1.1 Methological limitations ……………………………………………………….. ....31
5.1.2 Some other limitations …………………………………………………………. ....32
5.2 Directions for further research………………………………………………………. . ....32
References………………………………………………………………………………. . ....34
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………….. ... 36

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

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Acknowledgements
This thesis could not have been completed without the great support
and assistance of the wonderful people.
Firstly, I wish to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor - Mr.
Nguyen Hong Chi – who instructed enthusiastically to do the research.
For his helpful guidance, generous and patient attention, invaluable
suggestions, critical reading, academically and personally, motivated me
to stand firm on my own research path.
Secondly, I am very grateful to Mark Dalgarno who spent his precious
time reading and correcting all of the errors in order that my papers
sound good. It was his kindness that made this research better than I
expected.
In addition, I wish to express my deep appreciation to Mrs. Bui Thi
Hong Anh, Mrs. Ngo Hoang Anh, and Mr. Tran Quoc Hung, for the
help of data collection. It was their great help that led to the completion
of this study.

Trung tâm
ĐH
Cần
liệu
học tậpandvàBachelor),
nghiên cứu
My Học
sincereliệu

thanks
also
go toThơ@Tài
English majors
(Education
course 31 who volunteered to participate in the questionnaire survey.
Without their cooperation, this study would have not been possible.
Finally yet importantly, to my friends and family, I appreciate your
persistent encouragement, continuous support, and assistance. Your
companionship made difficult times enjoyable. I appreciate you more
than words can express.
Best for all,
Cantho, 19 May 2008
Vo Thi Thu Thao


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abstract
Critical thinking is a central outcome in education because it will equip
learners self-regulation and independent thinking in order that they are
capable to meet challenges in the new era. The conceptualization of CT
could be achieved through the findings of the Delphi study in 1990. The
results of the research note that CT could have been correlated with
thinking ability in school and in professionalism development. Reading
comprehension is hypothesized to have the significant correlation with
CT. When a learner’s CT is enhanced, his or her reading ability might be
improved. Because learners sometimes have to read a text whose

meaning is implied and that they have to infer for understanding of the
text. Therefore, this research reports the qualitative investigation to what
extent students use CT for making inference and the quantitative survey
of general CT use for inference questions. Results might illustrate an
effect: the ability to make inferences increases with an increase in CT
use. These positive findings would help students majoring in English get
deeper understanding about using CT when they study reading
comprehension.

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH
Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
Abbreviation: Critical Thinking (CT)


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List of Tables and Figures
Figure 2.1: The core CT skills…………………………………………………………… ....... 6
Figure 2.2: The dispositions toward CT………………………………………………… .......7
Figure 4.1: Total mean score of students’ CT use……………………………………….. .....21
Figure 4.2: Mean scores of two categories of CT………………………………………… ....22
Table 2.1: Six levels of learning in terms of making inference ………………………. ....13-14
Table 3.1: Aims of the items in the second section……………………………………… ..... 19
Table 3.2: Aims of the items in the questionnaire……………………………………….. .....19
Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics of students’ level of CT use……………………………......21
Table 4.2: Descriptive Statistics of two dimensions of CT use………………………….. .....22
Table 4.3: Differences between the mean scores of two CT dimensions………………….....23
Table 4.4: Other techniques for inference questions……………………………………… ....24

Table 4.5: CT use for inference exercises about vocabulary …………………………….. ....25
Table 4.6: CT use for the activity after reading a long selection ………………………… ....25
Tabletâm
4.7: CT
use for
the strategy
after reading
a long selection
…………………………
Trung
Học
liệu
ĐH Cần
Thơ@Tài
liệu học
tập và nghiên...26
cứu
Table 4.8: CT use for the activity after giving an inference ……………………………… ....27
Table 4.9: CT use for the strategy of making an inference ………………………………. ...27
Table 4.10: CT use for the activity after finishing inference exercises …………………... ...28


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Chapter 1
Introduction
This chapter will address (1) the background information of this research, (2) the need of
CT in education, (3) the expansion of CT, (4) CT and English language learning and (5) the thesis

organization.

1.1 Background information
Since 1980s, the world economy has reached an era known as globalization. In this
era, the development of technology, media and transportation has boosted strong
cooperation between nations in terms of economy, culture, politics and society. According
to Vu (2006), these achievements made the world smaller by “high speed, small distance,
high density and great intensity”. Therefore, a person has access to the giant resources of
the world’s knowledge just by a click at home. Knowledge now not only belongs to an
individual, an organization, or a nation but the world as reporter Bao Binh told on Vietimes
on November 15, 2007.
Not only
multinational
and governments,
but individuals
as wellcứu
Trung tâm
Họchave
liệu
ĐH Cầncorporations
Thơ@Tài
liệu học tập
và nghiên
integrated deeply in the wave of the globalization. Therefore, “global citizenship” was
conceptualized in order to indicate that each individual acts may contribute (or destroy)
benefits not only for his or herself, but for society and even for the world. This connection
is required in the global community as Bao Binh once again mentioned this on Vietimes on
the same date. How can a person become a global citizen? They must be equipped with
knowledge and necessary skills such as thinking independently and critically, advocating
ideas and listening to others and reasoning logically. Therefore, Friedman (2006) signified

that it is education that plays an important role to train intellectual citizens possessing four
quotients: IQ (Intellectual Quotients), EQ (Emotion Quotients), CQ (Curiosity Quotients)
and PQ (Passion Quotients). That is to say, schooling not only transfers the “prepackaged
knowledge” stuffed with facts, figures, definitions, and formulas but also the skills to think
critically, analyze, communicate, cooperate and solve problems. In other words, after
schooling, graduates can innovate and boost the progress of the society they live in and the
rest of the world by their CT skills and knowledge.


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1.2 The need of CT in education
We can observe that globalization entails a world where good thinking is focused on
as an important element of life success in life (Huitt, 1995; Thomas & Smoot, 1994)
because the educational policy would have indicated a national developmental strategy. The
enthusiasm with which North America has come to embrace CT as a central outcome of
higher education (Facione, Facione, Gainen & Giancarlo, 1995). Of these, the U.S enacted
the National Goals of Education 2000 aimed at college graduates who demonstrate an
ability to think critically, communicate effectively and solve problems in order that they
possess knowledge and skills to compete in the context of globalization (Facione, Facione,
Gainen & Giancarlo, ibid.). Besides that, Singapore highly evaluated thinking ability in
individuals as Ministry of Education’s version: “Thinking Schools, Learning Nation”. In
fact, Singaporean education made great efforts for graduates mastering both knowledge and
skills capable of meeting the challenges of the 21st century, the spirit of life long learning
after leaving school.
1.3 The expansion of CT
CT has a long history dating from the era of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates

Trung
Họcagoliệu
ĐHtheCần
Thơ@Tài
liệu
vàschooling
nghiên
over tâm
2000 years
through
Socratic
Method, even
“CThọc
cametập
before
wascứu
ever invented, it lies at the very roots of civilization” (Facione, 2006, p.9). Accordingly,
learning by raising questions permits learners to shape their thinking habits, the enjoyment
of knowledge, constructing knowledge’s meanings and ability them to apply to the future
life. Therefore, it is not an exaggeration when Facione (2006, p.9) said, “CT is a corner
stone in the journey human kind to global sensitivity.” However, it was not until the 1930’s
that CT was discussed by John Dewey, the pioneering American educator, when he
identified “learning to think” as the primary purpose of education in 1933. The reason is
that the thinking process will help learners approach knowledge with acquisitions or
innovations, new knowledge to make contributions to knowledge and to society, and to
human kind (Facione, 2006).
Nevertheless, the positive meaning of CT is usually misunderstood. According to
Paul and Elder (2004), one reason is from the very meaning of the word “critical” which is
usually inclined to convey something negative or focused on trivial faults. However, this
view is wrong because Facione (2006, p.3) pointed out, “CT is the thinking that has a

purpose (proving a point, interpreting what something means or solving a problem)”.


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Accordingly, a learner having “a critical spirit” means that he is very open-minded
positively to listen to what people say, willing to admit his faults and change his mind when
given good reasons to change, comfortable when being criticized, not arrogant when giving
an idea that may be better than others or put him or her into another’s situation with
sympathy and empathy.
Facione et al. (1990) achieved progress of CT when they conducted the Delphi
study. This study had to do with how college level CT should be defined so that people
teaching at a college level know which skills and dispositions to cultivate in their students
(Facione, 2006, p.9). From those results, CT has been focused as a central outcome in
higher education in order that graduates have better grades and high – order thinking
ability.
1.4 CT and English language learning
In globalization, English is most widely used international language (Grimes, 1996,
O’Neil, 2008) which entails the need to learn English. A typical student statement
(Tollefson, quoted in Pennycook, 2004, p.27) demonstrates this by the saying, “Learning
English might be the pathway to achieve the desired life, because English knowledge could

Trung
tâm
Học
liệujob,
ĐH
Cần Thơ@Tài

liệu học
tập my
vàown
nghiên
lead me
to have
a better
a successful
career and a chance
to develop
country.”cứu
In fact, to be a global citizen, English is a tool of inquiry for each person to work for him or
her own and contribute to human kind if he or she hopes to do so. However, it is
considerably difficult to learn English and to be able to think critically is. Lazere (1987)
pointed out that when instructed to apply CT in learning language should lead learners to
the ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas, to reason inductively and deductively,
and to reach factual or judgmental conclusions. Of the four English skills (writing, reading,
listening and speaking), reading was hypothesized to have a significant correlation with CT
because if learners can read better, they might think better, and as a result, they get better
grades (Facione, 2006). However, sometimes the information does not appear in black and
white on the written page for readers to look at and comprehend. In other words, readers
have to go beyond what is read. How can learners deal with this kind of reading task but do
not misunderstand the message the author conveys? That requires the ability to read what is
unstated in the text or the skill to infer. In order to infer meaning, readers must combine the
information that the author has written with his or her own experiences—both reading
experiences and life experiences (Prezsler, 2004, p.2). However, not all students can deal


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with the inference task in reading comprehension as well as they expect, even when they
reread the text several times (Oakhill, 1984). A similarity is found in Cantho University
(CTU) where as a student of English language learning, I was deeply involved. When I
worked with the inference exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th edition at school, I saw that these
inference exercises were quite difficult because the meaning of the text was implied. Even
when rereading carefully before drawing an answer, I still made mistakes. As a result, I was
afraid of these exercises and not sure to explain the reasons for my choices. Therefore, I
conduct this survey to check Facione’s (2006, p.18) hypothesis whether knowing how to
apply CT during inference process can improve students’ inference ability.
This study aims at conducting a small – scale survey to answer the research
question, “To what extent did English – majors, course 31 at CTU use CT to deal with the
inference exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th edition?” This survey does not care about how much
correct choices they have, but whether attention is paid to how they finished those exercises
through the use of CT (i.e., CT skills and dispositions). From this, the students’ intellectual
ability might correspond to Bloom’s (1956) levels of learning (i.e., knowledge,
comprehension, analysis, application, synthesis and evaluation). Finally, this research aims

Trung
tâm Học
liệu ĐH
Cần
Thơ@Tài
họcThe
tậpresult
và of
nghiên
at knowing
the students’

general
CT use
for inferenceliệu
questions.
the study,cứu
possible pedagogical actions that aim at promoting the students’ CT use at CTU would
consider.
1.5 Thesis organization
This research consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction. In Chapter 2, I
will review the literature relevant to the interaction between students’ CT and their
inference performance. In chapter 3, I will introduce the research methodology that I
followed to conduct this study, which includes the research design, the participants, the
materials and the procedure of the study. In chapter 4, I will report the results of the
investigations and the discussions about the research findings. In chapter 5, I will reflect on
the weakness of the research and suggest future research.


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Chapter 2
Literature review
The concepts of CT have been discussed and contemplated in educational circles over the
last several decades. Educators have shown a great interest in teaching thinking skills and
determined its correlation with academic achievement and long life learning (Fisher, 2001). In this
chapter, I present (1) the concepts of CT, (2) CT and academic and social achievements, and (3) the
possible relationship between CT and making inference.

2.1 Concepts of CT

2.1.1 Definitions of CT
Dewey’s (1933) concept of CT as “reflective thinking”. Accordingly, learners
should be active to master knowledge and use it for decision making or problem solving.
The decision is based on logic reasoning, evidence, and no biases. In fact, Dewey (ibid.)
emphasizes reasoning skills because learners are skillful in reasoning, it means that they
involve in their issues deeply. Although this definition highly evaluates learners’ reasoning
ability, it does not fail to say that they consider judgments of others if those judgments are
reasonable and deserved following.
Paul’s
(1993)
definition
of CT Thơ@Tài
as meta-thinking.
Accordingly,
learnerscứu
Trung tâm
Học
liệu
ĐH Cần
liệu
học tậpCTvàmakes
nghiên
aware of their intellectual ability and know how to apply it effectively. Learners organize,
rearrange their knowledge by themselves, not memorizing and use it for their reasoning.
Thanks to this awareness, they know how to develop their strong points and reduce weak
points. However, Paul (1993) failed to address attributes that enable learners to become
aware of their meta-thinking such as they are drilled to think critically or inherited thinking
skills.
Glaser’s (1941) dispositions toward CT. Glaser (1941) looks CT at the category of
CT dispositions. According to him, learners do not apply CT mechanically, but depends on

their attitude, emotion and purposes to know when they use and how to use effectively. For
example, someone may be skilled at reasoning, but not interested to do so, as a result, he or
she may not reason well. In fact, Glaser (ibid.) emphasized that CT is partly a matter of
having thinking skills, more importantly it is also a matter of being disposed to do use
them. However, if someone desires to think critically, but he lacks CT skills, as a result, he
or she cannot think critically. Thus, that Glaser’s concept emphasizes CT dispositions
rather than skills proves to be insufficient.


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Dewey’s (1933) concept is about “reflective thinking”, Paul’s (1991) definition
considers CT as meta-thinking and Glaser (1941) emphasizes the dispositions toward CT.
Overcoming the differences of these conceptualizations, Facione et al. (1990) conducted
the research about how college level CT should be defined, well-known as Delphi study.
The study’s findings are used for educational instructions and assessments.
"We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment
which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as
explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or
contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based... CT is
essential as a tool of inquiry."
Accordingly, CT is the self-regulating process that learners know what to do or
what to believe to response the circumstances’ impacts. In other words, CT is the thinking
that has a purpose when learners apply it to prove a point, interpret what something means
or solve a problem (Facione, 2006). In addition, in order to draw their judgment, learners
are using five core CT skills: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as
explanation. Five CT skills can be visualized in the diagram figure 2.1

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

Figure 2.1: The core CT skills
The ball diagram also gives another explanation that CT is non-linear as well as
recursive and learners cannot identify exactly this order. The recursive process is described
as follow: Learners can interpret a set of data, they are also able to explain their analysis,
analyze their interpretation, or evaluate their inference, or use self – regulation to examine
that analysis as that interpretation as well (Facione et al., 1990). They just know to use
those CT skills in their mind to form their judgment about what they believe or what they
do. Moreover, because of the complexity of six skills’ occurrence in the mind, it is
impossible to identify exactly which skill learners have used to interpret a definition for


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example. Indeed, in reality that is true because no one can solve a problem just by one skill
in isolation. Thus, through the verbal thinking of learners in the learning process, other
people only could identify a cluster of CT skills learners apply. In fact, CT is an essential
tool of inquiry for their learning process that helps learners be confident and able to
comprehend and acquire knowledge by themselves.
Facione’s et al definition introduces relatively sufficient about CT skills and another
indispensable factor: dispositions toward CT which is mentioned in another finding of
Delphi study. That is the rich description of the ideal critical thinker.
"The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of
reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing
personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear
about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant
information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and

persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the
circumstances of inquiry permit."
The dispositions toward CT is characterized as the consistent internal motivation to
engage problems and make decisions by using CT (Facione, Facione & Giancarlo, 1996).
Accordingly,
the idea
thinker
be characterized
notliệu
merely
by her
his CT
skills butcứu
Trung
tâm Học
liệu
ĐHcan
Cần
Thơ@Tài
học
tậpor và
nghiên
also by how she or he approaches problems and decisions in life. That habit is formed on
the base of using seven aspects of CT dispositions: truth-seeking, open- mindedness,
analyticity, systematicity, self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and maturity. The figure 2.2
visualizes seven aspects of dispositions toward CT.

Figure 2.2: The dispositions toward CT
Once again, the ball diagram points out those seven aspects of CT dispositions are
non-linear as well as recursive. Similarity with six core CT skills, identifying each aspect in

isolation learners have used for their purpose is unable. To know that someone is disposed


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to use CT skills just by their outwardly represented thinking in the learning or solving –
problem process such as “inquisitiveness with a wide range of issues, self-confident in their
ability to reason or willingness to reconsider and revise views where honest refection
suggest that change is warranted” (Facione, 2006, p.9).
2.1.2 The relationship between CT skills and dispositions
The Delphi study also mentions about the relationship between CT skills and
dispositions. The findings show that there is a correlation between CT skills and
dispositions. Facione, Facione and Giancarlo’s (2000) research proved the existence of this
relationship. The study was conducted with the participation of the College Nursing
students represented at program entry and at program exit. The results signified a
statistically significant correlation (i.e., the program entry is r =.201, p<.001 and the
program exit, r =.169, p<.001). The findings support the theory that there is a positive
correlation two categories of CT. From that, it could be inferred that CT and dispositions
are not identical, but two sides of the same coin. If a person lacks one in two sides, he is not
considered to thinking critically. Therefore, Facione (1998) confirms that "educational and
professional success required nurturing one's consistent internal motivation to think as well

Trung
tâm Học
ĐHskills"
Cần(p.16).
Thơ@Tài
liệu

tập for
vàlearners
nghiên
as developing
one'sliệu
thinking
Accordingly,
it ishọc
necessary
to becứu
instructed and motivated to think critically.
2.2 CT and Academic Achievement
Niewoeher’s (2006) empirical study about applying CT for engineering education at
United States Naval Academy indicates the positive results. This model was employed to
provide architecture the analysis and evaluation of thought so as to improve their thoughts.
Students’ thinking ability is enhanced through being creative, critical, and curious to
acquire and to organize their knowledge (instead of memorizing) in order that they can
make comparisons, contrasts, assumptions or conclusions. In fact, this model helps
engineering students learn how to think and how to describe their own thinking and hence
better develop their thinking.
Participating in the model applying CT for the engineering syllabus, the future
architectures are self-regulated in thinking not only for schooling but also for lives after
graduation. This academic achievement signifies that CT should be applied more in
education such as technical, military, social science like language learning and many other
majors.


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2.3 CT and Social Achievement
Simpson and Courney’ report (2007) about integrating CT in training curriculum for
the Middle-Eastern nurses to promote CT skills also gains the positive effects. Nurses and
nurse educators favored a model that supported CT because they were given to use their
thinking to their problem solving. In fact, this model also contributed to creating a learning
environment for developing CT, as well as promoting professionalism in nursing.
Therefore, the effects of applying CT for the Middle-Eastern nurses might be applied for
other professions if employees’ thinking ability needs to be improved and work
achievements needs to be achieved.
Two studied above were applied for two different subjectives (the first is for
engineering students, the second for nurses) but the similarities are found as follow. Before
attending the model using CT in training, both engineering students at United States Naval
Academy (U.S) and the Middle-Eastern nurses lacked independent thinking skills. In other
words, they were not supplied with CT, a tool of inquiry for students stepping into the
society and employees succeeding in their careers. After these courses, two positive effects
were found (1) both subjectives were developed the skills to think critically, to solve their

Trung
tâmorHọc
liệu
ĐH (2)
Cần
liệuthehọc
tập và
nghiên
problems
to make
decisions
two Thơ@Tài

models emphasize
interaction
between
studentscứu
and with teachers instead of explaining – copying as the old method. Two empirical studies
above signify that thinking in general and CT in particular plays an important role in
education and professionalism. Thus, it is not difficult to answer the question “Why is CT
of particular value?” CT would be of value because it is a tool of inquiry for learners to
approach knowledge in schooling to get better grades, and then approach life to have great
success in work (Facione, 2006).
I have presented the academic and social achievement of integrating CT in training
curriculum for engineering education at United States Naval Academy, the Middle-Eastern
nurses and mentioned the role of CT in Vietnamese context. Since CT use for inference
exercises in reading comprehension is the focus of this study, so a discussion on this topic
will be followed.
2.4 CT and reading comprehension
CT is applied for reading comprehension is not new in research because it is usually
known as critical reading. Paul (1993, p.125), “Critical reading is critical thinking applied
to the process of reading”. Accordingly, thinking critically about what is read would help


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engender reading performances. In other words, when students apply CT for evaluating
information and ideas in their reading activities, they could read better.
As English majors and non - English majors in higher education, they are too
familiar with reading comprehension as one in four basic English learning skills (the
remaining is writing, listening and speaking). As usual in Vietnamese context, non English majors study General English because after finishing it, students will take English

for specific purposes (ESP) courses. In theses course, the apparent emphasis is on
developing students’ ability to read materials relating to the field they major in (Tran, 2006,
p.19). Therefore, General English is considered the important preparation for ESP courses.
Meanwhile reading comprehension is the compulsory core subject for English majors
which most university students are not strange with reading activities, in other words,
“learning to read” occurs frequently in classroom. When applying CT in reading, students
not only “learn to read” but also “read to learn”. It means that students read by their
thinking and desire to give evaluations and judgments about what is read. In other words,
beside making a correct answer, students are able to explain why and how they have a
choice. Having a deep understanding about the reading selection makes them confident in

Trung
ĐH Cần
liệu
học tậpOnvàthenghiên
their tâm
choice Học
and in liệu
their reasoning
evenThơ@Tài
faced with other
explanations.
other hand,cứu
the quote of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe makes the role of thinking in reading essential,
“Every reader, if he has a strong mind, reads himself into the book, and amalgamates his
thoughts with those of the author.” Accordingly, if students “read to learn”, they can make
sense of what is read, enrich their understanding and read the message of the author. In
contrast, without thinking, the effects of reading activities might be lessened by a half.
As readers, we have a lot of purposes to read such as reading for pleasure, for
evaluation, for finding faults or inquiring about something new but we sometimes forget

how far beyond the written page our reading goes (Preszler, 2006). In others words, we can
understand the implicit meanings that the author unstates in the passage. Preszler (ibid.)
notes that one of the most difficult skills readers need to learn is the skill to read what does
not appear in black and white on the written page or the skill to infer (p.1). It is difficult
because readers must combine the information that the author has written with their own
experiences—both reading experiences and life experiences. However, not all readers are
able to infer although they have the text and reread several times (Oakhill, 1984). Once
again, according to Preszler (ibid.) not only is the process of making inferences difficult for


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

17

readers, the process of teaching students to make inferences is not an easy one. Therefore,
like many other skills of reading comprehension, the inference skill needs to be instructed
and students have to practice inference exercises until they do not hesitate to deal with this
kind of exercise anymore.
The inference exercises in reading comprehension are known as “Reading between
the lines”. In Mosaic 1, Reading, 4th edition (Wegmann & Knezevic, 2004), there are three
categories of processing: inference about the vocabulary, the sentence and the text. What
are inferences? And why do teachers find it difficult to teach making inferences and
students to do with this task? The next paragraph will answer these questions.
2.5 Definitions of inferences
“Inferences are the conclusions a reader draws about the unsaid in a passage based
on what is actually said by the author” (Preszler, ibid., p.4). Accordingly, readers have to
look for information to fill in the gaps between what is said and unsaid in the text. In
contrast, it is possible for a reader to understand all of the words in a passage of text, but
still to fail to grasp the implicit message contained "between the lines" (Wren, 2003).
Therefore, this is why inference exercises are considered not easy to deal with. However,

Trung
tâmis capable
Học liệu
ĐHinCần
liệuinferential
học tập
và nghiên
the mind
of “filling
these Thơ@Tài
gaps” which is what
thinking
is all aboutcứu
(Hartmann, 2006, p.4). In other words, inference exercises requires much learners’
intellectual ability to search for missing words in order to sense the facts they have from the
passage. Therefore, modeling of the thinking that underlies inference can make students’
inference ability enhanced instead of encouraging them “read between the lines” which is
considered vague (Buehl, 2001). At that time, students learn to read and comprehend text
with joy and understanding, learn and grow through reading, and read critically and
thoughtfully (Preszler, ibid.).
From this, it is obvious that thinking plays an important role in the inference activity
that and students’ inference performance can be improved when modeling thinking in the
inference process. Meanwhile, as mentioned in section 2.2 and 2.3 in this chapter, CT is
found to have the positive effects on academic and social achievements. Therefore, whether
integrating CT in the inference process, students’ inference ability can be enhanced or there
is a possible relationship between CT and making inference. If a relationship between CT
and making inference exists, that is the interaction between two categories of CT: six CT

Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

18

skills as well as seven aspects of CT dispositions and making inference. The next part will
describe the possible relationship between CT and making inference.
2.6 The relationship between CT and making inference
First, the interaction between six cognitive skills of CT manifested by interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation and self-regulation and making inference is
described. As mentioned in section 2.1 about the happening of CT in mind, learners just
know that they could use few or all six CY skills but cannot identify exactly which skill in
isolation they applied in the inference process. Therefore, learners use CT skills for
inference exercises might be seen these following representations. (1) Interpretation: learners
can recognize the intention, viewpoint or theme that the author implies, distinguish a main
idea from subordinate ideas in a text or paraphrase what is read by their own words; (2)
Analysis: learners can identify unstated assumptions, sketch the relationship of sentences or
paragraphs to each other and to the main purpose of the passage; (3) Evaluation: this skill
helps learners to be able to assess the most credible ideas among many statements or judge if
the evidence at hand supports the conclusions being drawn; (4) Inference: learners use this
skill to see the implications behind the printed words in the text, to synthesize many separate

Trung
liệuorĐH
Cần
liệu what
họcistập
vàinnghiên
cứu
ideas tâm
into aHọc

main idea
predict
whatThơ@Tài
will happen based
known
the text; (5)
Explanation: after giving a choice, learners can explain the reasons or evidence they base on
to produce the answer or the inference; (6) Self-regulation: this is the most remarkable
cognitive skill because learners use it to check whether their choices, assumptions or
judgments is right, if not, they can make changes by themselves. The reason is that a
person’s point of view is formed depends on many external and internal factors such as his
or her understanding, biases or others’ ideas or distractions of multiple choices in the
exercises affecting to the final choice.
Base on the theoretical framework of Facione et al., (1990), lacking the dispositions
toward CT means not to think critically. Therefore, learners both know how to use CT skills
and are disposed to do inference exercises. Being disposed means that they show how to
approach the challenges from the exercises. Once they possess dispositions toward CT,
particularly seven aspects of dispositions toward CT represented by truth-seeking, openmindedness, analyticity, systematicity, self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and maturity, that
creates a performance called the habit. Different from the physical skills, mental skills might
be hard to vanish, as Facione (2006, p.8) said, “It is hard to imagine a person deciding not to


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

19

think”. The ball diagram once again signifies that it is impossible to determine which of the
seven aspects is used because they might not be used in isolation during the process of CT.
Hence, through learners’ performances for inference exercises, these aspects might be
observed as follow: (1) Judiciousness: learners have clarity in stating the question or

concern; (2) Systemacity: learners have orderliness in working with complexity; (3)
Inquisitiveness: learners are inquisitive with regard to a wide range of issues in the text,
concern to become well-informed whenever approaching a new reading topic; ( 4)
Confidence in Reasoning: learners are self-confident in their own abilities to reason; (5)
Analyticity: learners are alert to opportunities to use CT (6) Truthseeking: learners trust an
inference made from logical reasonings, courageous about asking questions and honest and
objective about pursuing inquiry if their opinions do not support others’ ideas (7) Openmindedness: learners are honest in facing their own biases or egocentric tendencies and
flexible in considering alternatives and opinions.
On the theory of the cognitive domain, Bloom (1956) figures out that learners who
have CT skills and dispositions are able to application, analysis, synthesis and evaluate their
knowledge they absorb. Accordingly, a learner’s thinking must be outwardly represented in

Trung
Học
liệupeople
ĐH toCần
Thơ@Tài
liệu
học tập
và nghiên
cứu
ordertâm
for him
or other
identify
in which level
of learning
his thinking
ability is.
Therefore, Bloom (ibid.) suggests a model that also applies CT well-known as Bloom’s

Taxonomy which includes six levels of learning starting from the simplest behavior to the
most complex: (1) knowledge, (2) comprehension, (3) application, (4) analysis, (5) synthesis
and (6) evaluation. Six major categories involve knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills and can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must
be mastered before the next one can take place. In the process of doing inference exercises,
learners depict their intellectual skills at each level as Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Six levels of learning in terms of making inference
At this level, learners recall the meanings of the new words in order
Knowledge

they can choose the word closest in meaning or remember what they
observed to have the best choice.
This level identifies that learners understand what they have read and

Comprehension

can rewrite or restate by their own words. Moreover, they can connect
what in the text with other information to draw out a correct answer.


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

20

Learners can put what they know such as rules and methods to use in
Application

the text in order to make the best choice.
At this level, learners can divide a long reading selection into several

Analysis

subparts to be easy to follow. Therefore, when asked to explain about
their choice, they can identify the evidences they are basing on.

Synthesis

Learners can combine every separate events, details in the text into a
whole
Learners can make judgments about the text being read to be valued to

Evaluation

withdraw a message or the choice being drawn to be true of the
reading’s requirements.

I have presented the possible relationship between CT and making inference. This
study aims at incorporating CT in English language learning in the context of CTU. Before
integrating it into the curriculum, it is necessary to see to what extent students in CTU used
CT in order that plans for instruction would have been designed. Therefore, two null
hypotheses motivate this study: #1: The students did not use CT for the inference exercises

Trung
tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
in Mosaic 1, 4th edition. #2: If the students had used CT, the extent of CT use might have
been at the moderate level. To test two null hypotheses, I conducted this study.


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

21

Chapter 3
Research Methodology
In the previous chapter, I reviewed the literature relevant to the CT, making inference and
the possible relationship between CT and making inference. In addition, I hypothesized that the
students at CTU did not use or used CT at the moderate level. To investigate the extent of CT use
for inference exercises and the survey about the general CT use for inference exercises, I conducted
this study. In this chapter, I will describe the research methodology of the study including (1) the
research designs, (2) the participants, (3) the materials, (4) the research instruments and (5) the data
collection procedure.

3.1 Research designs
To conduct this study, I followed the qualitative and quantitative research.
According to Borgdan and Biklen (1998), qualitative researchers are interested to know
what participants are thinking. In fact, following the qualitative research, I want to know
the extent students used CT when answering inference exercises in Mosaic 1. Besides that,
the quantitative research was carried out to capture students’ perspective about inference
exercises in general as well as find out in which level of learning of Bloom’s taxonomy
(1956)
participants
are when
use Thơ@Tài
general CT for inference
exercises.
Thenghiên
descriptivecứu
Trung
tâm

Học liệu
ĐHthey
Cần
liệu học
tập và
statistics indicated which perspective about inference exercises the students agreed most
and which level of learning the students were in.
The qualitative and quantitative research was carried out by the survey, the
exploratory and the descriptive approach. Three approaches are described as follow. (1)
The survey approach is used because it helps researchers have the opinion of a large group
of people about a particular topic or issue (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000). Indeed, I can find out
perspectives for inference exercises as well as general CT use that students apply for their
inference activities. (2) The exploratory approach is applied to identify the extent students
used CT skills and dispositions when answering the inference exercises. (3) The descriptive
approach is aimed describing phenomena that occur naturally and no treatment is involved
in (Seleger & Shohamy, 1989). In fact, I was effort to describe the students’ CT use for
inference exercises in Mosaic 1 as well as their perspectives for general CT use for
inference questions.


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

22

3.2 Participants
Participants in this study were 75 (out of 181) ELT and ELS students1, course 31,
semester 2, 2007-2008 academic year at CTU. Of these, 68 are females and 7 are males.
Most of the participants have learned English for 10 years. Their English major includes 31
ELT students and 44 ELS ones. During the 2007-2008 academic year, the participants were
taking Mosaic 12, Reading 4 th edition (Wegmann & Knezevic, 2002) as the main reading

course book.
English majors, course 31 were chosen as the participants in this study for the
following reason. In the 2007-2008 academic year, they worked the entire Mosaic 1,
Reading 4th edition. In this book, “Focus on Testing” presents practical tips and strategies
for maximizing a student’ advantage in the vocabulary and reading selections of
standardized exams for English, such as TOEFL (Wegmann & Knezevic, 1997, p.xi).
Therefore, choosing them as the participants of this study, I hoped to see to what extent
students used CT for inference exercises in Mosaic 1. From the research findings, I could
make proposals in developing the students’ CT use.
3.3 Materials

Trung tâm
Học liệu
Cần
Thơ@Tài
liệu
họcmaterial
tập và
nghiên
In the English
majorĐH
reading
program,
teaching and
learning
is Mosaic
1, 4thcứu
edition (Wegmann & Knezevic, ibid.). The book covers 12 chapters in which the inference
exercises are in section “Focus on Testing”. The participants in this study were assigned to
learn all 12 chapters of this coursebook. In a typical lesson, after finishing vocabulary

developments, reading skills, language and CT skills or culture, the students would do the
tests in “Focus on Testing”. The common features of these exercises are that (1) they are a
multiple – choice format and (2) all the answers are not available, so a choice is made from
the students’ inferences. As usual the students first work on their own, and then work in
pairs or groups to review their choice before advocating the answer. After finishing, they
correct their work and try to understand the mistakes they have made. Because the reading
selections are tricky (Wegmann & Knezevic, ibid., p.35), so circling a correct answer is not
easy, but it is much more difficult to explain the reason for the answer. This is the obstacle
1

According to the curriculum of English – major training of English Department, School of Education, CTU,
currently there are four courses (30-33) attending and divided into two majors: English Language Teaching
(ELT) and English Language Study (ELS). The participants of this study are both ELT and ELS, course 31.
2

Under the agreement from English Department, the reading strand of the InteractionsMosaic, 4th edition
series are chosen as the course books for 4-year English majors. The series include Interactions 1 and 2;
Mosaic 1 and 2.


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

23

most of the students have in their learning process. Besides working on Mosaic 1, 4th
edition, students were assigned to do the inference exercises form the other sources such as
TOEFl iBT/IELTS (53%), Reading between the lines and TOEFl ibt/IELTS (33,3%), and
TOEFL Reading flash, TOEFL pBT (12%). Therefore, choosing Mosaic 1 as the material
to measure the students’ CT use for the inference exercises ensured that all students had
completed this book. In Mosaic 1, the inference exercises are categorized into three groups:

vocabulary (p.51), sentence (p.37) and text comprehension (p.96). Students read and
comprehended the multiple-choice exercises carefully to eliminate three incorrect choices
before deciding the best answer.
3.4 The research instruments
Two instruments: the reading selection and the second section in the questionnaire
were employed in this study to measure the students’ CT use for the inference exercises in
Mosaic 1, 4th edition. Besides that, the third section of the questionnaire was used to survey
the students’ general CT use for inference questions. Two instruments will be described in
the following parts.
3.4.1 The reading selection

Trung tâm
ĐH Cần
Thơ@Tài
liệuwithdrawn
học tập
vàthe
nghiên
The Học
readingliệu
selection
comprises
11 questions
from
inferencecứu
exercises in Mosaic 1 and is divided into 3 parts. Part 1 contains five vocabulary multiplechoice questions. Students were asked to practice guessing the meaning from the contexts.
Part 2 consists of three statement multiple-choice answers. This exercise aims to test
students’ ability to recognize the answer that is closest in meaning to the original sentence.
Part 3 includes three passages that come from the article “Executive Takes Chance on
Pizza, Transforms Spain.” These questions are designed to ask students to make an

inference about each reading. That means the students have to read each passage of 60
words and then to infer a true idea that is not stated in the passage. However, the researcher
failed to get the copies of the inference exercises from Mosaic 1, 4th edition, so the
inference exercises from Mosaic 1, 3rd edition (Wegmann & Knezevic, 1997) were
replaced. Although, the organization of the text is different, the content remains unchanged.
The participants were assigned to deal with questions numbered 1 to 11.
The reading selection was used to collect information on "how" the students used
CT for the inference exercises in reading comprehension. That is to say, the number of the
correct answers is not important as the reason for giving those answers.


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

24

3.4.2 Questionnaire on CT use for inference exercises
The questionnaire includes 36 questions in total and is divided into three sections.
The details of each section will be described as follows.
On the first section of the questionnaire appeared 9 questions asking about the
demographic information about the participant and their ideas about inference exercises
including name, class, gender, English major, years of learning English, frequency of doing
inference exercises, opinion about inference exercises in general, other sources of inference
exercises and knowledge about CT. The instruction was first read to fill in, put a check or
circle the appropriate choices.
Next on the second section appeared 18 items (No.10 to 27) on CT use for inference
aim at measuring the participants’ level of CT skills and their dispositions to do so for the
inference exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th edition. To design these items, I based on the
theoretical framework about CT skills and dispositions (Facione et al, 1990) and Bloom’s
model for CT (1956). In these frameworks, underlying CT activities are 6 CT skills
manifested by interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and selfregulation

and 6liệu
aspects
CT Thơ@Tài
dispositions represented
by open-mindedness,
Trung
tâm Học
ĐHofCần
liệu học tập
và nghiên cứu
inquisitiveness, cognitive maturity, truth-seeking, analyticity, systematicity and self –
confidence. The representatives of these two categories might correspond to Bloom’s levels
of learning (knowledge, comprehension, analysis, application, synthesis and evaluation).
Hence, the foci of the questionnaire are on these two categories.
18 items are divided into 3 parts that correspond with the order of the reading
selection. It means that the items focus on the CT use for inference of vocabulary,
statement and text comprehension. The items are categorized into two clusters:
- In the cluster of CT skills (12 items), the items focus on checking (1) the CT skill
application and (2) the effectiveness of CT use for inference exercises.
- In the cluster of CT dispositions (6 items), the items aim to collect information
about students’ motivation to use CT for inference exercises. Table 3.1 below specifies the
aims of each item or the couple of items.


Critical Thinking Use for the Inference Exercises in Mosaic 1, 4th Edition

25

Table 3.1: Aims of the items in the second section
Clusters

Skills

Items
10, 11,
14, 15
13
17
18, 25

19
22
23
24

Dispositions

15,16
20, 21
26, 27

Aims
Recalling the meanings of the words
Understanding the context of the passage
Understanding the meanings of the words
Understanding the meanings of the words
Generalizing every single idea to choose the best/closest
meaning answers
Understanding the meanings of the words to recognize
incorrect choices
Distinguishing between facts and opinions

Recognizing the focused ideas in the relation to the answer
Understanding the context of the passage
Relating the prior knowledge for this study to choose the best
answer
Motivation, characterological attributes, desire to solve their
inference exercises by engaging CT skills

All the items in this section were designed in the form of the five-point scale. Each
item includes a statement about students’ CT skills or their dispositions for inference
exercises Mosaic 1, 4th edition. Following the statement is a five-point scale. The scale

Trung
tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
ranges from (1) – indicating “strongly disagree” to (2) – “disagree”, (3) – “undecided”, (4)
– “agree” and (5) – “strongly agree”.
Finally, 9 questions appeared at the end of the questionnaire. They are designed to
investigate the general CT use for inference exercises. Of these, questions 30 to 35 are
based on Bloom’s level of learning. Table 3.2 specifies the purpose of each item. The
instruction was first read to circle or fill in the appropriate choices.

Questions
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

Table 3.2: Aims of the items in the questionnaire
Aims
Other techniques usually used besides those which asked in second section for
inference exercises
The idea about doing inference exercises
Knowledge: Recalling the meaning of all new words
Comprehension: Paraphrasing a statement
Application: Focusing on the main idea and some illustrations
Analysis: Identifying the reasons for students’ choice
Synthesis: Combining the information that the author has written with students’
own experience
Evaluation: Making judgments about the value of the materials students have
done
The invitation for a semi structure interview