The orange book

The



The Orange Book

Publisher

Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB
SE-221 86 Lund, Sweden.
www.tetrapak.com

ISBN 91-3428-4
Further copies of The Orange Book can be obtained
from your local Tetra Pak company.
Editor

Ulla Ringblom
Production

Pyramid Communication AB
Printer: Ruter Press
Printed in 2004
©

Copyright

No part of The Orange Book may be duplicated in any
form without the source being indicated (Tetra Pak).
To the best of our knowledge the information
presented in this book is correct. Nevertheless,

Tetra Pak disclaims all responsibility for any
detrimental effects resulting from the way in
which the information is used.

I


II


Sharing an experience
A mine of information

Because of its refreshing taste and wholesome nature, orange juice dominates the fruit
juice market. It is unique among juices in that
the consumer can easily compare its sensory
properties with those of the fresh fruit or juice
squeezed directly from fresh oranges.
This puts high demands on orange juice
producers to deliver the same level of quality,
or as near as possible, as that consumers expect
from fresh fruit. The challenge is particularly
tough because orange juice is a complex beverage sensitive to the way it is treated.
Over the years, Tetra Pak has been closely
involved with orange juice products. We believe that some of this experience could also
be of interest to our customers. As a supplier
of both processing equipment and packaging
systems, Tetra Pak has hands-on competence
with all steps in the production chain, from the
fruit tree to the distribution of packaged orange

juice. This is what we would like to share with
you in the form of this book.

From bulk concentrate and onwards, much of
what is described in The Orange Book is also
valid for orange nectars and other types of fruit
juices. However, the production requirements
for pure orange juice are usually more stringent
in order to satisfy consumer expectations for
this product.
This book focuses solely on orange juice,
but Tetra Pak also has extensive know-how in
the processing and packaging of many other
types of fruit juices.
A number of tools help you extract information readily from this book. A glossary
explains familiar expressions used in the citrus
industry, and a list of literature is given for further reading. Metric units are used throughout
this book except when other specific units are
commonly used. A list of conversion factors allows you to convert between different units.
We hope you will find The Orange Book
useful in providing consumers with the most
enjoyable fruit juice provided by nature.

A journey with juice

Second edition

The Orange Book follows the complete journey of orange juice. It begins with the various
types of orange fruit, proceeds through all the
processing and packaging steps, and ends with

the distribution of the end product to consumers.
Along the way there is a chance to look
at market information, juice quality and categories, the trading and shipping of products,
and industry standards and regulations. Consideration is given throughout to the factors that
influence end-product quality, including the
role of flavour and product blending.

The first edition of The Orange Book was well
received in 1997, and as it went out of print it is
followed by this revised edition.
Valuable comments have been received on
the book from many sources in the citrus industry. Tetra Pak would particularly like to thank
the following persons for their review of relevant sections in the book and suggestions on
how to improve it: Professor Robert Braddock
of the University of Florida, Antonio Carlos
Gonçalves of Louis Dreyfus Citrus, Dr. Barrie Preston of Döhler-Eurocitrus, and Martin
Greeve, Chairman of the AIJN Code of Practice Expert Group.

III


Contents
1. THE ORANGE FRUIT AND
ITS PRODUCTS

1

1.1 The fruit’s origin and
important varieties

2

1.2 A global overview
1.2.1 Large-scale development
1.2.2 Orange crop diseases

3
4
4

1.3 Bridging the seasons

5

1.4 Fruit selection

6

1.5 Inside an orange

6

1.6 Squeezing out every drop

7

1.7 Primary and secondary products

8

1.8 Major orange-producing regions
1.8.1 Brazil
1.8.2 Florida

10
10
12

1.9 Other regions

13

2. ORANGE JUICE QUALITY
AND CATEGORIES

17

2.1 Juice quality
2.1.1 Defining quality
2.1.2 Quality specifications

18
18
19

2.2 Important properties
of orange juice
2.2.1 Sugars and acids
2.2.2 Cloud and pulp
2.2.3 Flavour

2.2.4 Colour
2.2.5 Promoting health

20
20
22
23
25
26

2.3 Orange juice categories
2.3.1 Ready-to-drink orange juice
2.3.2 Concentrated orange juice

28
28
29

2.4 Regulations governing juice origin

30

3. THE SUPPLY CHAIN AND
GLOBAL CONSUMPTION
OF ORANGE JUICE

31

3.1 The chain of supply
3.1.1 Growers

3.1.2 Types of fruit processor
3.1.3 Blending houses
3.1.4 Juice packers
3.1.5 Soft drink producers

32
33
34
35
36
37

3.2 World market pricing
for bulk juice products

37

3.3 FCOJ commodity trading
and the futures market

38

3.4 Import duties and juice imports
3.4.1 Import duties with some
typical examples

39
41

IV

3.5 Global orange juice consumption
3.5.1 Per capita orange juice consumption

42
43

4. PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING
ORANGE JUICE

45

4.1 Impact of processing on
juice quality
4.1.1 Raw materials
4.1.2 Processing
4.1.3 Impact of long-term bulk storage

46
47
47
49

4.2 Air/oxygen in the product
4.2.1 Sources of air/oxygen
4.2.2 Problems caused by air/oxygen
in the product
4.2.3 Principles of deaeration

50

51

4.3 Microbiology of orange juice
4.3.1 Relevant microorganisms
in orange juice
4.3.2 Microflora of different
types of orange juice
4.3.3 Influence of raw materials
4.3.4 Sanitation

54

4.4 Pasteurisation
4.4.1 Purpose of pasteurisation
4.4.2 Inactivation of enzymes
4.4.3 Inactivation of microorganisms
4.4.4 Time-temperature conditions
for pasteurisation

59
59
59
61

5. FRUIT PROCESSING

63

5.1 Processing plant overview

64

5.2 Orange juice production steps

66

5.3 Fruit reception

67

5.4 Juice extraction
5.4.1 Extractor types
5.4.2 The squeezer-type extractor
5.4.3 The reamer-type extractor
5.4.4 Down stream of the juice
extractors

68
68
69
71

5.5 Clarification

72

5.6 NFC production
5.6.1 Oil reduction
5.6.2 Primary pasteurisation
5.6.3 Deaeration

5.6.4 Long-term frozen storage
5.6.5 Aseptic storage in tanks
5.6.6 Aseptic storage in bag-in-box
containers
5.6.7 Reprocessing of NFC

74
75
76
76
76
77

52
53

54
57
58
58

61

72

78
78


Contents

5.7 Concentrate production
5.7.1 Tubular evaporator systems
5.7.2 Plate evaporator systems
5.7.3 Homogenisation
5.7.4 The centrifugal evaporator
5.7.5 Essence recovery
5.7.6 Concentrate storage
5.7.7 Alternative concentration methods

79
79
80
81
82
82
83
83

5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery
5.8.1 Straining and concentration step
5.8.2 Polishing
5.8.3 The winterisation process
5.8.4 d-Limonene recovery systems

84
84
85
85
85

5.9 Feed mill operations

86

5.10 Pulp production
5.10.1 Production factors which affect
commercial pulp quality
5.10.2 Process steps in pulp production

87
88
88

5.11 Pulp wash production

92

5.12 Essence recovery

92

6. TRANSPORT AND HANDLING
OF BULK PRODUCTS

93

6.1 Packing and shipping preferences

95

6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ
6.2.1 From Brazil to Europe

95
96

6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC
6.3.1 Frozen NFC shipments
6.3.2 Bulk units for aseptic NFC
shipments
6.3.3 Bulk shipping of aseptic NFC
by sea
6.3.4 Transport of bulk product
versus retail packaged product

97
97

7.

7.1 An overview of juice
packer operations
7.1.1 General requirements for
juice packer lines
7.1.2 Process lines
7.2 Raw material reception
and handling
7.2.1 Tanks for concentrate storage
7.2.2 Drums with frozen concentrate

7.2.3 Drums containing solid
frozen products
7.2.4 Aseptic bag-in-box containers
7.2.5 Tanks for NFC
7.2.6 Reclaim product

97
99
99

6.4 Shipping costs

100

6.5 Terminals for receiving
orange juice
6.5.1 Terminals for bulk FCOJ
6.5.2 Terminals for bulk aseptic NFC

100
100
101

6.6 Blending house operations

102

PROCESSING AT
THE JUICE PACKER

V

103
105
105
105
110
110
111
111
112
112
112

7.3 Water treatment
7.3.1 Water quality
7.3.2 Water treatment methods
7.3.3 In-plant distribution
of product water
7.3.4 Deaeration of water

113
113
114

7.4 Blending
7.4.1 Blending of nectars and fruit drinks
7.4.2 Defining the blending formula
7.4.3 Savings made by accurate blending
7.4.4 Comparison of blending methods

7.4.5 Batch blending systems
7.4.6 In-line blending systems
7.4.7 How a refractometer works
7.4.8 How a density meter works

116
116
117
118
118
119
120
121
122

7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration
7.5.1 Selecting the heat exchanger
7.5.2 The pasteurisation process
7.5.3 Deaeration
7.5.4 System design
7.5.5 Process control
7.5.6 Control of pasteurisation units

122
123
124
125
126
126
127

7.6 Aseptic buffer
7.6.1 Operational steps

128
129

7.7 Hot filling
7.7.1 Process description

129
130

7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC

130

7.9 Cleaning-in-place
7.9.1 CIP procedures
7.9.2 Pigging

131
132
133

7.10 Quality control of final product
7.10.1 Microbiological control

134
134

115
116


Contents

8. ADD-BACK COMPONENTS
– VOLATILE FLAVOURS AND
FLOATING PULP

135

8.1 Volatile flavours
8.1.1 Origin of natural volatile
orange flavours
8.1.2 Major constituents
of flavour fractions
8.1.3 Flavour standardisation
and folding of oils
8.1.4 Methods of separating and
concentrating flavours
8.1.5 Creation of flavour systems

136

8.2 Floating pulp
8.2.1 Useful terms
8.2.2 Floating pulp properties
8.2.3 Floating pulp concentration

142
142
144
145

8.3 Components added back to juice

146

9. PACKAGING AND STORAGE
OF ORANGE JUICE

149

139

10.2 Orange juice at the retailer
10.2.1 Distribution units
10.2.2 Handling at the retailer

140
141
142

151

9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen
9.2.1 Vitamin C degradation
9.2.2 Colour changes

9.2.3 The impact of oxygen on
storage-dependent flavour changes

152
152
154

9.3 Barrier properties against light

156

9.4 Barrier properties against aromas
9.4.1 Composition of orange juice aroma
9.4.2 Properties of different polymers
9.4.3 Properties of different packages
9.4.4 Consequences of flavour scalping

156
156
157
158
159

9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic
packaging

160

167

10.1 Distribution of product to retailer 169
10.1.1 Delivery directly to the retail store 169
10.1.2 Delivery through wholesalers
169
10.1.3 Delivery to a retailer’s
central depot
170

137

9.1 The role of packaging
9.1.1 Product quality parameters
to be protected during storage
9.1.2 Factors affecting quality
parameters during storage

9.6 Different packages and
packaging systems
9.6.1 Carton-based packages
9.6.2 Bottles
9.6.3 Hot filling
9.6.4 Selecting the most appropriate
package for a particular juice

10. FROM JUICE PACKER
TO CONSUMER

171
171
172

10.3 The orange juice consumer
174
10.3.1 Regional preferences for juice
categories
174
10.3.2 Who buys juice in the USA
176
10.3.3 When orange juice is consumed 176
10.3.4 Where orange juice is consumed 177
10.3.5 Why people buy orange juice
178
10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks 179
10.4.1 Fruit nectars
179
10.4.2 Still fruit drinks
179
11. STANDARDS AND
REGULATIONS

151
151

154

160
161
163
165

181

11.1 Standards governing juice
composition and labelling
11.1.1 The USA and Canada
11.1.2 The European Union
11.1.3 Other major regions and countries
11.1.4 Fruit juice standards of
Codex Alimentarius

182
183
184
186

11.2 The problem of adulteration
11.2.1 Protecting the consumer
11.2.2 Telling wrong from right

188
188
189

12. GLOSSARY

191

13. ABBREVIATIONS, WEIGHTS
AND MEASURES

197

13.1 Abbreviations

197

13.2 Unit conversions

198

187

13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions 199

166

VI

14. FURTHER READING AND
REFERENCES

201

14.1 Books on orange juice

201

14.2 References

202

14.3 Useful websites

204

INDEX

205


1

The orange fruit
and its products

In section 1 you will read about:
• The origin and spread of the orange plant
from Southeast Asia to the rest of the world.
• Global orange production and the
development of large-scale production.
• Common orange crop diseases and their
control by using resistant rootstocks.
• The whys and wherefores of single-strength
and concentrated juice.

• How the seasons are bridged to provide
consumers with year-round supplies.
• What’s inside an orange.
• Nature’s gift. Every part of the orange can be
used for producing commercial products.

• Valuable by-products such as pulp, peel oil,
essences and animal feed.
• The most important orange-growing regions.

1


1. The orange fruit
and its products
A look inside
Basically, an orange consists of juice vesicles surrounded by a waxy skin, the peel.
The peel comprises a thin, coloured outer
layer called the flavedo and a thicker, fibrous inner layer called the albedo. The
endocarp, the edible portion of the fruit, includes a central fibrous core and individual
segments containing the juice sacs. In large
processing plants the complete fruit is utilised. By-products are produced to help
maximise profits and minimise waste.

Summary
The orange plant originated in Southeast
Asia and spread gradually to other parts
of the world. Today, orange juice products
derive from four main groups of orange.
About 65 million tonnes of oranges per
annum are produced globally. Of this,
around 40 % is processed into juice and
the rest consumed as whole fruit.
Single-strength or
concentrated
As juice is produced on a seasonal basis, it

must be stored between seasons to ensure
a year-round supply to consumer markets.
Most juice is produced as frozen concentrated orange juice, FCOJ, because it can
be stored for long periods of time and
shipped at lower cost as it contains less
water. “Not-from-concentrate” juice, NFC,
which is at single strength, requires much
larger volumes during storage and shipping.
Most NFC produced is intended for nearby
markets but its export is increasing.

Major players
The two most important orange-processing regions are Brazil and the state of
Florida in the US. Together these regions
account for nearly 90 % of global orange
juice production.

Tangerines 17 %

Lemons /
Limes 11 %

1.1 The fruit’s origin and
important varieties
The orange is the world’s most popular fruit. Like
all citrus plants, the orange tree originated in the
tropical regions of Asia. Oranges are mentioned
in an old Chinese manuscript dating back to 2200
BC. The development of the Arab trade routes,
the spread of Islam and the expansion of the

Roman empire led to the fruit being cultivated
in other regions.
From its original habitat, the orange spread to
India, the east coast of Africa, and from there to the
eastern Mediterranean region. By the time Columbus and his followers took plants to the Americas,
orange trees were common in the western Mediterranean region and the Canary Islands.

Grapefruits
6%

Oranges 66 %

Fig. 1.1 World citrus fruit production by types 2001/02.
Source: FAO

Oranges account for more than two thirds of the
world production of all citrus fruits, of which
other important species are the lemon, grapefruit
and mandarin (see Figure 1.1).

2


1.2 A global overview

Italy
Greece
California

Spain

Turkey

Florida
Caribbean
Mexico
Central America

Israel

Japan
China

Egypt

Morocco
Brazil

Argentina

Australia

South Africa

Fig. 1.2 The major orange-growing regions.

Four groups of fruit are of commercial significance
in the production of orange juice products:
• The sweet orange, also known as the China
orange, Citrus sinensis
• The sour or bitter orange, also known as the

Seville orange, Citrus aurantium
• The mandarin orange and tangerine varieties,
Citrus reticulata
• Hybrid oranges (tangors) which result from
various crosses between tangerines and sweet
oranges.

ripens at a similar time, which allows efficient
harvesting and operation of processing plants.
However, it also means that trees of the same
variety in a grove are susceptible to the same diseases and physiological disorders. As required
in different regions, bud wood may be grafted
on to rootstocks known to be resistant to certain
diseases or drought.
During their first few years of growth orange
trees do not bear fruit, but when they do, the yield
per tree increases gradually until the trees reach
maturity at about 10 years old.

Of these, the sweet orange is by far the most
important. In several markets, including Europe,
only juice made from sweet orange varieties,
Citrus sinensis, may be labelled as orange juice.
To be cor rect from a horticultural viewpoint, the
common name for the species Citrus reticulata
is mandarin, some varieties of which are called
tangerines. However, the word tangerine is often
used as the common species name.
Most citrus plants are propagated vegetatively
by bud wood cuttings (scions – the top part that

controls the type of fruit) grafted on to a different rootstock. This means that trees of the same
cultivar are genetically identical and respond
similarly to their environment, for example fruit

1.2 A global overview
Oranges are cultivated in tropical and subtropical
regions around the world. The trees can grow in
a wide range of soil conditions, from extremely
sandy soils to rather heavy clay loams, although
they grow best in intermediate types of soil.
Local growing conditions, such as climate,
type of soil and grove practices, have a large
influence on the quality of fruit produced and on
the extracted juice. An orange variety, for example
Valencia, may have quite different properties when
grown in different parts of the world. The major
orange-growing regions are shown in Figure 1.2.

3


1.2 A global overview

120

Approximately 65 million tonnes of oranges are
produced per year worldwide. About 40 % of the
total tonnage is processed, the rest being consumed as fresh fruit. Whenever possible, growers
prefer to sell oranges to the fresh fruit market as
their price is normally higher than for fruit sold

for processing into juice. In some countries this
can lead to a significant variation in the amount
of fruit processed from one year to another.
Florida and Brazil are the world’s largest fruit
producing countries. Here the majority of fruit
harvested is processed because the orange varieties in these regions are grown for processing
rather than for direct consumption.
Due to the planting of new trees, world orange
production continued to increase into the early
2000’s – mainly in Florida, Brazil and China.
World orange production is also expected to
increase further in other regions as a result of
improved planting programmes, cultivating
techniques, and support given to orange growers. Nevertheless, unwanted climatic effects like
frost and storms, along with uncontrolled diseases
of fruit trees, could reduce crops and juice yields
significantly. Recent years have seen notable fluctuations in world orange production.

Others
USA
Brazil

Million tonnes

100
80
60
40
20
0

Citrus fruit

Oranges

Oranges for
processing

Fig. 1.3 World citrus fruit production
and processing, 2001/02.
Source: FAO

In 1983 Brazil surpassed Florida as the world’s
number one orange producer. However, new
trees that were planted further south in Florida
in areas less affected by frost are now bearing
fruit. This has boosted Florida’s orange production significantly and in years with good yields
the state meets most of the US demand for juice.
Figure 1.3 shows the estimated world citrus fruit
production and processing for the 2001-02 season
(mid-01 to mid-02).
China has the fastest growth in citrus fruit
production as a result of the intensive planting
of new trees. So far, most oranges in China are
consumed fresh, with only a small amount of
fruit being processed. The Mediterranean is an
important region for growing high-quality fruit.
As more and more Mediterranean oranges are
being eaten fresh, juice production is gradually
declining in this region.

1.2.1 LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT

Commercial cultivation of oranges intended for
large-scale processing into fruit sections and
juice began in Florida in the 1920’s. In the late
1940’s, frozen concentrated orange juice for home
dilution was developed in the USA. This led to a
rapid growth in orange juice consumption. As a
result, the cultivation and processing capacity of
oranges in Florida grew rapidly.
However, severe frosts in Florida drastically
reduced fruit yields and killed many trees during
the 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s. To secure the supply of
orange juice for the US market, trees were planted
and large processing plants were built for orange
concentrate in Brazil. The first concentrate plant
was built in Brazil in the early 1960’s and the large
expansion in production capacity took place during the 70’s and 80’s. Orange processing in Brazil
was established by US companies.

1.2.2 ORANGE CROP DISEASES

Like any other fruit, orange trees are susceptible
to diseases. These may affect the leaves or fruit
and even kill the trees. Because diseases have a
large economical impact on the citrus industry,
many orange-growing regions allocate large funds
for research on citrus diseases, and develop more
resistant fruit cultivars and cultivation methods
to limit their effects.

4


1.3 Bridging the seasons

The characteristics of a disease will determine
the appropriate response to control it. Control
methods include the eradication of infected trees,
chemical suppression of disease-transmitting insects and using resistant rootstock for grafting.
New trees should come from controlled nurseries
where seedlings are protected from airborne or
soil contamination.
The inspection of groves and follow-up of
measures taken are important for successful control of a disease. Large eradication programmes
may require special funding. In the 1940’s almost
all orange trees in Brazil were destroyed following
an outbreak of CTV (Citrus Tristeza Virus). New
plantings were made using a different rootstock
(Rangpur Lime) resistant to this virus.
Among the serious citrus diseases found today
is Citrus Canker, caused by Xanthomonas bacteria, that results in premature leaf and fruit drop.
There is no treatment but the disease is limited
by removing all trees within a 60 m radius of infected trees. CVC (Citrus Cholorosis Variegated),
caused by a bacterial pathogen transmitted by the
sharpshooter insect, leads to spotted leaves and
small fruit. The fungal disease Citrus Black Spot
causes lesions on the fruit skin, which make fruit
unsuitable for consumption although it can still
be processed.

In 1999, a new disease was discovered in Brazil called Citrus Sudden Death (CSD) because it
caused the rapid decline and death of trees with
fruit and leaves still on them. It is caused by an
insect-transmitted virus (similar to Tristeza) and
in just a few years it has spread to important citrus
areas of São Paulo State.
Certain rootstocks are resistant to the Sudden
Death virus. Now there is intensive replanting
using resistant trees as well as in-arching, where
resistant seedlings are planted next to an existing
exposed tree and a by-pass is grafted onto it above
the bud union. However, since these alternative
rootstocks are less resistant to drought, they may
require more irrigation or be used to plant groves
in areas having a wetter climate.

Fig. 1.4 Harvesting seasons in Brazil and Florida.

1.3 Bridging the seasons
Oranges can only ripen on the tree and the quality of the fruit begins to deteriorate immediately
after picking. Therefore, the time between picking fruit and processing it into juice and other
products should ideally be as short as possible
– less than 24 hours – although longer periods
are not uncommon.
Because the orange is a seasonal fruit, each region strives to grow orange varieties with different
ripening periods (see Figure 1.4). This prolongs
the total harvesting period in a region and allows
greater utilisation of processing equipment.
To provide a year-round supply to consumers,
juice must be stored to bridge the gap between

seasons. Most of the juice is stored frozen as concentrate. This is called Frozen Concentrated Orange
Juice, or just FCOJ as it is referred to within the
industry. For the same amount of ready-to-drink
(RTD) juice, concentrate requires 5–6 times
less volume for storage and shipping than singlestrength juice. Thus shipping costs over long distances are significantly higher for single-strength
products like not-from-concentrate juice (NFC).

5


1.4 Fruit selection

Juices from early and late fruit varieties differ
in quality as regards colour, sugar content, etc.
To deliver products of specified and consistent
quality throughout the year, concentrate suppliers blend concentrates produced from different
orange varieties. Most NFC products also consist
of a blend of juices extracted at different times
of the season. Blending of NFC may take place
within the producing country or in the importing market. The difference in quality and yield
between different orange varieties is reflected in
the range of market prices.

In plants where NFC is produced, concentrate
should also be produced to make use of the “nonoptimal” fruit. In most regions, fruit best suited to
NFC production is available for only part of the
season. The proportion of NFC and concentrate
produced in a certain region will depend on the
availability of suitable fruit.
At present, NFC production makes up a low

percentage (<10 %) of the total juice production in most orange-growing regions except for
Florida, where the share of NFC production can
reach 45 %.
With oranges grown to be eaten fresh, a certain amount of fruit is rejected because of poor
appearance (up to 20 %). The rejected fruit is
used for processing into juice. This is why juice
processing facilities are also found in regions
which specialise in producing oranges intended
for the fresh fruit market.

1.4 Fruit selection
In Brazil, the typical processing season is from
June to February. In Florida, oranges are usually
processed from late October to early June. Good
quality fruit is harvested for the greater part of the
season. In the Mediterranean, the period yielding
fruit of quality suitable for processing is shorter
than in Florida and Brazil.
NFC is essentially juice as it is extracted directly from the fruit. Regulations and the production
process allow for very limited, if any, adjustments
to product characteristics other than blending NFC
from different varieties. Therefore careful selection of the fruit is necessary for NFC production.
In concentrate production it is possible to adjust certain quality parameters. Careful control
of the evaporation step, essence recovery and the
possibility of blending concentrates that differ in
character enable the processor to meet many different product specifications. Hence, variations
in fruit properties are less critical for concentrate
production.

1.5 Inside an orange

Essentially, an orange is a ball of juice sacs
protected by a waxy skin, the peel. The peel
consists of a thin outer layer called the flavedo
and a thicker, fibrous inner layer called the albedo.
Orange-coloured substances called carotenoids in
the flavedo give the fruit its characteristic colour.
Vesicles (a small sac or cavity) containing peel oil
also present in the flavedo contribute to the fruit’s
fresh aroma. The white spongy albedo contains
several substances which influence juice quality,
often negatively, if they find their way into extracted juice. These substances include flavonoids,
d-limonene, limonin and pectin.

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
FCOJ = Frozen concentrated orange juice
NFC = Not-from-concentrate juice
Single strength = The natural strength of juice
and that at which it is consumed.
Single-strength equivalent (SSE) = Concentrate and other products stated as their corresponding amount of single-strength juice.

6


1.6 Squeezing out every drop

1.6 Squeezing out every drop

Central core
Flavedo

Juice vesicles

In theory, the aim of the juice extraction process
is to remove the maximum amount of juice from
the fruit without including any peel. In practice,
a compromise is made between the possible juice
yield and the desired product quality. The maximum juice yield from an orange is 40–60 % by
weight depending on the fruit variety and local
climate. Valuable oil from the peel is recovered
during juice extraction. Volatile flavours from the
juice are also recovered during juice processing.
The remaining material is mainly pulp, peel,
rag and seeds. Some pulp is recovered for sale as a
commercial product. Soluble solids are reclaimed
from the remaining pulp stream by washing with
water. d-Limonene is extracted from oil in waste
peel for use in the chemical and electronics
industry. Other by-products such as pectin and
clouding agents are sometimes recovered. Peel
and other residual waste can be dewatered and
dried as pellets for animal feed. Because orange
waste is very biodegradable, small plants may
dispose of it as landfill.
Increased cost-efficiency is important for
the orange juice industry. The development of
equipment within the citrus processing industry is
aimed at increasing juice yields while maintaining
juice quality. It is also very important to reduce
energy costs and to further refine by-products and
find new uses for them.

Albedo
Oil sacs

Seed
Segment

Segment wall

Fig. 1.5 The structure of an orange.

The edible portion of the fruit is known as the
endocarp. It consists of a central fibrous core, individual segments, segments walls and an outer
membrane. The segments contain juice vesicles,
or juice sacs, that are held together by a waxy
substance. Seeds may also be present within the
segments. (See Figure 1.5.)
Apart from the juice itself, droplets of juice
oil and lipid are also present in the juice vesicles.
The juice contains sugars, acids, vitamins, minerals, pectins and coloured components along with
many other components. These are discussed in
more detail in subsection 2.2.
After juice is extracted, pieces of ruptured
juice sacs and segment walls are recovered as
pulp. When these particles are large, they are
referred to as floating pulp because they rise to
the surface of the juice. Very fine particles and
suspended solids that gradually accumulate at the
bottom of the juice are called sinking pulp.

7


1.7 Primary and secondary products

1.7 Primary and secondary
products

Juice

This product is produced either:
• as a single-strength (natural strength) bulk
product in frozen or aseptic form (NFC);
• as bulk concentrate normally frozen (FCOJ).

The orange is one of nature’s gifts. The two
primary products – whole fruit and juice – are
enjoyed worldwide. Various secondary products,
the by-products, help to maximise profits and
minimise waste. No part of the fruit is unused
after the juice is extracted if fruit throughput
justifies investment in equipment needed to turn
pulp and peel into commercial products.
A range of products that can be obtained from
oranges is summarised below, many of which
are discussed in greater detail in other sections
of this book. Yields of the various products derived from Florida Valencia oranges are shown
in Figure 1.6.

Comminuted citrus base

A by-product made either by milling the whole
fresh fruit or by mixing juice concentrate with
milled peel. This product is used as an ingredient
for fruit drinks. Because comminuted citrus base
has a stronger flavour and provides more cloud
than pure orange juice, it imparts a good orange
flavour to fruit drinks of low fruit content. It was
originally developed in the UK.
Pulp

This is ruptured juice sacs and segment walls
recovered after the extraction process. It can be
added back to juice and juice drinks to provide
mouthfeel and give a natural appearance to the
product. Pulp, also traded as “cells”, is usually
distributed frozen but also in aseptic bag-in-box
containers.

Fresh fruit

After picking, fruit intended for the fresh fruit market is sent to packing stations where it is normally
graded by visual inspection, washed, coated with
wax and packed. The detergent used in washing
may include fungicides. As traces of fungicide
could find its way into juice, fruit from packing
houses may not be processed into juice for sale to,
for example, the European Union countries.

1000 kg

553 kg
Essence oil: 0.1 kg

Juice

Essence aroma: 1.1 kg

Pulp: 30 kg

65 °Brix concentrate: 100 kg

Peel oil: 3 kg

Evaporated water: 452 kg

Peel, rag and seeds: 413 kg

Fig. 1.6 Products derived from whole
Florida Valencia oranges.
Source: SunBase, Florida

8


1.7 Primary and secondary products

Pulp wash

d-Limonene

A product reclaimed from washing the pulp
stream. Pulp wash contains soluble fruit solids
and is often used in fruit drink formulations
as a source of sugars and fruit solids. It is also
used as a clouding agent to provide body and
mouthfeel because of its pectin content. If the
law permits, pulp wash is sometimes added to
juice in-line before concentration. Pulp wash is
also referred to as water-extracted soluble orange
solids, WESOS.

The major component of peel oil. Industrial
d-limonene is recovered as a by-product from
waste peel in the feed mill. It is sold for use in
the plastics industry as a raw material for the
manufacture of synthetic resins and adhesives.
It has also found use as a solvent, e.g. in the
electronics industry.
Animal feed

Dry pellets made from the material left over from
juice processing. The waste stream consists of
peel, rag, unrecovered pulp and seeds. This residue is dewatered and dried to form concentrated
fodder for cattle and sheep.

Peel oil (cold-pressed oil)

The oil extracted from orange peel. Some peel oil
is added to concentrate after evaporation prior to

long-term storage. It masks or slows down the development of a cardboard off-taste during storage.
Peel oil is sometimes used by blending houses and
juice packers for extra additions to concentrate. It
is sold to flavour manufacturers for the production
of various flavour compounds used in the beverage, cosmetics and chemical industries. In trading,
it is often referred to as CPO, cold-pressed oil, or
CPPO, cold-pressed peel oil.

Citrus molasses

The syrup produced from the concentration of
liquor pressed from the wet waste stream. It is
used in producing animal feed pellets or as raw
material for the production of citrus alcohol by
fermentation.
Pectin

A less common by-product of fruit peel. Pectin
can be extracted from the peel for use in jam,
marmalade, jelly and preserve production.

Essence

Essence comprises the volatile components recovered from the evaporation process. These are
separated in an aqueous phase and an oil phase.
The water-soluble compounds (essence aroma)
are sometimes added back to the concentrate
or juice product. The oil phase (essence oil) is
different from peel oil and contains more of the
fruit flavour. Essence oil is also used as add-back

to concentrate. Both aroma and essence oil are
raw materials used by flavour companies for the
manufacture of flavour mixtures for the beverage
and other food industries.

9


1.8 Major orange-producing regions

Mexico 1.7 %
Cuba 1.3 %
Greece 1.2 %
South Africa 0.9 %
Australia 1.1 %
Egypt 0.4 %
Others 1.7 %

1.8 Major orange-producing
regions
Together, Brazil and the USA grow 50 % of the
world’s oranges and produce more than 85 % of the
global orange juice supply (12 billion litres/year).
Regions contributing to the majority of world orange juice production are shown in Figure 1.7.
The export of orange juice onto the world
market is dominated by Brazil. US exports are
quite small as a consequence of the large domestic
market for orange juice. (See Figure 1.8).
The USA has been a significant net importer
of juice. However, as juice production in Florida

increased as a result of new tree planting, US net
juice imports have gradually declined to a low
level, the quantities depending on the size of the
Florida harvest. Thus more juice available on the
world market must find new or existing markets.
Figure 1.9 shows the orange juice production in
Brazil and Florida between 1996-2003.

Spain 2 %
Italy 3 %

Brazil 51 %
USA 36 %

Fig. 1.7 World orange juice production, 2001/02.
Source: FAO

1.8.1 BRAZIL

During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in
Brazil was about 15 million tonnes (370 million
boxes of 40.8 kg/90 lb). Almost all commercial
groves and processing plants are located in the
state of São Paulo, where 280 million boxes were
produced. The 2002/03 harvest saw a 25 % lower
fruit yield than the previous and following harvests, following cyclic fluctuations in yield.

The majority of Brazilian oranges goes into
processing. Nevertheless, the domestic fresh
fruit market, selling for home-squeezed orange

juice, makes up a significant share of the total
production resulting from the increase in per
capita income.

1800
1600

Thousand tonnes

1400
1200
1000
800
Others
Belize
Costa Rica
Spain
USA

600

Brazil

400
200
0
86

88

90

92

94

96

98

Year

Fig. 1.8 World export of frozen concentrated orange juice
(FCOJ), NFC volumes calculated as concentrate.
Source: FAO

10

00


1.8 Major orange-producing regions

10,000

Million litres

8,000

Brazil

6,000
4,000

Florida

2,000
0
96/97

97/98

98/99

00/01

99/00

01/02

02/03

Fig. 1.9 Orange juice production in Brazil and Florida as SSE, single-strength equivalents.
Source: Florida Department of Citrus

Sweet oranges comprise the bulk of the Brazilian
crop. The most important varieties are:
Pera Rio
Pera Natal
Valencia

(June to mid-July; mid-August
to mid-December)
(September to mid-January)
(mid-July to September;midOctober to January)

Brazilian fruit tends to be smaller, less round and
to have a thicker peel than oranges grown for
processing in, for example, Florida. The normal
processing season for Brazilian juice plants is
from late June through to early February.

Boxes/tree

2.50
2.25
2.00
1.75
1.50
96/97

97/98

98/99

99/00

00/01

01/02

02/03

Crop year

Fig. 1.10 Average orange yield per tree in São Paulo
expressed as boxes of 40.8 kg (90 lb)/tree.
Source: USDA Gain report Brazil

11

Groves are not normally irrigated and climatic
variations, including drought, can have a strong
influence on fruit yield and juice quality. Some
citrus varieties (Hamlin and Valencia) have a biennial cycle which leads to cyclic fluctuations
in orange output. The variation in yield per tree
obtained during recent harvest seasons is shown
in Figure 1.10.
In Brazil, the “bloom” – the time when the
tree flowers and becomes pollinated before
the new crop of fruit starts to grow – does not
occur at the same time for all the trees in a
grove or plantation. As a consequence, trees
in a grove bear fruit of differing ripeness at
any given time. Since fruit in a specific grove
is gathered at one picking, the harvested crop
will therefore vary in maturity. This variation
in fruit ripeness forces the processor to make
compromises in the juice extraction process
that affect both the quality and yield of juice

produced. Nevertheless, the processor can
modify process conditions and use essence
recovery and juice blending to compensate for
variations in fruit to produce juice concentrate
of consistent uniformity.
Most juice in Brazil is processed into concentrate that is exported in large volumes. There is
a small but growing production of NFC. This is
intended for the South American market, as well as
overseas export to North America and Europe.


1.8 Major orange-producing regions

Florida also produces about 40 % of the world’s
grapefruit, of which 40 % is sold as fresh fruit and
60 % is processed into juices and fruit products.
The Florida orange juice processing season
extends from late October to late May/early June.
Seasonal variations occur from year to year depending on the weather.
Climatic conditions in Florida are such that
the bloom occurs uniformly and during a very
short period of time, usually two or three weeks.
The high level of grove management includes irrigation and intensive pest and weed control. This
combination of favourable climate and proficient
grove management enables the fruit to ripen uniformly for efficient harvesting. Moreover, the uniform fruit quality enables the processor to select
the optimum processing conditions for the fruit
harvested each day.

1.8.2 FLORIDA

During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in
Florida was about 8 million tonnes (200 million
boxes). This was a smaller yield, 15 % lower, than
average for the early 2000’s. More than 95 % of
the orange crop harvested in Florida is processed
into juice or juice products.
A combination of climatic conditions, tree
variety and soil conditions results in fruit that
has a low appeal to the fresh fruit market, but
produces a very high quality of juice.
The skin is not uniform in colour and it is often
quite green or yellow. The peel is fairly difficult
to remove, which contributes to consumer rejection. However, the round shape and thin peel of
Florida oranges make them ideal for mechanical
extraction systems.
The main varieties of sweet oranges are:
Early season
Hamlin (October to January)
Parson Brown (October to January)
Mid-season
Pineapple (December to March)
Late season
Valencia (February to June)

round shape and thin
“The
peel of Florida oranges make
them ideal for mechanical
dejuicing systems

”

During the early part of the season the orange
juice is light in colour and has a low oil content,
whereas during late season the juice has a stronger
colour and higher oil content. Some mandarin
and hybrid fruit is also processed into juice
from December to April for blending in small
amounts with orange juice to obtain the desired
colour and/or flavour.

There has been a shift in processing oranges away
from FCOJ to NFC to meet the demand of the
North American market. At present, 35–45 % of
the total orange crop goes to NFC production.
In years with lower orange yields, processing
to NFC is favoured while FCOJ production is
reduced. Most NFC juice is consumed in the US.
There are relatively short distances between juice
production and consumption.

12


1.9 Other regions

1.9 Other regions

Caribbean and Central America

This region includes several areas of small but
increasing orange cultivation and orange juice
production. Valencia is the most common variety of sweet orange. Grove management is not
intensive and irrigation is rare. Climatic variations lead to differences in crop yield and juice
quality between seasons. The main product in
this region is frozen concentrate, although NFC
is also produced for export markets.
The orange processing capacity has been
consolidated in Belize and Costa Rica, whereas
capacity has expanded in Cuba, the largest producer in the region. Cuba’s citrus production
increased steadily in the 1990’s. However, in
2001 a hurricane damaged a large part of the
citrus-growing area. Cuba’s orange production
in the 2001/02 season was 0.4 million tonnes, of
which more than half went to processing. Cuba
is among the world’s most important grapefruit
producers, but output was dramatically reduced
by the hurricane.
Valencia oranges are harvested from December to June. Fruit harvested from March onwards
tends to be high in sugar and low in acidity, which
leads to very high Brix:acid ratios (>25). This
juice therefore requires blending.

California

California is the second largest orange-producing area in the US as regards quantity of fruit,
but is the leading supplier of oranges to the fresh
fruit market. The dry climate results in oranges
with thick skin and good appearance that appeal
to consumers. The state produced about 2 million

tonnes of oranges during the 2001/02 season.
The dominant sweet orange variety in California is Navel, a seedless variety, followed by
Valencia. Both are grown primarily for the fresh
fruit market. About 20 % of the crop, which for
some reason is considered unattractive to consumers, is used for fruit processing.
Navel orange juice has the peculiarity of developing a bitter taste after processing. In small
amounts, Navel juice can be used for blending
with other juices or, alternatively, the bitterness
can be removed in a debittering process.
Other orange-growing states in the USA are
Arizona and Texas.
Mexico

During the 2000/01 season, 3.8 million tonnes
of oranges were produced in Mexico. Oranges
make up two thirds of citrus production, limes
come second with nearly 30 % of total production and their plantation area is increasing. The
sweet orange crop is dominated by the Valencia
variety, and most of the fruit (about 85 %) goes
to the fresh fruit market. The majority of groves
are small, a result of Mexican land reform and
regulation that limit the size of farms. In the
orange-growing areas there is often a shortage
of investment money and difficulty in achieving effective grove management. This leads to
variations in crop size and fruit quality from
year to year.
The production quantity of FCOJ depends on
world market prices for FCOJ and raw material
costs. In years with short orange supply, prices
are high in the domestic fresh fruit market and

so less fruit goes to processing.

Argentina

Citrus production in Argentina was about 2.3
million tonnes in 2003. Oranges made up about
30 % of the total crop, the main outlet being the
fresh fruit market. However, lemon is the most
important citrus crop, with Argentina being the
world’s largest producer of lemons, yielding about
1 million tonnes annually.
Most lemons are grown in the northeast province of Tucuman. One third is exported as fresh
fruit, whereas about two thirds are processed
into lemon juice. Local consumption of lemons
is small, and the main markets for lemon export lie in the Northern Hemisphere. Fresh fruit
export to some regions has been constrained
by the required protocols and phytosanitary
standards, but these demands are now being
increasingly met.

13


1.9 Other regions

China

Japan

China has the highest growth in citrus fruit production, with the provinces Sichuan, Guangdong and

Zheijang accounting for the largest yields. In 2001,
the seasonal production was about 12 million tonnes,
up 50 % in 5 years, and extensive citrus tree planting
is expected to further increase harvests. Nevertheless, compared with other large citrus-producing
regions, fruit yields are relatively low because of
poor cultivar availability and grove practices.
Mandarins account for more than half of
citrus harvests in China, although the trend is
to reduce mandarin planting in favour of sweet
orange cultivars. These include Hamlin, Valencia
and Chinese varieties, which make up about 30 %
of the total citrus production. Most oranges are
consumed fresh with very little being processed
into juice; the predominant processed product is
canned mandarin.
At present, the majority of oranges are harvested during a short period. Since fruit quality
deteriorates rapidly after harvesting, there is only
a short fresh fruit consumption period of 3–4
months. In comparison, Brazil and Florida have
typical harvesting cycles with balanced yields
over 7 months. Therefore there is a strong desire
in China to change to fruit varieties that result in
longer consumption and processing periods.
The per capita growth in income has led to
the rapidly increased demand for orange juice,
especially in large cities. But until greater orange
production can support efficient processing, this
demand will continue to be satisfied by juice imports over the next few years. Likewise, it will
be difficult to meet the demand for fresh fruit
by domestic production in the foreseeable future,

especially as the per capita fresh citrus consumption is expected to increase by 50 % over the next
10 years. Fresh fruit will continue to be the main
market for domestic oranges.
When China joined the WTO in 2001 it agreed
to reduce tariff rates, a measure that promotes
higher imports of fresh fruit and orange juice.

Citrus fruit grown in Japan consists primarily of
mandarin varieties, some of which are processed
into juice. However, since the strict restrictions
governing fruit juice imports into Japan were
lifted at the end of the 1980’s, production of mandarin juice has decreased to a low level. Imported
orange juice concentrate now meets the needs of
the rapidly expanding domestic juice market.
Japan is also a large importer of fresh grapefruit and orange fruit, mainly from the US. Periods of economic downturn also show in declining
imports.
Australia

Sweet orange varieties in Australia are Navel and
Valencia. Because of the high popularity of Navel
– it is easy to peel and enjoyable to eat – and new
plantings replacing old Valencia trees, it now
accounts for about half of the crop and supplies
the fresh fruit market. The orange production in
Australia was about 0.6 million tonnes for the
2001/02 season, a high-yield year in the biennial
yield cycle.
Fruit for processing, mainly Valencia, typically accounts for 40 % of the total harvest. The
Australian market for NFC has increased rapidly
over the last few years and domestic producers are

shifting from FCOJ to NFC production, which offers higher profitability. It is difficult for Australian producers to compete at world market prices
for concentrate in the domestic market. Frozen
concentrate now accounts for half of the juice
market, mainly imported from Brazil.
There is also a drive to increase the export of
fresh fruit, primarily Navel, to Far East markets
and increasingly to the US. As Australia has an
alternate season to the US, it can supply the US
market with high-quality fruit during the California Navel off-season.

14


1.9 Other regions

Oranges in the Mediterranean region are primarily
grown for the fresh fruit market, both domestic
and for export to European countries. About 15 %
of regional crops goes into processing. The Mediterranean is also important for other citrus fruits.
Mandarin production is about 4.5 million tonnes,
or 30 % of world production. Lemons, about 3 million tonnes, account for 30 % of world supply.
Spain is the largest Mediterranean producer of
oranges and mandarins, the most important sweet orange varieties being Navel and Valencia. Exports to
fresh fruit markets dominate. Production of orange
concentrate has been reduced drastically in Spain
because production costs are not competitive with
world-market concentrate prices. This is despite the
fact that processors in European Union countries
are entitled to a significant subsidy for purchasing
fruit for juice production. NFC is produced for the

European market from high-quality Valencia fruit
but volumes are limited by fruit availability.

Million tonnes/year

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

China
Spain
Mexico
India
Italy
Iran
Argentina
Egypt
Pakistan
Turkey
Japan

South Africa

Spain is the largest
“Mediterranean
producer of

Morocco
Greece

oranges and mandarins

”

Cuba
Production
Processing

Australia

The cultivation of seedless clementines in Spain
has met with success and is much appreciated by
consumers. Most fruit is exported and accounts
for 50 % of world mandarin exports.
In Italy, orange concentrate production has
also dropped drastically because of strong international competition as regards price. However,
several types of blood orange unique to Sicily are
grown on the island. Juice from these oranges has
created a niche market for export of both NFC and
concentrate. In other cultivation areas, replacement of blonde oranges with more profitable pink
grapefruit is taking place.

Israel

Fig. 1.11 World citrus fruit production and processing
except Brazil and Florida, 2001/02.
Source: FAO

Mediterranean countries

In order of crop size, the most important orangegrowing countries in the Mediterranean are Spain,
Italy, Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Morocco, Syria, Algeria and Israel. About 11 million tonnes of oranges
are grown in this region (2001). This represents
about 20 % of world orange production, and
slightly more than the current yield in Florida.

15


1.9 Other regions

Citrus production in Israel has been declining
for many years. Orange production was less than
0.2 million tonnes in 2002, similar to grapefruit
production. The drop in concentrate production
has caused the closure of processing plants.
Uprooting of orchards is carried out because of
low profitability, urbanisation and an increasing
water shortage.
The main varieties of sweet oranges grown in
Israel are Shamouti (early) and Valencia. (Jaffa is

not a fruit variety but a trade name used for fruit
and juice exported from Haifa harbour.)
The CMBI (Citrus Marketing Board of Israel),
which encouraged the production and marketing
of citrus for more than 65 years and actively built
up the European juice market, closed in 2003.

South Africa

South Africa has an expanding citrus industry, the
main orange varieties being Valencia and Navel.
Most of the orange production, some 1.3 million
tonnes, is exported as fresh fruit. About 20 % goes
to the domestic fresh fruit market and the same
amount is processed into concentrate.
Traditionally, the main export market for orange fruit was Europe, but deregulation in 1997
opened up new opportunities that led to Japan and
the Middle East becoming important markets.
South Africa has good potential for exporting
fresh fruit to the northern hemisphere because
of its alternate season. However, increased trade
depends on South Africa meeting the phytosanitary requirements and production protocols of the
importing regions. Changes in the organisation of
the South Africa citrus industry have taken place
aimed at enabling producers to meet importers’
demands more efficiently.

16

2

Orange juice quality
and categories

In section 2 you will read about:
• How quality is assessed in objective and
subjective ways.
• Substances and factors that are important to
juice quality, such as sugars and acids, cloud,
pulp, flavour and colour components, and
vitamin C.

• How the different quality parameters are
measured.
• Orange juice categories and the terms used to
describe the various types of orange juice.
• An introduction to regulations governing
juice quality.

17