coordinate measuring machines and systems

Coordinate Measuring
Machines and Systems
Second Edition

Edited by

Robert J. Hocken
& Paulo H. Pereira


Coordinate Measuring
Machines and Systems
Second Edition


MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS PROCESSING
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

SERIES EDITOR

Geoffrey Boothroyd
Boothroyd Dewhurst, Inc.
Wakefield, Rhode Island

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Computers in Manufacturing, U. Rembold, M. Seth,
and J. S. Weinstein
Cold Rolling of Steel, William L. Roberts
Strengthening of Ceramics: Treatments, Tests, and Design Applications,
Harry P. Kirchner
Metal Forming: The Application of Limit Analysis, Betzalel Avitzur
Improving Productivity by Classification, Coding, and Data Base
Standardization: The Key to Maximizing CAD/CAM and Group
Technology, William F. Hyde
Automatic Assembly, Geoffrey Boothroyd, Corrado Poli,
and Laurence E. Murch
Manufacturing Engineering Processes, Leo Alting
Modern Ceramic Engineering: Properties, Processing, and Use
in Design, David W. Richerson

Interface Technology for Computer-Controlled Manufacturing Processes,
Ulrich Rembold, Karl Armbruster, and Wolfgang Ülzmann
Hot Rolling of Steel, William L. Roberts
Adhesives in Manufacturing, edited by Gerald L. Schneberger
Understanding the Manufacturing Process: Key to Successful CAD/CAM
Implementation, Joseph Harrington, Jr.
Industrial Materials Science and Engineering, edited by
Lawrence E. Murr
Lubricants and Lubrication in Metalworking Operations,
Elliot S. Nachtman and Serope Kalpakjian
Manufacturing Engineering: An Introduction to the Basic Functions,
John P. Tanner
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Technology and Systems,
Ulrich Rembold, Christian Blume, and Ruediger Dillman
Connections in Electronic Assemblies, Anthony J. Bilotta
Automation for Press Feed Operations: Applications and Economics,
Edward Walker
Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes, Gary F. Benedict
Programmable Controllers for Factory Automation, David G. Johnson
Printed Circuit Assembly Manufacturing, Fred W. Kear
Manufacturing High Technology Handbook, edited by Donatas Tijunelis
and Keith E. McKee


23. Factory Information Systems: Design and Implementation for CIM
Management and Control, John Gaylord
24. Flat Processing of Steel, William L. Roberts
25. Soldering for Electronic Assemblies, Leo P. Lambert
26. Flexible Manufacturing Systems in Practice: Applications, Design,
and Simulation, Joseph Talavage and Roger G. Hannam

27. Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Benefits for the Low Inventory
Factory, John E. Lenz
28. Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools: Second Edition,
Geoffrey Boothroyd and Winston A. Knight
29. Computer-Automated Process Planning for World-Class Manufacturing,
James Nolen
30. Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Vladimir B. Ginzburg
31. Computer Integrated Electronics Manufacturing and Testing,
Jack Arabian
32. In-Process Measurement and Control, Stephan D. Murphy
33. Assembly Line Design: Methodology and Applications, We-Min Chow
34. Robot Technology and Applications, edited by Ulrich Rembold
35. Mechanical Deburring and Surface Finishing Technology,
Alfred F. Scheider
36. Manufacturing Engineering: An Introduction to the Basic Functions,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John P. Tanner
37. Assembly Automation and Product Design, Geoffrey Boothroyd
38. Hybrid Assemblies and Multichip Modules, Fred W. Kear
39. High-Quality Steel Rolling: Theory and Practice, Vladimir B. Ginzburg
40. Manufacturing Engineering Processes: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Leo Alting
41. Metalworking Fluids, edited by Jerry P. Byers
42. Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems, edited by John A. Bosch
43. Arc Welding Automation, Howard B. Cary
44. Facilities Planning and Materials Handling: Methods and Requirements,
Vijay S. Sheth
45. Continuous Flow Manufacturing: Quality in Design and Processes,
Pierre C. Guerindon
46. Laser Materials Processing, edited by Leonard Migliore
47. Re-Engineering the Manufacturing System: Applying the Theory

of Constraints, Robert E. Stein
48. Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering, edited by Jack M. Walker
49. Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, David A. Stephenson
and John S. Agapiou
50. Manufacturing Process Design and Optimization, Robert F. Rhyder
51. Statistical Process Control in Manufacturing Practice, Fred W. Kear
52. Measurement of Geometric Tolerances in Manufacturing,
James D. Meadows
53. Machining of Ceramics and Composites, edited by Said Jahanmir,
M. Ramulu, and Philip Koshy
54. Introduction to Manufacturing Processes and Materials, Robert C. Creese
55. Computer-Aided Fixture Design, Yiming (Kevin) Rong and
Yaoxiang (Stephens) Zhu


56. Understanding and Applying Machine Vision: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Nello Zuech
57. Flat Rolling Fundamentals, Vladimir B. Ginzburg and Robert Ballas
58. Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Geoffrey Boothroyd,
Peter Dewhurst, and Winston A. Knight
59. Process Modeling in Composites Manufacturing, edited by
Suresh G. Advani and E. Murat Sozer
60. Integrated Product Design and Manufacturing Using Geometric
Dimensioning and Tolerancing, Robert Campbell
61. Handbook of Induction Heating, edited by Valery I. Rudnev,
Don Loveless, Raymond Cook, and Micah Black
62. Re-Engineering the Manufacturing System: Applying the Theory
of Constraints, Second Edition, Robert Stein
63. Manufacturing: Design, Production, Automation, and Integration,

Beno Benhabib
64. Rod and Bar Rolling: Theory and Applications, Youngseog Lee
65. Metallurgical Design of Flat Rolled Steels, Vladimir B. Ginzburg
66. Assembly Automation and Product Design: Second Edition,
Geoffrey Boothroyd
67. Roll Forming Handbook, edited by George T. Halmos
68. Metal Cutting Theory and Practice: Second Edition,
David A. Stephenson and John S. Agapiou
69. Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools: Third Edition,
Geoffrey Boothroyd and Winston A. Knight
70. Manufacturing Optimization Through Intelligent Techniques,
R. Saravanan
71. Metalworking Fluids: Second Edition, Jerry P. Byers
72. Handbook of Machining with Grinding Wheels, Ioan D. Marinescu,
Mike Hitchiner, Eckart Uhlmann, Brian W. Rowe, and Ichiro Inasaki
73. Handbook of Lapping and Polishing, Ioan D. Marinescu,
Eckart Uhlmann, and Toshiro Doi
74. Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly, Third Edition,
Geoffrey Boothroyd, Peter Dewhurst, and Winston A. Knight
75. Hot Deformation and Processing of Aluminum Alloys, Hugh J. McQueen,
Michael E. Kassner, Enrico Evangelista, and Stefano Spigarelli
76. Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems, Second Edition,
edited by Robert J. Hocken and Paulo H. Pereira


Coordinate Measuring
Machines and Systems
Second Edition

Edited by

Robert J. Hocken
& Paulo H. Pereira

Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business


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Dedication
To our beloved wives, Dene and Roseli,
for their unconditional support and
encouragement. Bob and Paulo



Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii
Chapter 1 Evolution of Measurement....................................................................1
Robert J. Hocken and John A. Bosch
Chapter 2 The International Standard of Length................................................. 31
Dennis A. Swyt and Robert J. Hocken
Chapter 3 Specification of Design Intent: Introduction to
Dimensioning and Tolerancing........................................................... 41
Edward Morse
Chapter 4 Cartesian Coordinate Measuring Machines........................................ 57

Paulo H. Pereira
Chapter 5 Operating a Coordinate Measuring Machine...................................... 81
Edward Morse
Chapter 6 Probing Systems for Coordinate Measuring Machines...................... 93
Albert Weckenmann and Jörg Hoffmann
Chapter 7 Multisensor Coordinate Metrology................................................... 125
Ralf Christoph and Hans Joachim Neumann
Chapter 8 Coordinate Measuring System Algorithms and Filters.................... 153
Craig M. Shakarji
Chapter 9 Performance Evaluation.................................................................... 183
Steven D. Phillips
Chapter 10 Temperature Fundamentals............................................................... 273
James B. Bryan and Ted Doiron
ix


x

Contents

Chapter 11 Environmental Control...................................................................... 305
Paulo H. Pereira and Jun Ni
Chapter 12 Error Compensation of Coordinate Measuring Machines................ 319
Guoxiong Zhang
Chapter 13 “Reversal” Techniques for Coordinate Measuring
Machine Calibration.......................................................................... 361
Robert J. Hocken
Chapter 14 Measurement Uncertainty for Coordinate Measuring Systems........ 371
Paulo H. Pereira and Robert J. Hocken
Chapter 15 Application Considerations............................................................... 387

Paulo H. Pereira and Dean E. Beutel
Chapter 16 Typical Applications.......................................................................... 413
Wolfgang Knapp
Chapter 17 Non-Cartesian Coordinate Measuring Systems................................ 467
Guoxiong Zhang
Chapter 18 Measurement Integration.................................................................. 515
Robert J. Hocken
Chapter 19 Financial Evaluations........................................................................ 523
Marion B. (Bill) Grant
References.............................................................................................................. 547
Bibliography.......................................................................................................... 563


Preface
Since John Bosch edited and published the first version of this book in 1995, the
world of manufacturing and coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) and coordinate measuring systems (CMSs) has changed considerably. Perhaps most significantly, we have seen a large volume of manufacturing move to Asia, particularly the
People’s Republic of China. We have also seen enormous growth in the capability of
what were once called microcomputers and the incredible strides in communication
through the multifaceted ever-changing marvel, the World Wide Web. In addition to
that the proliferation and miniaturization of the cell phone, personal digital assistants of all sorts, digital books, etc. and much of the work we do and the tools we do
it with would have seemed quite alien a decade and a half ago.
So, what has changed in Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems? First
and foremost, it is helpful to remind ourselves that the basic physics of the machines
has not changed at all. A good deal of this book, therefore, deals with topics that
have not changed in essence but have just become more deeply understood. In other
areas, software as an example, the expectations of the user for operator interfaces,
ease of use, algorithms, speed, communications, and computational capabilities
have expanded remarkably. Further, some types of machines, particularly the nonCartesian CMMs, have expanded in market share and increased in accuracy and
utility. We have also seen big changes in probing systems, called accessory elements
in this text, and the number of points they can deliver to ever more sophisticated

software. New applications have multiplied and pressures to improve machine
­performance have continued to increase. The concept of uncertainty has been ­better
defined and is now widely used. It has been an interesting and exciting 16 years.
In addition to two new editors, one from academia and one from a metrologyintensive user industry, this book has many new authors and a known cadre of
experts who have grown with the field since the last version. Many of them the reader
will recognize from the literature on metrology, machine, and software standards
development, and their activities in technical societies. We, the editors, are confident
that we have assembled a first-rate team and believe that this book will be a valuable
resource for students, practitioners, and researchers. Our authors come from around
the world, and we intend that this book will play an important part in the global
economy of manufacturing.

xi



Contributors
Dean E. Beutel has responsibility for global manufacturing process execution for
Caterpillar Inc. His organization supports development, maintenance, and improvement of manufacturing processes internationally. Dean joined Caterpillar in 1978 as
a sweeper, and has performed a variety of manufacturing and quality engineering
functions for over 33 years. He obtained his certification as a journeyman machinist in 1984, as well as his bachelor’s degree from Bradley University in production
operations the same year. He was certified as a quality engineer by the ASQ in 1987
and maintains this certification.
John A. Bosch is the chairman and CEO of Commander Aero, Inc. Mr. Bosch joined
the U.S. Air Force as an aircraft maintenance officer immediately after graduating
from Penn State with an engineering degree in 1951 and then spent 28 years at
General Electric with assignments in engineering and general management before
joining Sheffield as president, a position he held from 1982 to 1993. Mr. Bosch was a
research associate at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and
consultant, advance measurement technology for Giddings & Lewis. Mr. Bosch has

authored a number of technical and business publications and served on the board of
directors of Leland Electrosystems and Shaw Aero Devices, Inc.
James B. Bryan is an independent consultant in precision engineering. Mr. Bryan
retired in 1985 from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory after 30 years
of service in metrology. He is the recipient of the 1977 Society of Manufacturing
Engineers International Medal for Research in Manufacturing, an honorary member
of the American Society of Precision Engineering, a member of CIRP since 1964, a
charter member of ANSI/ASME Committee B89 on Dimensional Metrology, and the
first chairman of B89.6.2 Temperature and Humidity Environment for Dimensional
Measurement. Mr. Bryan was selected by Fortune magazine as one of its heroes
of the year in 2000, received a Lifetime Achievement Award also in 2000 from
EUSPEN, was selected by SME’s Manufacturing Engineering magazine as a 2007
Master of Manufacturing, and received the M. Eugene Merchant Manufacturing
Medal of ASME/SME in 2008.
Ralf Christoph studied precision mechanics at the Friedrich Schiller University
in Jena, Germany. In 1985, he received his PhD in the field of application of image
sensors in optical coordinate measuring machines. He earned his postdoctoral thesis
qualification in the field of optical sensors for geometric measurement in 1989. Since
1990, Dr. Christoph has been employed at Werth Messtechnik GmbH in Giessen,
Germany, first as engineering and development manager and since 1993 as owner
and managing director. For more than 10 years, he has participated in the preparation of guidelines and standards for VDI, DIN, and ISO in the field of coordinate
measuring technology.
xiii


xiv

Contributors

Ted Doiron is the leader of and a physicist in the Engineering Metrology Group

of the Precision Engineering Division, one of five divisions of the Manufac­turing
Engineering Laboratory at NIST. He is the author or the coauthor of many technical papers and is considered one of the U.S. experts on gage blocks and gage block
metrology. He is also responsible for complex dimensional standards at NIST.
Marion B. (Bill) Grant is a technical steward for metrology and advanced manufacturing for Caterpillar Inc. in Peoria, Illinois. He received his PhD in physics from
the University of Illinois in 1985. Dr. Grant is active in ASME serving on the B46
and B89 committees, is the U.S. representative on the ISO TC213 Committee on
coordinate metrology, and has several publications to his credit.
Robert J. Hocken is the Norvin Kennedy Dickerson, Jr., Distinguished Professor
of Precision Engineering and Director of the Center for Precision Metrology at the
University of North Carolina, Charlotte. Before 1988, Dr. Hocken worked at the
National Bureau of Standard—NBS (now NIST) as chief, Precision Engineering
Division. Dr. Hocken received his PhD in physics from the State University of New
York at Stony Brook in 1969 and is an author or a coauthor of 60 articles and research
reports. Dr. Hocken is a key contributor to many national and international standards
organizations. He has received many awards including the Presidential Executive
Award.
Jörg Hoffmann is a research assistant at the Chair Quality Management and
Manufacturing Metrology of University Erlangen-Nuremberg (Germany), active member of VDI-GMA Section 3.44 “Dimensional Measurands” and is nominated for CIRP
Research Affiliates. Dipl.-Ing. Hoffmann is doing research in the field of probing systems for the measurement of microparts and multisensor coordinate metrology. He is the
author or the coauthor of 21 scientific papers, lecturer at the VDI seminar “Multisensor
Coordinate Metrology” and developed an STM-based probing system for nanometer
resolving CMMs (patent pending).
Wolfgang Knapp is the head of metrology at the Institute of Machine Tools and
Manufacturing (IWF) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) and a
consultant in precision manufacturing, with his office located in Schleitheim,
Switzerland. Dr. Knapp received his PhD from the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in 1984. The theme of Dr. Knapp’s thesis was a proposed method for
testing CMMs. He has authored several technical papers and is currently the Swiss
expert on international standards committees pertaining to machine tools.
Edward Morse has more than 20 years of experience with both coordinate measuring machines and geometric tolerancing. He was first interested in tolerancing and

metrology while in the master of engineering program at Cornell University in the
late 1980s. After earning his ME, he worked at the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing
Company—first as an applications engineer and then as a project leader in the
advanced systems group, linking industrial shop floor controls to measuring equipment. He returned to Cornell to earn his MS and PhD in mechanical engineering.


Contributors

xv

The focus of his doctoral dissertation was a theoretical investigation of the “Physics
of Mechanical Assembly,” namely, how tolerances can be analyzed to determine
if the assembly of intolerance components can be guaranteed. Since completing
his graduate studies in 1999, Dr. Morse has been a member of the faculty in the
Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science Department at the University of
North Carolina, Charlotte, home of a world-renown graduate program in dimensional
metrology. His research interests include tolerancing for assembly, CMM testing and
standards, estimation and evaluation of task-specific measuring uncertainty, and
large-scale metrology systems and standardization. Dr. Morse holds Senior Level
Certification as an ASME Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Professional.
He is a member of the ASME Y14 subcommittee 5.1 (Mathematical definition of
Y14.5 dimensioning and tolerancing principles). He is also a member of ASME B89
Committee (Dimensional Metrology), B89.4 (Coordinate Measuring Technology),
and B89.7 (Measurement Uncertainty), in addition to several project teams within
the B89.4 group. In the area of international standards, Dr. Morse serves as a subject
matter expert for the United States in ISO Technical Committee 213 for Working
Group 10 (Coordinate Measuring Machines), Working Group 4 (Uncertainty), and
Advisory Group 12 (Mathematical support group for GPS).
Hans Joachim Neumann studied radio engineering at the Mittweida High
School of Engineering in Saxony, Germany. After two years of development in

optoelectronic engineering at the Carl Zeiss Company in Jena, he transferred to
Carl Zeiss in Oberkochen, Germany, in 1957. There, he first worked in managerial roles in the fields of electronic engineering for telescopes and precision
measuring equipment, then in software and applications engineering, and finally
as manager of marketing communication in the industrial measuring technology
division. Until 2001, he was in charge of standardization and technical information as a consultant for the corporation and a member of the ISO committee for
coordinate measuring technology. For 11 years, he was the chairman of the VDI/
DIN joint committee for coordinate measuring technology, for which he was
awarded an honorary badge by VDI. He currently works as a technical author
and instructor.
Jun Ni is the Shien-Ming (Sam) Wu Collegiate Professor of Manufacturing
Science and professor of mechanical engineering at the University of Michigan,
U.S. He is as the founding Dean of the University of Michigan–Shanghai Jiao
Tong University Joint Institute located in Shanghai, China (2006–2014). He also
serves as the director of the S. M. Wu Manufacturing Research Center and as
the co-director of a National Science Foundation sponsored Industry/University
Cooperative Research Center for Intelligent Maintenance Systems. Professor Ni’s
research and teaching interests are in the areas of manufacturing science and
engineering, the design of optimal maintenance operations, and statistical quality
control and improvement. He has received many honors and awards, including
ASME’s William T. Ennor Manufacturing Technology Award, the Presidential
Faculty Fellows Award from the National Science Foundation, and the elected
Fellow of ASME and SME.


xvi

Contributors

Paulo H. Pereira has over 28 years of experience in manufacturing and is currently part of the Global Quality Processes team at Caterpillar Inc. in Peoria, IL
­responsible for the corporate quality management system. Before that, he was

the chief metrologist for five years at the Integrated Manufacturing Operations
Division—East Peoria facility of Caterpillar Inc., where he was in charge of
metrology ­planning and ­implementation. Before that, he was an internal consultant in metrology for Caterpillar for about five years. Dr. Pereira received his PhD
in mechanical engineering (metrology) from the University of North Carolina,
Charlotte, in 2001. Dr. Pereira has been a certified quality engineer by ASQ since
2006 and holds both his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in mechanical engineering
from the University of São Paulo–São Carlos, Brazil. Dr. Pereira is a member of the
ASME B89 committee (Dimensional Metrology) and also serves as a subject matter expert for the United States in the ISO Technical Committee 213 for Working
Group 10 (Coordinate Measuring Machines).
Steven D. Phillips is the group leader of the Large Scale Coordinate Metrology
Group at NIST and serves as the vice chair of the ASME B89 committee for dimensional metrology. He holds three U.S. patents and received the Department of
Commerce’s Gold and Silver Medals for work in coordinate metrology. Dr. Phillips
is the author of 25 archival research publications in diverse fields such as chemistry, physics, applied optics, and precision engineering. Dr. Phillips holds a MS and
PhD in physics from the University of California at Santa Barbara, a BS in mathematics and an MBA. He is also the SME-1 U.S. representative to TC213WG10
and TC213WG4 responsible for developing international standards for coordinate
metrology applications and dimensional measurement uncertainty.
Craig M. Shakarji heads NIST’s Algorithm Testing and Evaluation Program for
Coordinate Measuring Systems. Dr. Shakarji chairs the ASME B89 project team on
CMM software and serves as a subject matter expert and editor of several standards
in the ISO 213 standards committee on CMMs. He was awarded the Department
of Commerce Gold Medal for his achievements in CMM standards harmonization.
Dr. Shakarji, a mathematician, received his PhD from the University of California,
Los Angeles and his master’s degree from Caltech, and in 1996 joined NIST, where
he has done extensive research in the computational metrology field.
Dennis A. Swyt received his PhD in physics from Case Western Reserve University
in 1971. After joining NIST in 1972, he had a number of assignments with increasing responsibilities. Dr. Swyt is the author of 50 technical papers, has a U.S. patent,
and serves on several advisory panels. In 1980, he received the NIST Silver Medal
Award for his development of a photomask linewidth standard. Dr. Swyt retired from
NIST as chief of the Precision Engineering Division.
Albert Weckenmann is professor at and head of the Chair Quality Management

and Manufacturing Metrology of University of Erlangen-Nuremberg (Germany), fellow of CIRP and vice-chairman of CIRP STC P. Dr.-Ing. Weckenmann has been
doing research in coordinate metrology for more than 32 years and is the coauthor


Contributors

xvii

of a number of VDI/VDE and DIN standards, as well as books on coordinate
metrology and geometrical product specification. He is chairman of IMEKO TC
14 (Measurement of Geometrical Quantities), chairman of the German VDI-GMA
Section 3.40 “Micro- and Nanometrology” and member of the advisory board of
DIN-Section NATG (Fundamentals in Engineering). Dr.-Ing. Weckenmann is the
author or coauthor of more than 300 scientific papers and 5 books and editor or
coeditor of 19 books. He is the inventor or coinventor of 17 patented inventions.
Guoxiong Zhang was conferred a degree of Honorary Doctor by Moscow State
University of Technology (Stankin) in 1996. He has been honored with the titles
of All-China Model Teacher, Model Worker of Tianjin City, Honorary Expert in
Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments of Tianjin City for his outstanding contributions in teaching and research work. He was the chairman of
the Department of Precision Instrument Engineering, Tianjin University, China,
1986–1995; and dean of the College of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronics
Engineering, Tianjin University, 1995–1997. He was elected as the chairman of the
Scientific and Technical Committee on Precision Engineering of the International
Academy for Production Engineering (CIRP), 1991–1994; president of the Chinese
Production Engineering Institution, 1995–1999; chairman of the All-China Teaching
Guiding Committee on Instruments and Gauges, 1996–2001. He worked as a visiting scholar at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, 1981–1984; visiting professor at
the University of North Carolina at Charlotte in 1991, 1998, 2003, and 2007. He has
completed more than 60 projects including 12 international cooperative programs
and three United Nation Development Programs. He has published 13 books and
more than 500 academic papers. Among them, more than 50 papers were indexed by

the Science Citation Index (SCI) and 180 by the Engineering Index (EI). He received
a China National Invention Award and six awards for Advancement for Science and
Technology conferred by The Ministry of Education of China, Tianjin City and other
provinces of China. One of the projects completed by him and his American colleagues when he worked at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards received a U.S.
government award.



of
1 Evolution
Measurement
Robert J. Hocken and John A. Bosch
CONTENTS
1.1Pyramids Provide Evidence of Early Measuring Skills.................................... 2
1.1.1 The Cubit—One of the Earliest Units of Measure................................3
1.2Accuracy in Navigation Is Basis for the Micrometer........................................4
1.2.1 Gage Blocks Satisfy Need for Measuring References...........................5
1.2.2 Early Comparators Set New Standards for Accuracy...........................7
1.3Interchangeable Parts Gain International Recognition.....................................8
1.4 Dial Indicator Simplifies Measuring............................................................... 11
1.5Automobile Accelerates Developments in Metrology..................................... 12
1.5.1Reed Mechanism Provides Greater Shop Floor Precision.................. 13
1.5.2Air Gaging Proves Effective for Checking Tight Tolerance Parts...... 14
1.5.3Electronic Gaging Expands Capability for Process Control............... 17
1.5.4Machine Tools Evolve into Early Coordinate Measuring Machines����17
1.6First Coordinate Measuring Machine Developed as Aid to
Automated Machining..................................................................................... 19
1.6.1Sheffield Introduces Coordinate Measuring Machines to the
North American Market��������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
1.6.2Digital Electronic Automation Is First Company Formed to

Produce Coordinate Measuring Machines����������������������������������������� 23
1.6.3Coordinate Measuring Machine Developments Initiated in
Japan by Mitutoyo�������������������������������������������������������������������������������24
1.6.4Touch-Trigger Probes Expand Versatility of Coordinate
Measuring Machines��������������������������������������������������������������������������24
1.6.5 Software Becomes Essential to Coordinate Metrology.......................26
1.6.6 Carl Zeiss Contributions to Coordinate Metrology.............................28
1.6.7Coordinate Measuring Machine Industry Follows Traditional
Business Patterns�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
1.7 Summary......................................................................................................... 30
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 30
Measurement is an integral part of our everyday lives. It is something that most
­people take for granted. In looking back at the evolution of measurement, one finds
that it relates directly to the progress of mankind. This chapter provides a brief
­historical summary of this evolution from the perspective of industrial metrology.
1


2

Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems

Measurement standards and devices were required to build the pyramids and
other ancient structures. With land ownership and the beginning of farming, a means
of measuring distances was required. To explore the world, navigation techniques
requiring great accuracy needed to be developed. To overcome the poor reliability
and high maintenance associated with the military rifle, the concept of interchangeable parts gained increased recognition. The manufacturing needs of producing
interchangeable parts gave rise to gage blocks and functional gaging. As the automobile industry flourished with mass production, it was necessary to have parts
made to exacting standards. From this need, the comparator became extensively
used in the factory and new gaging techniques were developed. The automation of

machine tools created the need for a faster and more flexible means of measuring.
This requirement resulted in a new industry manufacturing three-dimensional measuring machines. In more recent times, the emphasis on quality improvement and
international competition has accelerated the demand for faster and more accurate
measurements. Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) and systems of many types
have evolved to fulfill these growing requirements.

1.1  P
 YRAMIDS PROVIDE EVIDENCE OF EARLY
MEASURING SKILLS
Many ancient civilizations left behind great stone structures that leave one wonder­
ing how they could have been created with the tools and measuring equipment then
available. Examples include the Great Wall of China, the monoliths on Easter Island,
Mayan temples in South America, and Stonehenge in England. The pyramids of
Egypt are among the most impressive. The Great Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu), built
about 4,500 years ago, covers 52,000 square meters and contains approximately
2,300,000 stone blocks having an average mass of 2,270 kg each. It has been estimated that it took 100,000 men from 20 to 30 years to complete the pyramid. This
is about the same effort in man-years as it took to put a man on the moon. The only
heavy construction tools available to the Egyptians were levers, rollers, and immense
earthen ramps. The Egyptians’ measuring capability may have been highly refined
because it has been estimated that the difference in height of opposite corners of the
pyramid at its base is only 13 mm (Morse and Babcock 2009).
An early recording of measuring was found in the tomb of Rekhmire at Thebes
(Figure 1.1), which dates back to the fifteenth century bc. To those involved in
­industrial metrology, it is interesting to note that the measuring task is occurring
concurrently with the work process.
The trend today is to place measuring machines close to the machining process.
Modern manufacturers are simply striving to return to the fundamentals as shown in
this first recording of measuring. A possible interpretation of the illustration suggests
that the surfaces around the edges were cleared off by using a square and a cord. It
was much harder to get the entire surface flat. To achieve this, three bronze pegs of

equal heights were used. The top of two of them were mounted on the cleared edges
and the string pulled taut. The third peg was then passed under it to determine where
the surface was too high and to clear the surface off with a chisel. When this was
done in all directions, a flat face was attained. The picture clarifies the procedure.


Evolution of Measurement

3

1.1.1  The Cubit—One of the Earliest Units of Measure
Man followed his natural instinct and ego by selecting his own body as a basis for the
first units of measure—the length of his forearm, foot, and width of his finger. Such
units were always available and easily understood. Of these, the cubit became the
most widely used throughout the ancient world. The cubit is defined as the distance
from the elbow to the end of the outstretched middle finger.
Figure 1.2 shows a replica of the master standard of the royal Egyptian cubit.
The standard was based on the length of the forearm of the Pharaoh Amenhotep I
(ca. 1550 bc). It was about 524 mm long and was known as the royal cubit. As shown
in this replica, the standard was subdivided by scribed lines that divided the cubit
into 2 spans, 6 palms, and 24 digits. The digits, in turn, were divided into halves,
thirds, quarters, and down to 16 parts. The royal cubit master was made of black
granite and placed in the custody of the royal architect. “Working” cubits made of
wood were duplicated from the royal cubit and used by artisans in the great pyramid,
tombs, and temple.

FIGURE 1.1  One of the earliest records of precise measurement is the Egyptian wall painting in the tomb of Rekhmire at Thebes built in ca. 1440 bc.

FIGURE 1.2  A replica of the royal Egyptian cubit.

4

Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems

The Greeks and Romans inherited the cubit from the Egyptians. From archaeological evidence, it has been found that none of these cubits agreed in length. The
royal Egyptian cubit (Figure 1.2) is equal to 524 mm. The Greek cubit was 60.5 mm
shorter. The area of a square with sides of one Greek Olympic cubit is very close to
that of a circle having a diameter of one royal Egyptian cubit. If this is a ­coincidence,
it is a very interesting one.
As far as it is known, the Greeks subdivided the cubit into 2 spans, 6 palms, and
24 digits. The Romans, in turn, took the Greek Olympic cubit but subdivided it
according to their own ideas into 12 thumbnail breadths.

1.2  A
 CCURACY IN NAVIGATION IS BASIS
FOR THE MICROMETER
Navigation using the position of the sun, moon, and stars requires very accurate mea­
surement of angles. William Gascoigne, an astronomer, killed at the age of 24 in one
of the battles of the English Civil War of 1642, developed an astronomical instrument
by using a differential screw thread (Towneley 1666). Gascoigne measured the diameter of the sun, moon, and other celestial bodies by triangulation. This required a very
accurate measurement of the diameter of his target at the eyepiece of his telescope.
He knew any error in the measurement of the image in his telescope would cause
large navigational errors.
Gascoigne’s challenge was to accurately measure the image in his telescope.
Using a scale graduated to hundredths of an inch would have been too crude. Even
if a finer scale had been available, difficulty in reading it would have ruled it out.
Another means of measurement was needed.
Gascoigne solved the measurement problem by devising calipers, the indicating
fingers of which were moved simultaneously in opposite directions by a screw having

a left-handed thread on one end and a right-handed thread on the other. Gascoigne
measured the number of threads per inch with a graduated scale and, thus, computed
the pitch of the screw. Likewise, he computed the advance for any fractional turn of
the screw. This is the fundamental idea on which the modern micrometer is based.
According to his own records, Gascoigne was able to measure angles to seconds.
Gascoigne was not concerned with mechanical measurements and could not foresee the future possibilities of his discovery. In fact, he made no attempt to patent his
device. Records show that the first patent on a “screw caliper” was issued to a French
mechanic, Jean Laurent Palmer, in 1848 (Roe 1916). This was a pocket instrument
and the forerunner of the present micrometer.
A biography of Joseph R. Brown states that in 1852 he invented a dividing engine
from which he constructed a vernier caliper reading to thousandths of an inch. His
first dividing engine is located at the American Precision Museum in Windsor,
Vermont. Further development of the micrometer continued.
In 1867, trouble occurred between the Bridgeport Brass Company and the Union
Metallic Cartridge Company concerning the thickness of sheet brass that Bridgeport
furnished to Union. Union returned the shipment as unacceptable. On rechecking
the sheets, Bridgeport found them to meet specifications. The trouble was that the


Evolution of Measurement

5

Union Company’s gage differed from Bridgeport’s gage. Both differed from a third
gage brought in to settle the dispute. All of the gages were supposed to be based on
the U.S. Standard for wire gages adopted in 1857. This situation called for a remedy.
The superintendent of Bridgeport, S. R. Wilmot, designed a micrometer that
measured to thousandths of an inch. It was read by a pointer that moved across an
engraved spiral having the same pitch as the micrometer screw. Axial lines on the
engraved spiral indicated the size of the micrometer opening. Wilmot’s attempts to

market his micrometer were unsuccessful because the instrument was too complex
for practical use. The closeness of the graduations made reading them difficult and
allowed no room for figures.
About the same time, J. R. Brown and Lucian Sharpe, while visiting the Paris
Exposition, saw a Palmer micrometer. Using what they considered the best ­features
of both the Palmer and Wilmot designs, they introduced the Brown & Sharpe
micrometer in 1867. This was the first practical mechanic’s micrometer marketed in
the United States (Figure 1.3). By 1877, these micrometers were well established in
the metalworking industry.

1.2.1  Gage Blocks Satisfy Need for Measuring References
Carl Edvard Johansson did more than any of his predecessors to bring accurate measurement directly into the machine shop. In 1887, at the age of 23, Johansson started
his apprenticeship in Carl Gustafs Rifle Factory at Eskilstuna, Sweden. This company supplied the Swedish army with rifles. Because the very purpose of rifles made
reliability imperative, accurate manufacturing was required (Althin 1948).
The accuracy of that day left much to be desired. The measuring instruments in
the rifle factory consisted of snap gages, sliding calipers, and one micrometer. The
manufacturing gages were steel blocks, one for each dimension. Although the idea of
tolerances had been recognized, none were shown on working drawings.
When the Swedish government selected a rifle with a magazine, the manufacturing problem was compounded. An order for magazine rifles was placed with MauserWerke, a German firm. The contract provided that a commission from the Eskilstuna

FIGURE 1.3  The first practical micrometer, 1867. (Courtesy of Brown & Sharpe [now a part
of Hexagon Metrology, Inc.].)


6

Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems

plant inspect the new rifles and be given sufficient information to permit further
production at Eskilstuna. Johansson was a member of this commission that went to

Germany in 1894.
The task of producing individual gage blocks in the customary way for the many
critical dimensions of the new Mauser rifle appalled Johansson. He believed that
there must be a more effective way to control dimensions. Johansson then had his
great idea to create a set of blocks increasing in uniform size, which could be used
singly or in combination to equal the many manufacturing dimensions encountered.
On his return to Sweden in 1896, Johansson had completed his computation of block
sizes. His patent application (Althin 1948) specified the dimensions of 111 blocks in
four series. From these blocks, any dimension from 2 to 202 mm could be set up in
steps of 0.001 mm for a total of 200,000 different measurement combinations. An
early typical set is shown in Figure 1.4.
Johansson had the utmost faith in his basic idea, but lack of funds to launch its
full-scale development as an independent business caused gage block manufacturing to be done on a part-time basis. Preliminary work on the blocks was done under
contract by the rifle factory. All finishing was done in Johansson’s home workshop
with improvised equipment during his free time.
The first set of blocks, with an accuracy of 0.001 mm, was sent to the Mauser rifle
factory in 1896 and immediately put into service. Johansson proceeded with this
part-time business development until 1914 when he resigned his position as armorer
at the factory and, thereafter, devoted all his time to gage blocks.
Obtaining a Swedish patent on gage blocks proved difficult, but the patent was
finally issued in January, 1904 with priority allowed to 1901. The British patent was
issued in 1902 (Althin 1948).
Another idea developed and patented by Johansson in 1907 was termed ­progressive
tolerances. Prior to that, it had been customary to use a bilateral constant ­tolerance
in making fixed-size gages, regardless of their nominal size. In other words, the same
tolerance for a 10-mm gage would apply as that for a meter gage.

FIGURE 1.4  Set of gage blocks. (Courtesy of the American Precision Museum.)