Systems controls embedded systems energy and machines

The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Third Edition

Systems, Controls,
Embedded Systems,
Energy, and Machines



The Electrical Engineering Handbook Series
Series Editor

Richard C. Dorf
University of California, Davis

Titles Included in the Series
The Handbook of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Mohammad Ilyas
The Avionics Handbook, Cary R. Spitzer
The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Joseph D. Bronzino
The Circuits and Filters Handbook, Second Edition, Wai-Kai Chen
The Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry Gibson
The Computer Engineering Handbook, Vojin G. Oklobdzija
The Control Handbook, William S. Levine
The CRC Handbook of Engineering Tables, Richard C. Dorf
The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, Vijay K. Madisetti and Douglas Williams
The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Leo L. Grigsby
The Electronics Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry C. Whitaker
The Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Handbook of Formulas and Tables for Signal Processing, Alexander D. Poularikas

The Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering, and Technology, William A. Goddard, III,
Donald W. Brenner, Sergey E. Lyshevski, and Gerald J. Iafrate
The Handbook of Optical Communication Networks, Mohammad Ilyas and
Hussein T. Mouftah
The Industrial Electronics Handbook, J. David Irwin
The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook, John G. Webster
The Mechanical Systems Design Handbook, Osita D.I. Nwokah and Yidirim Hurmuzlu
The Mechatronics Handbook, Robert H. Bishop
The Mobile Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry D. Gibson
The Ocean Engineering Handbook, Ferial El-Hawary
The RF and Microwave Handbook, Mike Golio
The Technology Management Handbook, Richard C. Dorf
The Transforms and Applications Handbook, Second Edition, Alexander D. Poularikas
The VLSI Handbook, Wai-Kai Chen


The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Third Edition
Edited by

Richard C. Dorf

Circuits, Signals, and Speech and Image Processing
Electronics, Power Electronics, Optoelectronics,
Microwaves, Electromagnetics, and Radar
Sensors, Nanoscience, Biomedical Engineering,
and Instruments
Broadcasting and Optical Communication Technology
Computers, Software Engineering, and Digital Devices
Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy,

and Machines


The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Third Edition

Systems, Controls,
Embedded Systems,
Energy, and Machines
Edited by

Richard C. Dorf
University of California
Davis, California, U.S.A.

Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.


Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

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International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-7347-6 (Hardcover)
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1. Electric power systems--Control. 2. Electric power systems. 3. Systems engineering. I. Dorf, Richard
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Preface

Purpose
The purpose of The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 3rd Edition is to provide a ready reference for the
practicing engineer in industry, government, and academia, as well as aid students of engineering. The third
edition has a new look and comprises six volumes including:
Circuits, Signals, and Speech and Image Processing
Electronics, Power Electronics, Optoelectronics, Microwaves, Electromagnetics, and Radar
Sensors, Nanoscience, Biomedical Engineering, and Instruments
Broadcasting and Optical Communication Technology
Computers, Software Engineering, and Digital Devices
Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy, and Machines
Each volume is edited by Richard C. Dorf and is a comprehensive format that encompasses the many
aspects of electrical engineering with articles from internationally recognized contributors. The goal is to
provide the most up-to-date information in the classical fields of circuits, signal processing, electronics,
electromagnetic fields, energy devices, systems, and electrical effects and devices, while covering the emerging
fields of communications, nanotechnology, biometrics, digital devices, computer engineering, systems, and
biomedical engineering. In addition, a complete compendium of information regarding physical, chemical,
and materials data, as well as widely inclusive information on mathematics, is included in each volume. Many
articles from this volume and the other five volumes have been completely revised or updated to fit the needs
of today, and many new chapters have been added.
The purpose of Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy, and Machines is to provide a ready reference to

subjects in the fields of energy devices, machines, and systems, as well as control systems and embedded
systems. Here we provide the basic information for understanding these fields. We also provide information
about the emerging fields of embedded systems.

Organization
The information is organized into three sections. The first two sections encompass 20 chapters, and the last
section summarizes the applicable mathematics, symbols, and physical constants.
Most chapters include three important and useful categories: defining terms, references, and further
information. Defining terms are key definitions and the first occurrence of each term defined is indicated in
boldface in the text. The definitions of these terms are summarized as a list at the end most chapters or articles.
The references provide a list of useful books and articles for follow-up reading. Finally, further information
provides some general and useful sources of additional information on the topic.

Locating Your Topic
Numerous avenues of access to information are provided. A complete table of contents is presented at the
front of the book. In addition, an individual table of contents precedes each of the sections. Finally, each
chapter begins with its own table of contents. The reader should look over these tables of contents to become
familiar with the structure, organization and content of the book. For example, see Section I: Energy, then


Chapter 2: Alternative Power Systems and Devices, and then Chapter 2.1: Distributed Power. This tree-andbranch table of contents enables the reader to move up the tree to locate information on the topic of interest.
Two indexes have been compiled to provide multiple means of accessing information: a subject index and
an index of contributing authors. The subject index can also be used to locate key definitions. The page on
which the definition appears for each key (defining) term is clearly identified in the subject index.
The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 3rd Edition is designed to provide answers to most inquiries and direct
the inquirer to further sources and references. We hope that this volume will be referred to often and that
informational requirements will be satisfied effectively.

Acknowledgments
This volume is testimony to the dedication of the Board of Advisors, the publishers, and my editorial

associates. I particularly wish to acknowledge at Taylor and Francis Nora Konopka, Publisher; Helena
Redshaw, Editorial Project Development Manager; and Mimi Williams, Project Editor. Finally, I am indebted
to the support of Elizabeth Spangenberger, Editorial Assistant.

Richard C. Dorf
Editor-in-Chief


Editor-in-Chief

Richard C. Dorf, Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of California, Davis,
teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in electrical engineering in the fields of circuits and control
systems. He earned a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, an M.S. from
the University of Colorado, and a B.S. from Clarkson University. Highly concerned with the discipline of
electrical engineering and its wide value to social and economic needs, he has written and lectured
internationally on the contributions and advances in electrical engineering.
Professor Dorf has extensive experience with education and industry and is professionally active in the fields
of robotics, automation, electric circuits, and communications. He has served as a visiting professor at the
University of Edinburgh, Scotland; the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Stanford University; and the
University of California, Berkeley.
Professor Dorf is a Fellow of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a Fellow of the
American Society for Engineering Education. Dr. Dorf is widely known to the profession for his Modern
Control Systems, 10th Edition (Addison-Wesley, 2004) and The International Encyclopedia of Robotics (Wiley,
1988). Dr. Dorf is also the co-author of Circuits, Devices and Systems (with Ralph Smith), 5th Edition (Wiley,
1992), and Electric Circuits, 7th Edition (Wiley, 2006). He is also the author of Technology Ventures (McGrawHill, 2005) and The Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition (CRC Press, 2005).



Advisory Board

Frank Barnes

University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado

William Kersting

New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico

Joseph Bronzino

Trinity College
Hartford, Connecticut

Wai-Kai Chen

University of Illinois
Chicago, Illinois

Vojin Oklobdzia

University of California, Davis
Davis, California

John V. Oldfield

Delores Etter

Syracuse University

Syracuse, New York

Lyle Feisel

Banmali Rawat

U.S. Naval Academy
Annapolis, Maryland
State University of New York
Binghamton, New York

University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada

Richard S. Sandige

California Polytechnic
State University
San Luis Obispo, California

Leonard Shaw

Polytechnic University
Brooklyn, New York

John W. Steadman

University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

R. Lal Tummala

Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan



Contributors

Braden Allenby

AT&T Environment, Health & Safety
Bedminster, New Jersey

David R. DeLapp

Hans Hansson

Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee

Malardalen University
Vasteras, Sweden

C.P. Arnold

Mohamed E. El-Hawary

Royce D. Harbor

University of Canterbury
Christchurch, New Zealand

Jos Arrillaga

University of Canterbury
Christchurch, New Zealand

Derek P. Atherton

University of Nova Scotia
Halifax, Canada

University of West Florida
Eutaw, Alabama

Johan H.R. Enslin

Gregor Hoogers

KEMA T&D Consulting
Raleigh, North Carolina

Trier University of Applied Sciences
Birkenfled, Germany

University of Sussex
England, U.K.

Mehdi Ferdowsi

Tien C. Hsia

University of Missouri–Rolla
Rolla, Missouri

University of California, Davis
Davis, California

Karen Blades

Jay C. Giri

Raymond G. Jacquot

AREVA T&D Corporation
Bellevue, Washington

University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming

Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory
Livermore, California

J. Duncan Glover

Hodge E. Jenkins

Exponent

Natick, Massachusetts

Mercer University
Macon, Georgia

Linda Sue Boehmer

Leo Grigsby

George G. Karady

LSB Technology
Clairton, Pennsylvania

Auburn University
Jacksons Gap, Alabama

Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

Anjan Bose

Charles A. Gross

Myron Kayton

Washington State University
Pullman, Washington

Auburn University

Auburn, Alabama

Kayton Engineering Company
Santa Monica, California

William L. Brogan

R.B. Gungor

Yong Deak Kim

University of Nevada
Las Vegas, Nevada

University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Ajou University
Suwon, South Korea

George E. Cook

Michele M. Blazek
AT&T
Pleasanton, California

Anne R. Haake

Thomas R. Kurfess

Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee

Rochester Institute of Technology
Rochester, New York

Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina

Reginald Crawford

Andrew Hanson

Ty A. Lasky

ABB, Inc.
Raleigh, North Carolina

University of California, Davis
Davis, California

Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee


Luciano Lavagno

Cadence Berkeley Laboratory
Berkeley, California

Gordon K.F. Lee

¨ zbay
Hitay O

Bilkent University
Ankara, Turkey

Arun G. Phadke

San Diego State University
San Diego, California

Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Blacksburg, Virginia

Cornelius T. Leondes

Charles L. Phillips

University of California
San Diego, California

Thomas R. Mancini

Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama

Rama Ramakumar

Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, New Mexico

Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma

Grant Martin

Evelyn P. Rozanski

Tensilica Inc.
Santa Clara, California

Daniel A. Martinec

Aeronautical Radio, Inc.
Annapolis, Maryland

John E. McInroy

University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming

Roger Messenger

Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, Florida

Rochester Institute of
Technology

Rochester, New York

Andrew P. Sage

George Mason University
Fairfax, Virginia

Ioan Serban

University Politehnica of
Timisoara
Timisoara, Romania

V.P. Shmerko

Elias G. Strangas

Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

Alvin M. Strauss

Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee

Ronald J. Tallarida

Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Rao S. Thallam
Salt River Project
Phoenix, Arizona

Charles W. Therrien

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

Kleanthis Thramboulidis

University of Patras
Patras, Greece

Vyacheslav Tuzlukov
Ajou University
Suwon, South Korea

Darlusz Ucin´ski

University of Zielona
Gora, Poland

Jerry Ventre

Mark L. Nagurka

University of Calgary
Alberta, Canada

Mikael Nolin

EPRI Solutions, Inc.
Schenectady, New York

N.R. Watson

Cary R. Spitzer

S.N. Yanushkevich

Marquette University
Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Malardalen University
Vasteras, Sweden

Thomas Nolte

Malardalen University
Vasteras, Sweden

Nicholas G. Odrey

Lehigh University
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

Tom Short

AvioniCon, Inc.

Williamsburg, Virginia

K. Neil Stanton

Stanton Associates
Bellevue, Washington

Florida Solar Energy Center
Cocoa, Florida

University of Canterbury
Christchurch, New Zealand
University of Calgary
Alberta, Canada

Won-Sik Yoon

Ajou University
Suwon, South Korea


Contents

SECTION I

1
2

3

Energy

Conventional Power Generation

George G. Karady ................................................................... 1-1

Alternative Power Systems and Devices

2.1
2.2
2.3

Distributed Power Johan H.R. Enslin and Rama Ramakumar ................................................. 2-1
Solar Electric Systems Thomas R. Mancini, Roger Messenger, and Jerry Ventre .................... 2-13
Fuel Cells Gregor Hoogers ........................................................................................................... 2-20

Transmissions

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Rao S. Thallam .................................................... 3-1
Compensation Mohamed E. El-Hawary .................................................................................... 3-17
Fault Analysis in Power Systems Charles A. Gross ................................................................... 3-27
Protection Arun G. Phadke ........................................................................................................ 3-44
Transient Operation of Power Systems R.B. Gungor ............................................................... 3-53

Planning J. Duncan Glover ......................................................................................................... 3-61

4

Power Quality Jos Arrillaga ............................................................................................................... 4-1

5

Power System Analysis Andrew Hanson and Leo Grigsby ............................................................ 5-1

6

Power Transformers

Charles A. Gross ............................................................................................. 6-1

7

Energy Distribution

George G. Karady and Tom Short ................................................................ 7-1

8

9
10

Electrical Machines

8.1

8.2
8.3

Generators Ioan Serban ................................................................................................................. 8-1
Motors Mehdi Ferdowsi .............................................................................................................. 8-21
Small Electric Motors Elias G. Strangas .................................................................................... 8-32

Energy Management

Power System Analysis Software

SECTION II

11

K. Neil Stanton, Jay C. Giri, and Anjan Bose ............................................ 9-1

Systems

Control Systems
11.1
11.2

C.P. Arnold and N.R. Watson ............................................. 10-1

Models William L. Brogan ........................................................................................................ 11-1
Dynamic Response Gordon K.F. Lee ........................................................................................ 11-8


11.3

11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7

Frequency Response Methods: Bode Diagram Approach Andrew P. Sage ........................
¨ zbay ..................................................................................
The Root Locus Method Hitay O
Compensation Charles L. Phillips and Royce D. Harbor .....................................................
Digital Control Systems Raymond G. Jacquot and John E. McInroy ..................................
Nonlinear Control Systems Derek P. Atherton .....................................................................

11-16
11-34
11-58
11-66
11-72

12

Navigation Systems Myron Kayton ............................................................................................... 12-1

13

Environmental Effects Karen Blades, Braden Allenby, and Michele M. Blazek ......................... 13-1

14

Robotics
14.1

14.2

14.3

Robot Configuration Ty A. Lasky and Tien C. Hsia ............................................................. 14-1
Robot Dynamics and Controls Hodge E. Jenkins, Mark L. Nagurka,
and Thomas R. Kurfess ............................................................................................................... 14-13
Applications Nicholas G. Odrey ............................................................................................. 14-37

15

Aerospace Systems

16

Embedded Systems

17

Welding and Bonding George E. Cook, Reginald Crawford, David R. DeLapp, and
Alvin M. Strauss ....................................................................................................................................... 17-1

18

Human–Computer Interaction Evelyn P. Rozanski and Anne R. Haake ................................ 18-1

19

Decision Diagram Technique S.N. Yanushkevich and V.P. Shmerko ....................................... 19-1

20

Vehicular Systems

15.1
15.2

16.1
16.2
16.3

Avionics Systems Cary R. Spitzer, Daniel A. Martinec, and Cornelius T. Leondes .............. 15-1
Satellite Communications Systems: Applications Vyacheslav Tuzlukov,
Won-Sik Yoon, and Yong Deak Kim ............................................................................................ 15-9
Embedded Systems — An Overview Grant Martin and Luciano Lavagno ........................ 16-1
Real-Time in Embedded Systems Hans Hansson, Mikael Nolin, and Thomas Nolte ....... 16-26
Using UML for Embedded Software and System Modeling Kleanthis Thramboulidis .... 16-58

SECTION III
Introduction

Linda Sue Boehmer .......................................................................................... 20-1

Mathematics, Symbols, and Physical Constants

Ronald J. Tallarida .............................................................................................................. III-1

Greek Alphabet ........................................................................................................................................ III-3
International System of Units (SI) ........................................................................................................ III-3
Conversion Constants and Multipliers ................................................................................................. III-6

Physical Constants ................................................................................................................................... III-8
Symbols and Terminology for Physical and Chemical Quantities ..................................................... III-9
Credits .................................................................................................................................................... III-13
Probability for Electrical and Computer Engineers Charles W. Therrien ..................................... III-14

Indexes
Author Index

................................................................................................................................................ A-1

Subject Index

................................................................................................................................................ S-1


I

Energy
1 Conventional Power Generation

G.G. Karady ...................................................................... 1-1

Introduction Fossil Power Plants Gas Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants
Nuclear Power Plants Geothermal Power Plants Hydroelectric Power Plants
*

*

*

*

*

2 Alternative Power Systems and Devices J.H.R. Enslin, R. Ramakumar,
T.R. Mancini, R. Messenger, J. Ventre, G. Hoogers...................................................................... 2-1
Distributed Power

*

Solar Electric Systems

*

Fuel Cells

3 Transmissions R.S. Thallam, M.E. El-Hawary, C.A. Gross, A.G. Phadke,
R.B. Gungor, J.D. Glover ............................................................................................................... 3-1
High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Compensation Fault Analysis in Power Systems
Protection Transient Operation of Power Systems Planning
*

*

*

*

*

4 Power Quality

J. Arrillaga ........................................................................................................ 4-1

Power Quality Disturbances

*

5 Power System Analysis

Power Quality Monitoring

Power Quality Conditioning

*

A. Hanson, L. Grigsby....................................................................... 5-1

Introduction Types of Power System Analysis The Power Flow Problem Formulation of
the Bus Admittance Matrix Example Formulation of the Power Flow Equations Bus
Classifications Generalized Power Flow Development Solution Methods Component
Power Flows
*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

6 Power Transformers C.A. Gross............................................................................................... 6-1
Transformer Construction Power Transformer Modeling Transformer Performance
Transformers in Three-Phase Connections Autotransformers
*

*

*

*

7 Energy Distribution

G.G. Karady, T. Short ............................................................................ 7-1

Introduction Primary Distribution System Secondary Distribution System Radial
Distribution System Secondary Networks Load Characteristics Voltage Regulation
Capacitors and Voltage Regulators Distribution System Hardware Overhead versus
Underground Faults Short-Circuit Protection Reliability and Power Quality Grounding
*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

8 Electrical Machines
Generators

*

Motors

*

*

*

*

*

I. Serban, M. Ferdowsi, E.G. Strangas ................................................... 8-1

Small Electric Motors

9 Energy Management K.N. Stanton, J.C. Giri, A. Bose........................................................... 9-1
Introduction Power System Data Acquisition and Control Automatic Generation Control
Distribution System Management Energy Management Security Control Operator Training
Simulator
*

*

*

10

*

*

*

Power System Analysis Software C.P. Arnold, N.R. Watson .............................................. 10-1

Introduction

*

Early Analysis Programs

*

The Second Generation of Programs

*

Conclusions

I-1



1

Conventional Power
Generation
1.1
1.2

Introduction ........................................................................ 1-1
Fossil Power Plants ............................................................... 1-2
Fuel Handling Boiler Fuel System Air-Flue Gas System
Water-Steam System Turbine Generator Electric System
Condenser Stack and Ash Handling Cooling and
Feedwater System
*

*

*

*

*

1.3

*

*

*

*

*

Gas-Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants ..................... 1-11
Gas Turbine Combined-Cycle Plant
*

1.4

Nuclear Power Plants .......................................................... 1-12

1.5

Geothermal Power Plants .................................................... 1-14

Pressurized-Water Reactor Boiling-Water Reactor
*

Hydrothermal Source Petrothermal Source Geopressured
Source
*

George G. Karady
Arizona State University

1.1

1.6

*

Hydroelectric Power Plants .................................................. 1-15
High-Head Plants Low- and Medium-Head Plants
Hydrogenerators
*

*

Introduction

The electric energy demand of the world is continuously increasing, and most of the energy is generated by
conventional power plants, which remain the only cost-effective method for generating large quantities of
energy.
Power plants utilize energy stored in the Earth and convert it to electrical energy that is distributed and used

by customers. This process converts most of the energy into heat, thus increasing the entropy of the Earth. In
this sense, power plants deplete the Earth’s energy supply. Efficient operation becomes increasingly important
to conserve energy.
Typical energy sources used by power plants include fossil fuel (gas, oil, and coal), nuclear fuel (uranium),
geothermal energy (hot water, steam), and hydro energy (water falling through a head).
Around the turn of the century, the first fossil power plants used steam engines as the prime mover. These
plants have 8- to 10-MW capacity, but increasing power demands resulted in the replacement by a more
efficient steam boiler-turbine arrangement. The first commercial steam turbine was introduced by DeLaval in
1882. The boilers were developed from heating furnaces. Oil was the preferred and most widely used fuel in the
beginning. The oil shortage promoted coal-fired plants, but the adverse environmental effects (sulfur dioxide
generation, acid rain, dust pollution, etc.) curtailed their use in the late 1970s. Presently the most acceptable
fuel is natural gas, which minimizes pollution and is available in large quantities. The increasing peak load
demand led to the development of gas turbine power plants. These units can be started or stopped within a
1-1


1-2

Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy, and Machines

few minutes. The latest development is the combined-cycle power plant, which combines a gas turbine and a
thermal unit. The hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine generates steam to drive a steam turbine, or the hot gas
is used as the source of hot combustion air in a boiler, which provides steam to drive a turbine. During the
next two decades, gas-fired power plants will dominate the electric industry.
The hydro plants’ ancestors are water wheels used for pumping stations, mill driving, etc. Water-driven
turbines were developed in the last century and have been used for generation of electricity since the beginning
of their commercial use. However, most of the sites that can be developed economically are currently being
utilized. No significant new development is expected in the United States in the near future.
Nuclear power plants appeared after the Second World War. The major development occurred during the
1960s; however, by the 1980s environmental considerations stopped plant development in the United States

and slowed it down all over the world. Presently, the future of nuclear power generation is unclear, but the
abundance of nuclear fuel and the expected energy shortage in the early part of the next century may
rejuvenate nuclear development if safety issues can be resolved.
Geothermal power plants are the product of the clean energy concept, although the small-scale, local
application of geothermal energy has a long history. Presently only a few plants are in operation. The potential
for further development is limited because of the unavailability of geothermal energy sites that can be
developed economically.
Typical technical data for different power plants is shown in Table 1.1.

1.2

Fossil Power Plants

The operational concept and major components of a fossil power plant are shown in Figure 1.1.

Fuel Handling
The most frequently used fuels are oil, natural gas, and coal. Oil and gas are transported by rail, on ships, or
through pipelines. In the former case the gas is liquefied. Coal is transported by rail or ships if the plant is near
a river or sea. The power plant requires several days of fuel reserve. Oil and gas are stored in large metal tanks,
and coal is kept in open yards. The temperature of the coal layer must be monitored to avoid self-ignition.
Oil is pumped and gas is fed to the burners of the boiler. Coal is pulverized in large mills, and the powder is
mixed with air and transported by air pressure, through pipes, to the burners. The coal transport from the
yard to the mills requires automated transporter belts, hoppers, and sometimes manually operated bulldozers.

Boiler
Two types of boilers are used in modern power plants: the subcritical water-tube drum-type and the
supercritical once-through type. The former operates around 2500 psi, which is under the water critical
pressure of 3208.2 psi. The latter operates above that pressure, at around 3500 psi. The superheated steam
temperature is about 1000– F (540–C) because of turbine temperature limitations.
A typical subcritical water-tube drum-type boiler has an inverted U shape. On the bottom of the rising part

is the furnace where the fuel is burned. The walls of the furnace are covered by water pipes. The drum and the
superheater are at the top of the boiler. The falling part of the U houses the reheaters, economizer (water
heater), and air preheater, which is supplied by the forced-draft fan. The induced-draft fan forces the flue gases
out of the system and sends them up the stack located behind the boiler. A flow diagram of the drum-type
boiler is shown in Figure 1.2. The steam generator has three major systems: fuel, air-flue gas, and water-steam.

Fuel System
Fuel is mixed with air and injected into the furnace through burners. The burners are equipped with nozzles
that are supplied by preheated air and carefully designed to assure the optimum air-fuel mix. The fuel mix is
ignited by oil or gas torches. The furnace temperature is around 3000–F.


Power Plant Technical Data

Generation Type
Nuclear
Pulverized coal steam
Atmospheric fluidized bed
Gas turbine
Combined-cycle
Coal-gasification
combined-cycle
Pumped storage hydro
Conventional hydro

Typical
MW Size

Capitalized
Plant Cost,

$/kW

Construction
Lead Time,
Years

1200
500
400
100
300
300

2400
1400
1400
350
600
1500

10
6
6
2
4
6

300
300

1200
1700

6
6

Source: H.G. Stoll, Least-Cost Electric Utility Planning,

#

Heat Rate,
Btu/kWh

Fuel Cost,
$/MBtu

Fuel Type

10,400
9,900
9,800
11,200
7,800
9,500

1.25
2.25
2.25
4.00
4.00

2.25

Uranium
Coal
Coal
Nat. gas
Nat. gas
Coal

—
—

—
—

—
—

Equivalent Forced
Outage Rate

Equivalent
Scheduled
Outage Rate

O & M Fixed,
$/kW/year

Cost Variable,
$/MWh

20
12
14
7
8
12

15
12
12
7
8
10

25
20
17
1
9
25

8
5
6
5
3
4

5

3

5
4

5
5

2
2

Conventional Power Generation

TABLE 1.1

1989 John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1-3


1-4

Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy, and Machines

FIGURE 1.1

Major components of a fossil power plant.

FIGURE 1.2 Flow diagram of a typical drum-type steam boiler. (Source: M.M. El-Wakil, Power Plant Technology,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984, p. 210. With permission.)

Air-Flue Gas System
Ambient air is driven by the forced-draft fan through the air preheater which is heated by the hightemperature (600–F) flue gases. The air is mixed with fuel in the burners and enters the furnace, where it
supports the fuel burning. The hot combustion flue gas generates steam and flows through the boiler to heat
the superheater, reheaters, economizer, etc. Induced-draft fans, located between the boiler and the stack,
increase the flow and send the 300–F flue gases to the atmosphere through the stack.

Water-Steam System
Large pumps drive the feedwater through the high-pressure heaters and the economizer, which further
increases the water temperature (400 to 500–F). The former is heated by steam removed from the turbine;
the latter is heated by the flue gases. The preheated water is fed to the steam drum. Insulated tubes, called
downcomers, are located outside the furnace and lead the water to a header. The header distributes the
hot water among the risers. These are water tubes that line the furnace walls. The water tubes are heated


Conventional Power Generation

1-5

by the combustion gases through both convection and
radiation. The steam generated in these tubes flows to
the drum, where it is separated from the water.
Circulation is maintained by the density difference
between the water in the downcomer and the water
tubes. Saturated steam, collected in the drum, flows
through the superheater. The superheater increases the
steam temperature to about 1000–F. Dry superheated
steam drives the high-pressure turbine. The exhaust
from the high-pressure turbine goes to the reheater,
which again increases the steam temperature. The

reheated steam drives the low-pressure turbine.
The typical supercritical once-through-type boiler
FIGURE 1.3 Concept of once-through-type steam
concept is shown in Figure 1.3.
generator.
The feedwater enters through the economizer to the
boiler consisting of riser tubes that line the furnace wall.
All the water is converted to steam and fed directly to the superheater. The latter increases the
steam temperature above the critical temperature of the water and drives the turbine. The construction
of these steam generators is more expensive than the drum-type units but has a higher operating efficiency.
Figure 1.4 shows an approximate layout and components of a coal-fired power plant. The solid arrows show
the flow of flue gas. The dotted arrows show the airflow through the preheating system. The figure shows the
approximate location of the components

Turbine
The turbine converts the heat energy of the steam into mechanical energy. Modern power plants usually
use one high-pressure and one or two lower-pressure turbines. A typical turbine arrangement is shown in
Figure 1.5.
The figure shows that only one bearing is between each of the machines. The shafts are connected to form a
tandem compound steam-turbine unit. High-pressure steam enters the high-pressure turbine to flow through
and drive the turbine. The exhaust is reheated in the boiler and returned to the lower-pressure units. Both the
rotor and the stationary part of the turbine have blades. The length of the blades increases from the steam
entrance to the exhaust.
Figure 1.6 shows the blade arrangement of an impulse-type turbine. Steam enters through nozzles and flows
through the first set of moving rotor blades. The following stationary blades change the direction of the flow
and direct the steam into the next set of moving blades. The nozzles increase the steam speed and reduce
pressure, as shown in the figure. The impact of the high-speed steam, generated by the change of direction and
speed in the moving blades, drives the turbine.
The reaction-type turbine has nonsymmetrical blades, which assure that the pressure continually drops
through all rows of blades but that steam velocity decreases in the moving blades and increases in the

stationary blades.
Figure 1.7 shows the rotor of a large steam turbine. The figure shows that the diameters of the blades vary.
The high-pressure steam enters at the middle (the low blade diameter side) of the turbine. As the highpressure steam passes through the blades its pressure decreases. In order to maintain approximately constant
driving force, the blades’ diameter is increased towards the end of the turbine.

Generator
The generator converts mechanical energy from the turbines into electrical energy. The major components
of the generator are the frame, stator core and winding, rotor and winding, bearings, and cooling system.
Figure 1.8 shows the cross section of a modern hydrogen-cooled generator.


1-6

Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy, and Machines

FIGURE 1.4 Major components and physical layout of a coal-fired fossil power plant. (Source: A.W. Culp, Principles of
Energy Conversion, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw Hill, 1991, p. 220. With permission.)

The stator has a laminated and slotted silicon steel iron core. The stacked core is clamped and
held together by insulated axial through bolts. The stator winding is placed in the slots and consists of
a copper-strand configuration with woven glass insulation between the strands and mica flakes, mica