Perrys chemical engineering handbook

PERRY’S
CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS’
HANDBOOK
SEVENTH
EDITION
McGraw-Hill
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Prepared by a staff of specialists
under the editorial direction of
Late Editor
Robert H. Perry

Editor
Don W. Green
Deane E. Ackers Professor of Chemical
and Petroleum Engineering,
University of Kansas
Associate Editor
James O. Maloney
Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering,
University of Kansas


Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Perry’s chemical engineers’ handbook. — 7th ed. / prepared by a staff
of specialists under the editorial direction of late editor Robert H.
Perry : editor, Don W. Green : associate editor, James O’Hara
Maloney.
p.
cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-049841-5 (alk. paper)
1. Chemical engineering—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Perry,
Robert H., date. II. Green, Don W. III. Maloney, James O.
TP151.P45 1997
660—dc21
96-51648
CIP

Copyright © 1997, 1984, 1973, 1963, 1950, 1941, 1934 by The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. Copyright renewed 1962, 1969 by Robert H. Perry.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the

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reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data
base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
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DOW/DOW 9 0 2 1 0 9 8 7

ISBN 0-07-049841-5

INTERNATIONAL EDITION
Copyright © 1997. Exclusive rights by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the
country to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill. The International Edition is not available in North America.
When ordering this title, use ISBN 0-07-115448-5.

The sponsoring editors for this book were Zoe Foundotos and Robert
Esposito, the editing supervisor was Marc Campbell, and the production
supervisor was Pamela A. Pelton. It was set in Caledonia by North Market
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Michael M. Ahbott, Ph.D., Howard P. Isermann Department of Chemical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 4, Thermodynamics)
Terry Allen, Ph.D., Senior Research Associate (retired), Du~ont Central Research and Development \Section 20, Size Reduction and Size Enlargement)
John D. Dacha, Ph.D., Consulting Scientist, Chevron Products Company; Member, ASTM
(American Society for TestiI1cgand Materials), Committee D02 on Petroleufll Products and Lubri"cants; American Chemical Society; International Association for Stability and Handling of Liquid
Fuels, Steering Committee (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Glenn w. Baldwin, M.S., P.E., Staff Engineer, Union Carbide Corporatio~; Membe!, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 12, Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and Solids Drying)
Scott D. Barnicki,

Ph.D., Senior Resear~h Chemical Engineer, Eastman Chemical Company

(Section 13, Distillation)
Kenneth J. Bell, Ph.D., P.E., Regents Professor Emeritus, School of Chemical Engineering,
Oklahoma State University; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 11,
Heat- Transfer Equipment)
Richard C. Bennett, B.S., Ch.E., Registered Professional Engineer, Illinois; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE); President of Crystallization Technology, Inc.; FoJmer Presideptof Swenson Process Equipme~t, Inc. (Section 13, Liquid-Solid Operations and
Equipment)
Charles E. Benson, M.Eng., M.E., Director, Combustion Technology, Arthur D. Little, lIic.;
Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Comb~tion Institute (Section 27, Energy
Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Patrick M. Bernhagen, P.E., B.S.M.E., Senior Mechanical Engineer, Foster wheeler USA Corporation, American Society of Mechanical EngineeFs ( Section 11, Heat -Transfer Equipment) c

ix


x

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Heinz P. Bloch, P.E., B.S.M.E., M.S.M.E., Consulting Engineer, Process Machinery Consulting; American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vibration Institute; Registered Professional Engineer (New Jersey, Texas) (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
Frank T. Bodurtha, Sc.D., E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co., Inc. (retired), Wilmington,
Delaware (retired); Consultant, Frank T. Bodurtha, Inc. (Section 26, Process Safety)
Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E., Ph.D., President, Boyce Engineering International; ASME Fellow;
Registered Professional Engineer (Texas, Oklahoma) (Section 10, Transport and Storage of Fluids;
Section 29, Process Mochinery Drives),
Laurence G. Britton,
Process Safety)

Ph.D.,

Research Scientist, Union Carbide Corporation

(Section 26,

Evan Buck, M.S.Ch.E., Manager, Thermophysical Property Skill Center, Central Technology,
Union Carbide Corporation (Section 2, Physical and Chemical Data)
Henry R. Bungay, P.E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American
Chemical Society, American Society for Microbiology, American Society for Engineering Education, Society for General Microbiology (Section 24, Biochemical Engineering)
Anthony I. Buonicore,
M.Ch.E.,
P.E., Diplomate AAEE, CEO, Environmental Data
Resources, Inc.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Air and Waste Management
Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Michael M. Calistrat, B.S.M.E., M.S.M.E., Owner, Michael Calistrat and Associates; Member,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
,
Giorgio Carta, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, U niversity of Virginia;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International

Adsorption Society (Section 16, Adsorption and Ion Exchange)
Vincent Conrad, Ph.D., Group Leader, Technical Services Development Laboratory,CONSOL,
Inc.; Member, Spectroscopy Society of Pittsburgh, Society for Analytical Chemistry of Pittsburgh,
Society for Applied Spectroscopy (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Harrison Cooper, ph.D., Harrison R. Cooper Systems, Inc., Salt take City, Utah (Section 19,
Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
B. B. Crocker, S.M., P.E., Consulting Chemical Engineer; Fellow, American Institute of chemical Engineers; Member, Air Pollution Control Association (Section 14, Gas Absorption and GasLiquid System Design)
Daniel A. Crowl, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineering Department, Michigan Technological University; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Chemical Society (Section 26, Process Safety)
Roger W. Cusack, Vice President, Glitsch Process Systems, Inc.; Member, American Insi:itute of
Chemical Engineers (Section 15, Liquid-Liquid Extraction Operations and Equipment)
Donald A. Dahlstrom, Ph.D., Research Professor, Chemical and Fuels Engineering Department and Metallurgical Engineering Department, University of Utah; Member, National Academy of Engineering, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), American Chemical
Society (ACS), Society of Mining, Metallurgic Exploration (SME) of the American Institute of
Mining, Metallurgical and Petrol~um Engine()r~ (AIME), AmericaI) Society of Engineering Education (Section 18, Liquid-Solid °?erations and Equipment)
Thomas E. Daubert, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University (Section 2, Physic~ and Chemical Data)
R. H. Daugherty, Ph.D., Consulting Engineer, Research Center~ Reliance Electric Company;
Member, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xi

James F. DaVis, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Ohio State University (Section 3,
Mathematics)
James B. Dunson, B.S., Principal Consultant, E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.; Member Americanlnstitute of Chemical Engineers; Registered Professional Engineer \Delaware) (Section 17,
Gas-Solid Operation and Equipment)
Thomas F. Edgar, Ph.p., Professor of Chemical Engineering, y niversity o£Texas, Austin, Texas
(Section8, Process Control)
Robert C. Emmet, Jr., B,.5., Ch.E., Senior Process Consultant, EIMCO Process Equipment

Co.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers (AIME), Society of Mining, Metallurgical and Exploration Engineers (SME) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Stanley M. Englund, M.S., Ch.E., Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Process
Consultant, The Dow Chemical Company (retired) (Section 26, Process Safety)
BryanJ. Ennis, Ph.D., President, E&G Associates, and Adjunct Professor of Chemical Engineering; Vanderbilt University; Member and Chair of Powder Technology Programming Group of
the Particle Technology Forum, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 20, Size
Reduction and Size Enlargement)
William Eyka~p, Ph.D., Adjunc~ Professor of Chemical Engineering, Tufts University; Formerly President, Koch Membrane Systems; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Chemical Society, American Association for the Advancement of Science, North American Membrane Society, European Society of Membrane Science and Technology (Section 22,
Altemative Separation Processes)
James R. Fair, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas; National
Academy of Engineering; Fello'Y, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American
Chemical Society, American S,ociety for Engineering Education, N atio~al Society of Professional
Engineers

(Section

14, Gas Ab~orption

and

.,
Gas-Liquid

System

Design)

,
Bruce A. Finlayson, Ph.D., Rehnberg Professor and Chair, Department of Chemical Engineering,

University ofWashington; Member, National Academy of Engineering (Section 3, Mathematics)
Thomas M. FI~n, Ph.D" P.E., Cryogenic Engineer, President CRYOCO, Louisville, CoJorado;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 11, Heat-Trans£er Equipment)
Anthony G.,Fonseca, Ph,P., Director, Coal Utiltzation, CONSOL, Inc,; Member, American
Chemical Society, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Extraction ( Section 27, Energy Resources,
Conversion, and Utilization)
D. G. Friend,

National Institutes of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado (Section 2,

Physical and Chemical Data)
George W. Gassman, B.S.M.E., Senior Research Specialist, Final Control Systems, Fisher Controls International, Inc., Marshalltown, Iowa (Section 8, Process Control)
Fred K. Geitner,

P.Eng., B.S.M.E.,

M.S.M.E.,

Consulting Engineer; Registered Professional

Engineer (Ontario, Canada) (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
Victor M. Goldschmidt,

Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University,

West Lafayette, Indiana (Section 11, Heat-Trallsfer Equipment)
Stanley Grossel, President, Process Safety & Design, Inc.; Fellow, American Institute of chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical Society; Member, The Combustion Institute; Member,Explosion Protection Systems Committee of NFPA (Section 26, Process Safety)
Peter Harriott, Ph.D., Professor, School of Chemical Engineering, Cornell University; Member,
American Institute of Chemical Engineering, American Chemical Society (ACS) (Section 18;
Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)

xii

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

T. Alan Hatton, Ph.D., Ralph Landau Professor and Director of the DavidH. Koch School of
Chemical Engineering Practice, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Founding Fellow, American Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering; Member. American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Association of Colloid and Interface scientists, American Association for the Advancement of Science, N eutt:on Scattering Society of America (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Joseph D. Henry, Jr., Ph.D., P.E., Senior Fellow, Department of Engineering and Public Policy, Carnegie Mellon University; Member, American InStitute of Chemical Engineers, American
Society for Engineering Education (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
W. G. High, C.Eng., B.Sc., F.I.Mech.E.,
tion 26, Process Safety)

Burgoyne Consultants Ltd., W. Yorks, England (Sec-

Richard Hogg, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
F. A. Holland, D.Sc., Ph.D., Consultant in Heat Energy Recycling; Research Professor, University of Salford, England; Fellow; Institution of Chemical Engineers, London (Section 9, Process
Economics)
Hoyt C. Hottel,

S.M., Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology; Member, National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Combustion Institute
(Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Colin S.Howat, Ph.D., P.E., John E. & Winfred E. Sharp Professor, Department of Chemical and
Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers;
Member, American Society of Engineering Education (Section 30, Analysis ofPlant Performance)

Predrag S. Hrnjak, Ph.D., V.Res., Assistant Professor, University of Illinois at Urbana champaign and Principal Investigator-U.
of I. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Center, Assistant
Professor, University of Belgrade; Member, International Institute of Refrigeration, American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (Section 11, Heat-Transfer Equipment)
Arthur

E. Humphrey,

Ph.D., Retired, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State

University; Member, U.S. National Academy of Engineering, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, American Chemical Society, American Society for Microbiology (Section 24, Biochemical Engineering)
Eric Jenett, M.S.Ch.E.,

Manager, Process Engineering, Brown & Root, Inc.; Associate Member,

AIChE, Project Management Institute; Registered Professional Engineer (Texas) (Section 29,
Process Machinery Drives)
John S. Jeris, Sc.D., P.E., Professor of Environmental Engineering, Manhattan College; Environmental Consultant; Member, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation Section Director (Section 25, Waste Management)
T. L. P. Jespen, M.S., MiD. Proc;, Metallurgical Engineer, Basic, Inc;; Gabbs, Nevada (Section
19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Keith P. Johnston, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas (Austin);
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, U niversity of
Texas Separations Research Program (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Trevor A. Kletz, D.Sc., Senior Visiting Research Fellow, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Loughborough University, U.K.; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Royal Academy of Engineers (U .K.), Institution of Chemical Enginee!s (U .K.), and Royal Society of chemistry (U.K.) (Section 26, Process Safety)
Edgar B. Klunder, Ph.D., Project Manager, Energy TechnolDepartment of Energy (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)

U,~.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xiii

Kent S. Knaebel, Ph.D., President, Adsorption Research, Inc.; Member, American Il;lstitute of
Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Adsorption Society. Professional
Engineer (Ohio) (Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Frank Knoll, M.S., Min. Proc., President, Carpco, Inc., Jacksonville, Florida (Section 19, SolidSolid Operations and Equipment)
James G.Knudsen, Ph.D.,Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering, Oregon State university; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society; Registered
Professional Engineer (Oregon) (Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Michael Krumpelt,
Ph.D., Manager, Fuel Cell TechnolQgy, Argonne National Laboratory;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Electrochemical Society (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Irwin J. Kugelman, Sc.D., Professor of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University; Member, American
Society of Civil Engineering, Water Environmental Federation (Section 25, Waste Management)
rim Laros, M.S. Mineral Processing, Senior Process Consultant, EIMCO Process Equipment
Co,; Member, Society of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (SME of AIME) (Section 18,
Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Richard M. Lemert, Ph.D., P.E., Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of
Toledo; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Society
qf Mining Engineers, American Society for Engineering Education (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Robert Lemlich, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering Emeritus, University of
Cincinnati; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical
Society, American Society for Engineering Education, American Chemical Society (Sectiqn 22,
Alternative Separation Processes)
Wallace Leung, Sc.D., Director, Process Technology, Bird Machine Company; Member, American Filtration and Separation Society (Director) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and
Equipment)
M. Douglas LeVan, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Intemational Adsorption Society (Section 16, Adsorption and Ion Exchange)

Peter E. Liley, Ph.D., D.I.C., School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University (Section 2,
Physical and Chemical Data)
James D. Litster, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Queensland; Member, Institute of Chemical Engiiieers-Australia
(Section 20, Size Reduction
and Size Enlargement)
Peter J. Lofuis, D. Phil., Arthur D. Little, Inc.; Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Hsue-peng Loh, Ph.D., P.E., Federal Energy Technology Center (Morgantown), U .S. Department of Energy; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Society of Information Sciences (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Douglas E. Lowenhaupt,
M.S., Group Leader, Coke Laboratory, CONSOL, Inc.; Member,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Iron and Steel Making Society, International Committee for Coal Petrology (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
James 0. Maloney, Ph.D., P.E., Emeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of
Kansas; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineering; Fellow, American Association for
the Advancement of Science; Member, American Chemical Society, American Society for Engineering Education (Section 1, Conversion Factors and Mathematical Symbols)


Thomas J. McAvoy, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland (Section 8, Process Control)
Chad McCleary, EIMCO Process Equipment Company, Process Consultant (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Thomas F. McGowan, P.E., Senior Consultant, RMT/Four Nines; Member, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Air and Waste Management
Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Howard G. Mcllvried, III, Ph.D., Senior Engineer, Burns and Roe Services Corporation, Federal Energy Technology Center (Pittsburgh), Member, American Chemical Society, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
John D. McKenna, Ph.D., President and Chairman, ETS International, Inc., Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Air and Waste Management Association (Section 25, Waste
Management)
Shelhy A. Miller, Ph.D., P.E., Resident Retired Senior Engineer; Argonne National Laboratory;
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Fellow), American Chemical Society,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Fellow), American Institutes of Chemists (Fellow), Filtration Society, New York Academy of Sciences, Society of Chemical Industry (Section 18; Liqmd.;
Solid Operations and Equipment; Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)

Booker Morey, Ph.D., Senior Consultant, SRI International; Member; Society of Mining,
Metallurgy and Exploration (SME of AIME), The Filtration Society, Air and Waste Management
Association; Registered Professional Engineer (California and Massachusetts) (Section 18, LiquidSolid Operations and Equipment)
Charles G. Moyers, Ph.D., P.E., Principal Engineer, Union Carbide Corporation; Fellow,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 12, Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and
Solids Drying; Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
John Newman, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley;
Principle Investigator; Inorganic Materials Research Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
(Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
James Y. Oldshue, Ph.D., President, Oldshue Technologies International, Inc.; Member,
National Academy of Engineering; Adjunct Professor of Chemical Engineering atBeijing Institute
of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China; Member; American Chemical Society (ACE), American
Institute of Chemical Engineering (AIChE), Traveler Century Club, Executive Committee on the
Transfer of Appropriate Technology for the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Robert W. Ormsby, M.S., Ch.E. P.E., Manager of Safety, Chemical Group, Air Products and
Chemicals, Inc.; Air Products Corp.; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section
26, Process Safety)
John E. Owens, B.E.E., Electrostatic Consultant, Condux, Inc.; Member, Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Electrostatics Society of America (Section 26, Process Safety)
Bhupendra Parekb, Ph.D., Associate Director, Center for Applied Energy Research, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Mel Pen, Ph.D., Senior Consultant, E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.; Fellow, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers; Registered Professional Engineer (Delaware) (Section 17, Gas-Solid
Operations and Equipment)
W. R. Penney, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas; Member,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 14, Gas Absorption and Gas-Liquid System
Design)


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xv

WalterF. Podolski, Ph.D., Chemical Engineer, Electrochemical Technology Program, Argonne
National Laboratory; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 27, Energy
Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Herbert A. Pohl, Ph.D. (deceased), Professor of Physics, Oklahoma State University (Section
22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Kent Pollock, Ph.D., Member of Technical Staff, Group 91, Space Surveillance Techniques,
MIT Lincoln Laboratory (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
George Priday,B.S., Ch.E., EIMCO Process Equipment Company; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineering {AIChE), Instrument Society of America (ISA) (Section 18, LiquidSolid Operations and Equipment)
Michael E. Prudich, Ph.D" Professor and Chair of Chemical Engineering, Ohio U~iversity;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Society of Mining Engineers, American Society for Engineering Education (Section 22, Alternative Skparation
Processes)
Raj K. Rajamani, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering,
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Lawrence K. Rath, B.S., P.E., Federal Energy Technology Center (Morgantown), U .S. Department of Energy; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 27, Energy
Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Grantges J. Raymus, M.E., M.S., President, Raymus Associates, Incorporated, Packaging consultants; Adjunct Professor and Program Coordinator, Center for Packaging Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; formerly Manager
of Packaging Engineering, Union Carbide Corporation; Registered Professional Engineer, california; Member, Institute of Packaging Professionals, ASME (Section 21, Handling of Bulk Solids
and Packagi?g of Solids and Liquids)
Lanny A. Robbins, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Dow Chemical Company; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 15, Liquid-Liquid Extraction Operations and Equipment)
Joseph J. Santoleri, P.E.,Senior Consultant, RMT/Four Nines; Member, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Air and Waste Management
Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Adel F. Sarofim, Sc.D., Lammot DuPont Professor of Chemical Engineering and Assistant
Director, Fuels Research Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Member, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Combustion Institute (Section 5,
Heat and Mass Transfer)
Kalanadh v. S. Sastry, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,

Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Paul J. Schafbuch, Ph.D" Senior Research Specialist, ~inal Control Systems, Fisher Controls
International, Inc., Marshalltown, Iowa (Section 8, Process Control)
Carl A. Schiappa, B.S., Ch.E., Process Engineering Associate, Michigan Division Engineering,
The Dow Chemical Company; Member, AIChE and CCPS (Section 26, Process Safety)
David K. Schmalzer, Ph.D., P.E., Fossil Energy Program Manager, Argonne National Laboratory; Member, American Chemical Society, Americanlnstitute
of Chemical Engineers (Section
27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
J. D. Seader, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City,
Utah; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical Society;
Member. American SocietY for Enl!ineerin!! Education (Section 13. Distillation)


xvi

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dale E. Seborg, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California (Section 8, Process Control)
Richard L. Shilling,
Fintube Company-a

P.E., B.S.M., B.E.M.E., Manager of Engineering Development, Brown
Koch Engineering Company; Member, American Society of Mechanical

Engineers (Section 11, Heat-Transfer Equipment)
F. Greg Shinskey, B.S.Ch.E.,

Consultant (retired from Foxboro Co.), North Sandwich, New

Hampshire (Section 8, Process Control)

Oliver w. Siebert, P.E., B.S.M.E., Washington University, Graduate Metallurgical Engineering,
Sever Institute of Technology; Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri; President, Siebert Materials Engineering, Inc., St, Louis, Missouri;
Senior Engineering Fellow (retired), Monsanto Co.; Mechanical Designer, Sverdrup Corp.; Metallurgist, Carondelet Foundry; United Nations Consultant to the People's Republic of China; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Life Fellow, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers; Past Elected Director and Fellow, N ational Association of Corrosion Engineers, Int'I;
American Society for Metals, Int'I; American Welding Society; Pi Tau Sigma, Sigma Xi, and Tau
Beta Pi (Section 28, Materials of Construction)
Jeffrey J. Siirola, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Eastman Chemical Company; Member, National
Academy of Engineering; Fellow, American Institute ofChemical Engineers, American Chemical
Society, American Association for Artificial Intelligence, American Society for Engineering Education (Section 13, Distillation)
Charles E. Silverblatt, M.S., Ch.E., Peregrine International Associates, Inc.; Consultant to
WesTech Engineering, Inc., American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engines
(AIME) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Richard

Siwek, M.S., Explosion Protection Manager, Corporate Unit Safety and Environment,

Ciba-Geigy Ltd., Basel, Switzerland (Section 26, Process Safety)
J. Stephen

Slottee, M.S., Ch.E., Manager, Technology and Development, EIMCO

Equipment

Co.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)

Process

(Section 18,

Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)

Cecil L. Smith,

Ph.D.,

Principal, Cecil L. Smith Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana (Section 8,

Process Control)
Julian C. Smith, B. Chem., Ch.E., Professor Emeritus Chemical Engineering, Cornell University; Member, American Chemical Society (ACS), American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Richard H. Snow, Ph.D., Engineering Advisor, lIT Research Institute; Member, American
Chemical Society, Sigma Xi; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 20, Size
Reduction and Size Enlargement)
Thomas Sorenson,

M.B.A.,

MiD. Eng., President, Galigher Ash (Canada) Ltd. (Section 19,

Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Rameshwar D. Srivastava, Ph.D., Fuels Group Manager, Burns and Roe Services Corporation,
Federal Energy Technology Center (Pittsburgh) (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and
Utilization )
F. C. Standiford,

M.S., P.E., Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American

Chemical Society (Section 11, Heat-Transfer Equipment)
D. E. SteiDmeyer, M.A., M.S., P.E., Distinguished Fellow, Monsanto Company; Fellow; American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical Society (Section 14, Gas
Absorption and Gas-Liquid System Design)
Gary J. Stiegel, M.S., P.E., Program Coordinator, Federal Energy Technology Center (Pittsburgh), U .S. Department of Energy (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xvii

John G. Stoecker II, B.S.M.E., University of Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy; principal Consultant, Stoecker & Associates, St. Louis, Missouri; Principal Materials Engineering
Specialist (retired), Monsanto Co.; High-Temperature Design/Application Engineer, Abex
Corporation; Member, NACE International, ASM International (Section 27, Energy Resources,
Conversion, and Utilization)
Judson S. Swearingen,

Ph.D., Retired President, Rotoflow Corporation (Section 29, Process

Machinery Drives)
Louis Theodore, Sc.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Manhattan College; Member, Air
and Waste Management Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Michael P. Thien, Sc.D., Senior Research Fellow, Merck & Co., Inc.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Society for Pharmaceutical
Engineers (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
George H. Thomson,
and Chemical Data)

AIChE Design Institute for Physical Property Data (Section 2, Physical

James N. Tilton, Ph.D., P.E., Senior Consultant, Process Engineering, E. I. duPont de Nemours
& Co.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Registered Professional Engineer
(Delaware) (Section 6, Fluid and Particle Dynamics)
Klaus D. Timmerhaus, Ph.D., P.E., Professor and President's Teaching Scholar, University of
Colorado, Boulder, Colorado; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Society for Engineering Education, American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member,
American Astronautical Society, N ational Academy of Engineering, Austrian Academy of Science,

International Institute of Refrigeration, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, American Society of Environmental Engineers, Engineering Society for
Advancing Mobility on Land, Sea, Air, and Space, Sigma Xi, The Research Society (Section 11,
Heat-Transfer Equipment)
David B. Todd, Ph.D., President, Todd Engineering; Member, American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS), American Chemical Society (ACS), American Institute of
Chemical Engineering (AIChE), American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS), Society of Plastics Engineers (SPE), and Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI); Registered Professional Engineer, Michigan (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
George T. Tsao, Ph.D., Director, Laboratory for Renewable Resource Engineering, Purdue
University; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society,
American Society for Microbiology (Section 24, Biochemical Engineering)
Hendrick c. Van Ness, D.Eng., Howard P. Isermann Department of Chemical Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member,
American Chemical Society (Section 4, Thermodynamics)
Stanley M. Walas, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 7,
Reaction Kinetics; Section 23, Chemical Reactors)
Phillip C. Wankat, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University; Member,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Adsorption Society (Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Ionel Wechsler, M.S., MiD. and Met., Vice President, Sala Magnetics, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Arthur W. Westerberg, Ph.D., Swearingen University Professor of Chemical Engineering,
Carnegie Mellon University; Member, National Academy of Engineering (Section 3, Mathematics)
John M. Wheeldon, Ph.D., Electric Power Research Institute (Section 27, Energy Resources,
Conversion. and Utilization)


xviii

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Robert E. White, Ph.D., Principal Engineer; Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division,
Southwest Research Institute (Section 26, Process Safety)
J. K. Wilkinson, M.Sc., Consultant Chemical Engineer; Fellow, Institution of Chemical Engineers, London (Section 9, Process Economics)

David Winegarder, Ph.D., Engineering Associate, Michigan Division Engineering, The Dow
Chemical Company; Member AIChE and CCPS (Section 26, Process Safety)
John L. Woodward,

Ph.D., Principal, DNV Technica, Inc. (Section 26, Process Safety)

Yoshiyuki Yamashita, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering, Tohoku University,
Sendai, Japan (Section 3, Mathematics)
Cannen M. Yon, M.S., DevelopmentAssociate, UOP, Des Plaines, Illinois; Member, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 16, Adsorption and Ion Exchange)


Preface to the
Seventh Edition

Perry’s has been an important source for chemical engineering information since 1934. The significant contributions of the editors who have guided preparation of the previous editions is acknowledged. These include John H. Perry (first to third editions), Robert H. Perry (fourth to sixth
editions), Cecil H. Chilton (fourth and fifth editions), and Sidney D. Kirkpatrick (fourth edition).
Ray Genereaux (DuPont) contributed to each of the first six editions, and Shelby Miller (Argonne
National Lab) worked on the second through the seventh. The current editors directed both the
sixth and seventh editions. Advances in the technology of chemical engineering have continued as
we have moved toward the twenty-first century, and this edition will carry us into that century.
The Handbook has been reorganized. The first group of sections focuses on chemical and physical property data and the fundamentals of chemical engineering. The second and largest group of
sections deals with processes, generally divided as heat transfer operations, distillation, kinetics,
liquid-liquid, liquid-solid, and so on. The last group treats auxiliary information such as materials of
construction, process machinery drives, waste management, and process safety. All sections have
been revised and updated, and several sections are entirely new or have been extensively revised.
Examples of these sections are mathematics, mass transfer, reaction kinetics, process control, transport and storage of fluids, alternative separation processes, heat-transfer equipment, chemical reactions, liquid-solid operations and equipment, process safety, and analysis of plant performance.
Significant new information has also been included in the physical and chemical data sections.
Several section editors and contributors worked on this seventh edition, and these persons and
their affiliations are listed as a part of the front material. Approximately one-half of the section editors are fellows of the AIChE. In addition, the following chemical engineering students at the University of Kansas assisted in the preparation of the index: Jason Canter, Pau Ying Chong, Mei Ling

Chuah, Li Phoon Hor, Siew Pouy Ng, Francis J. Orzulak, Scott C. Renze, Page B. Surbaugh, and
Stephen F. Weller. Shari L. Gladman and Sarah Smith provided extensive secretarial assistance.
Much of Bob Perry’s work carries over into this edition and his influence is both recognized and
remembered.
DON W. GREEN
JAMES O. MALONEY
University of Kansas
April, 1997
xix


For the detailed contents of any section, consult the title page of
that section. See also the alphabetical index in the back of the
handbook.

Section

Conversion Factors and Mathematical Symbols

Jam£s 0. Maloney

1

Physical and Chemical Data
Peter E. Liley, George H. Thomson, D. G. Friend,
Thomas E. Daubert, Evan Buck

2

Mathematics

Bruce A. Finlayson, Jam£s F Davis, Arthur W Westerberg,
Yoshiyuki Yamashita

3

Thermodynamics

4

Hendrick C. Van Ness, Michael M. Abbott

Heat and Mass Transfer
Jam£s G. Knudsen, Hoyt C. Hottel, Adel F Sarofim,
Phillip c. Wankat, Kent S. Knaebel

5

Fluid and Particle Dynamics

6

Reaction Kinetics

Jam£s N. Tilton

Stanley M. Walas

7

Process Control

Thomas F Edgar; Cecil L. Smith, F Greg Shinskey,
George W Gassman, Paul J. Schajbuch, Thomas J. McAvoy, Dale E. Seborg

8

Process Economics

9

F A. Holland, J. K Wilkinson

Transport and Storage of Fluids

Meherwan 1'. Royce

10

Heat- Transfer Equipment
Richard L. Shilling, Kenneth J. Bell,
Patrick M. Bemhagen, Thomas M. Flynn, Victor M. Goldschmidt,
Predrag S. Hrnjak, F C. Standiford, Klaus D. Timmerhaus

11

Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and Solids Drying
Glenn W Baldwin

12

Distillation

Charles G. Moyers,

J. D. Seader;Jeffrey J. Siirola, Scott D. Bamicki

13

vii


viii

CONTENTS

Gas Absorption and Gas-Liquid System Design
W R. Penny, B. B. Crocker

james R. Fair; D. E. Steinmeyer;

Liquid-Liquid Extraction Operations and Equipment
Roger W Cusack
Adsorption and Ion Exchange

14
Lanny A. Robbins,

M. Douglas LeVan, Giorgio Carta, Carmen M. Yon

Gas-Solid Operations and Equipment

Mel Pell, james B. Dunson

15
16
17

Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment
Donald A. Dahlstrom, Richard C. Bennett,
Robert G, Emmet, Peter Harriott, Tim Laros, Wallace Leung, Shelby A. Miller;
Brooker Morey, james Y. Oldshue, George Priday, Charles E. Silverblatt,
I. Stephen Slottee, Iulian c. Smith

18

Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment
Kalanadh V S. Sastry, Harrison Cooper;
Richard Hogg, T L. p Iespen, Frank Knoll, Bhupendra Parekh, Raj K Rajamani,
Thomas Sorenson, Ionel Wechsler; Chad McCleary, David B. Todd

19

Size Reduction and Size Enlargement
Bryan I. Ennis, james D. Litster

Richard L. Snow, Terry Allen,

Handling of Bulk Solids and Packaging of Solids and Liquids

Grantges I. Raymus

Alternative Separation Processes joseph D. Henry, Ir:, Michael E. Prudich,
William Eykamp, T Alan Hatton, Keith p johnston, Richard M. Lemert,
Robert Lemlich, Charles G. Moyers, john Newman, Herbert A. Pohl,
Kent Pollock, Michael p Thien
Chemical Reactors

Stanley M. Walas

Biochemical Engineering

Henry R. Bungay, Arthur E. Humphrey, George T Tsao

20
21

22
23
24

Waste Management
Louis Theodore, Anthony I. Buonicore, John D. McKenna,
Irwin I. Kugelman, john s. Ieris, joseph I. Santoleri, Thomas R McGowan

25

Process Safety
Stanley M. Englund, Frank T Bodurtha, Laurence G. Britton,
Daniel A. Crowl, Stanley Grossel, W G. High, Trevor A. Kletz, Robert W Ormsby,
john E. Owens, Carl A. Schiappa, Richard Siwek, Robert E. White,
David Winegardner; john L. Woodward

26

Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization
Walter R Podolski,
Shelby A. Miller; David K Schnialzer; Anth9ny G. Fonseca, Vincent Conrad,
Douglas E. Lowenhaupt, john Bacha, Lawrence K Rath, Hsue-peng Loh,
EdgarB. Klunder; Howard G. McIlvried, III, Gary I. Stiegel,
Rameshwar D. Srivastava, Peter I. Loftus, Charles E. Benson,
john M. Wheeldon, Michael Krumpelt

27

Materials of Construction

28

Oliver W Siebert, john G. Stoecker

Process Machinery Drives
Heinz p Bloch, R. H. Daugherty, Fred K Geitner;
Meherwan p Boyce, judson S. Swearingen, Eric jennet, Michael M. Calistrat
Analysis of Plant Performance
Index follows Section 30.

Colin S. Howat

29
30

Section 1

Conversion Factors and
Mathematical Symbols*

James O. Maloney, Ph.D., P.E., Emeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Kansas; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineering; Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member, American Chemical Society, American Society for
Engineering Education

Fig. 1-1
Table 1-1
Table 1-2a
Table 1-2b
Table 1-3
Table 1-4
Table 1-5
Table 1-6
Table 1-7
Table 1-8
Table 1-9

CONVERSION FACTORS
Graphic Relationships of SI Units with Names . . . . . . . . .
SI Base and Supplementary Quantities and Units. . . . . . .
Derived Units of SI that Have Special Names. . . . . . . . . .
Additional Common Derived Units of SI . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SI Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly
Used Units to SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric Conversion Factors as Exact Numerical

Multiples of SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alphabetical Listing of Common Conversions . . . . . . . . .
Common Units and Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kinematic-Viscosity Conversion Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . .
Values of the Gas-Law Constant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-2
1-3
1-3
1-3
1-3
1-4
1-13
1-15
1-18
1-18
1-18

Table 1-10 United States Customary System of Weights
and Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-11 Temperature Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-12 Specific Gravity, Degrees Baumé, Degrees API, Degrees
Twaddell, Pounds per Gallon, Pounds per Cubic Foot . . .
Table 1-13 Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-14 Fundamental Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-19
1-19
1-20
1-21

1-22

CONVERSION OF VALUES FROM U.S. CUSTOMARY
UNITS TO SI UNITS
Table 1-15
Table 1-16

MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS
Mathematical Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations . . . . . . .
Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-24
1-24

* Much of the material was taken from Sec. 1. of the fifth edition. The contribution of Cecil H. Chilton in developing that material is acknowledged.
1-1


FIG. 1-1

1-2

Graphic relationships of SI units with names (U.S. National Bureau of Standards, LC 1078, December 1976.)


TABLE 1-1

SI Base and Supplementary Quantities and Units

Quantity or “dimension”

Base quantity or “dimension”
length
mass
time
electric current
thermodynamic temperature
amount of substance
luminous intensity
Supplementary quantity or “dimension”
plane angle
solid angle

SI unit

SI unit symbol
(“abbreviation”);
Use roman
(upright) type

meter
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole*
candela

m
kg
s

A
K
mol
cd

radian
steradian

rad
sr

* When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified; they may
be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such
particles.

TABLE 1-2a Derived Units of SI that Have Special Names
Quantity

Unit

Symbol

Formula

frequency (of a periodic phenomenon)
force
pressure, stress
energy, work, quantity of heat
power, radiant flux
quantity of electricity, electric charge

electric potential, potential difference,
electromotive force
capacitance
electric resistance
conductance
magnetic flux
magnetic-flux density
inductance
luminous flux
illuminance
activity (of radionuclides)
absorbed dose

hertz
newton
pascal
joule
watt
coulomb
volt

Hz
N
Pa
J
W
C
V

l/s

(kg⋅m)/s2
N/m2
N⋅m
J/s
A⋅s
W/A

farad
ohm
siemens
weber
tesla
henry
lumen
lux
becquerel
gray

F
Ω
S
Wb
T
H
lm
lx
Bq
Gy

C/V

V/A
A/V
V⋅s
Wb/m2
Wb/A
cd⋅sr
lm/m2
l/s
J/kg

TABLE 1-2b Additional Common Derived Units of SI
Quantity

Unit

acceleration
angular acceleration
angular velocity
area
concentration (of amount of
substance)
current density
density, mass
electric-charge density
electric-field strength
electric-flux density
energy density
entropy
heat capacity
heat-flux density,

irradiance
luminance
magnetic-field strength
molar energy
molar entropy
molar-heat capacity
moment of force
permeability
permittivity
radiance

meter per second squared
radian per second squared
radian per second
square meter
mole per cubic meter

m/s2
rad/s2
rad/s
m2
mol/m3

ampere per square meter
kilogram per cubic meter
coulomb per cubic meter
volt per meter
coulomb per square meter
joule per cubic meter
joule per kelvin

joule per kelvin
watt per square meter

A/m2
kg/m3
C/m3
V/m
C/m2
J/m3
J/K
J/K
W/m2

candela per square meter
ampere per meter
joule per mole
joule per mole-kelvin
joule per mole-kelvin
newton-meter
henry per meter
farad per meter
watt per square-metersteradian
watt per steradian
joule per kilogram-kelvin
joule per kilogram
joule per kilogram-kelvin
cubic meter per kilogram
newton per meter
watt per meter-kelvin
meter per second

pascal-second
square meter per second
cubic meter
1 per meter

cd/m2
A/m
J/mol
J/(mol⋅K)
J/(mol⋅K)
N⋅m
H/m
F/m
W/(m2⋅sr)

radiant intensity
specific-heat capacity
specific energy
specific entropy
specific volume
surface tension
thermal conductivity
velocity
viscosity, dynamic
viscosity, kinematic
volume
wave number

TABLE 1-3

Symbol

W/sr
J/(kg⋅K)
J/kg
J/(kg⋅K)
m3/kg
N/m
W/(m⋅K)
m/s
Pa⋅s
m2/s
m3
1/m

SI Prefixes

Multiplication factor

Prefix

Symbol

000 = 1018
000 = 1015
000 = 1012
000 = 109
000 = 106
000 = 103
100 = 102

10 = 101
0.1 = 10−1
0.01 = 10−2
0.001 = 10−3
0.000 001 = 10−6
0.000 000 001 = 10−9
0.000 000 000 001 = 10−12
0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10−15
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10−18

exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto*
deka*
deci*
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

E
P
T

G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
µ
n
p
f
a

1 000 000 000
1 000 000
1 000
1

000
000
000
000
1

000
000
000
000
000

1

*Generally to be avoided.

1-3


TABLE 1-4

Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units
Customary or commonly
used unit

Quantity

SI unit

Alternate
SI unit

Conversion factor; multiply
customary unit by factor to
obtain SI unit

Space,† time
Length

naut mi
mi
chain

link
fathom
yd
ft

1.852*
E + 00
1.609 344* E + 00
2.011 68* E + 01
2.011 68* E − 01
1.828 8* E + 00
9.144*
E − 01
3.048*
E − 01
3.048*
E + 01
2.54*
E + 01
2.54
E + 00
2.54*
E + 01

in
in
mil

km
km

m
m
m
m
m
cm
mm
cm
µm

Length/length

ft/mi

m/km

1.893 939 E − 01

Length/volume

ft/U.S. gal
ft/ft3
ft/bbl

m/m3
m/m3
m/m3

8.051 964 E + 01
1.076 391 E + 01

1.917 134 E + 00

Area

mi2
section
acre
ha
yd2
ft2
in2

km2
ha
ha
m2
m2
m2
mm2
cm2

2.589 988 E + 00
2.589 988 E + 02
4.046 856 E − 01
1.000 000* E + 04
8.361 274 E − 01
9.290 304* E − 02
6.451 6* E + 02
6.451 6* E + 00

Area/volume

ft2/in3
ft2/ft3

m2/cm3
m2/m3

5.699 291 E − 03
3.280 840 E + 00

Volume

cubem
acre⋅ft

km3
m3
ha⋅m
m3
m3
m3
dm3
m3
dm3
m3
dm3
dm3
dm3
dm3

cm3
cm3
cm3

4.168 182
1.233 482
1.233 482
7.645 549
1.589 873
2.831 685
2.831 685
4.546 092
4.546 092
3.785 412
3.785 412
1.136 523
9.463 529
4.731 765
2.841 307
2.957 353
1.638 706

yd3
bbl (42 U.S. gal)
ft3
U.K. gal
U.S. gal
U.K. qt
U.S. qt
U.S. pt

U.K. fl oz
U.S. fl oz
in3

L
L
L
L
L
L

E + 00
E + 03
E − 01
E − 01
E − 01
E − 02
E + 01
E − 03
E + 00
E − 03
E + 00
E + 00
E − 01
E − 01
E + 01
E + 01
E + 01

Volume/length (linear

displacement)

bbl/in
bbl/ft
ft3/ft
U.S. gal/ft

m3m
m3/m
m3/m
m3/m
L/m

6.259 342 E + 00
5.216 119 E − 01
9.290 304* E − 02
1.241 933 E − 02
1.241 933 E + 01

Plane angle

rad
deg (°)
min (′)
sec (″)

rad
rad
rad
rad

1
1.745 329 E − 02
2.908 882 E − 04
4.848 137 E − 06

Solid angle

sr

sr

1

Time

year
week
h

a
d
s
min
s
h
ns

1
7.0*

3.6*
6.0*
6.0*
1.666 667
1

E + 00
E + 03
E + 01
E + 01
E − 02

1.016 047
9.071 847
5.080 234
4.535 924
4.535 924
3.110 348
2.834 952
6.479 891

E + 00
E − 01
E + 01
E + 01
E − 01
E + 01
E + 01
E + 01

min
mµs
Mass, amount of substance
Mass

1-4

U.K. ton
U.S. ton
U.K. cwt
U.S. cwt
lbm
oz (troy)
oz (av)
gr

Mg
Mg
kg
kg
kg
g
g
mg

t
t


TABLE 1-4

Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (Continued )
Customary or commonly
used unit

Quantity
Amount of substance

lbm⋅mol
std m3(0°C, 1 atm)
std ft3 (60°F, 1 atm)

SI unit

Alternate
SI unit

Conversion factor; multiply
customary unit by factor to
obtain SI unit
4.535 924 E − 01
4.461 58 E − 02
1.195 30 E − 03

kmol
kmol
kmol

Enthalpy, calorific value, heat, entropy, heat capacity
Calorific value, enthalpy

(mass basis)

Btu/lbm
cal/g
cal/lbm

MJ/kg
kJ/kg
kWh/kg
kJ/kg
J/kg

Caloric value, enthalpy
(mole basis)

kcal/(g⋅mol)
Btu/(lb⋅mol)

kJ/kmol
kJ/kmol

Calorific value (volume
basis—solids and liquids)

Btu/U.S. gal

MJ/m3
kJ/m3
kWh/m3
MJ/m3

kJ/m3
kWh/m3
MJ/m3
kJ/m3
kWh/m3
MJ/m3
kJ/m3

kJ/dm3

Btu/U.K. gal
Btu/ft3

cal/mL
(ft⋅lbf)/U.S. gal

J/g
J/g

2.326 000
2.326 000
6.461 112
4.184*
9.224 141

E − 03
E + 00
E − 04
E + 00
E + 00

4.184*
E + 03
2.326 000 E + 00

kJ/dm3
kJ/dm3

2.787 163
2.787 163
7.742 119
2.320 800
2.320 800
6.446 667
3.725 895
3.725 895
1.034 971
4.184*
3.581 692

E − 01
E + 02
E − 02
E − 01
E + 02
E − 02
E − 02
E + 01
E − 02
E + 00

E − 01

Calorific value (volume
basis—gases)

cal/mL
kcal/m3
Btu/ft3

kJ/m3
kJ/m3
kJ/m3
kWh/m3

J/dm3
J/dm3
J/dm3

4.184*
4.184*
3.725 895
1.034 971

E + 03
E + 00
E + 01
E − 02

Specific entropy

Btu/(lbm⋅°R)
cal/(g⋅K)
kcal/(kg⋅°C)

kJ/(kg⋅K)
kJ/(kg⋅K)
kJ/(kg⋅K)

J/(g⋅K)
J/(g⋅K)
J/(g⋅K)

4.186 8*
4.184*
4.184*

E + 00
E + 00
E + 00

Specific-heat capacity (mass
basis)

kWh/(kg⋅°C)
Btu/(lbm⋅°F)
kcal/(kg⋅°C)

kJ/(kg⋅K)
kJ/(kg⋅K)
kJ/(kg⋅K)

J/(g⋅K)
J/(g⋅K)
J/(g⋅K)

3.6*
4.186 8*
4.184*

E + 03
E + 00
E + 00

Specific-heat capacity (mole
basis)

Btu/(lb⋅mol⋅°F)
cal/(g⋅mol⋅°C)

kJ/(kmol⋅K)
kJ/(kmol⋅K)

4.186 8*
4.184*

E + 00
E + 00

Temperature (absolute)

°R
K

K
K

5/9
1

Temperature (traditional)

°F

°C

5/9(°F − 32)

Temperature (difference)

°F

K, °C

5/9

Pressure

atm (760 mmHg at 0°C or 14,696 psi)

µmHg (0°C)

µ bar
mmHg = torr (0°C)
cmH2O (4°C)
lbf/ft2 (psf)
mHg (0°C)
bar
dyn/cm2

MPa
kPa
bar
MPa
kPa
MPa
kPa
bar
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
Pa
Pa
Pa

1.013 250* E − 01
1.013 250* E + 02
1.013 250* E + 00
1.0*
E − 01

1.0*
E + 02
6.894 757 E − 03
6.894 757 E + 00
6.894 757 E − 02
3.376 85 E + 00
2.488 4
E − 01
1.333 224 E − 01
9.806 38 E − 02
4.788 026 E − 02
1.333 224 E − 01
1.0*
E + 05
1.0*
E − 01

Vacuum, draft

inHg (60°F)
inH2O (39.2°F)
inH2O (60°F)
mmHg (0°C) = torr
cmH2O (4°C)

kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa

3.376 85
2.490 82
2.488 4
1.333 224
9.806 38

E + 00
E − 01
E − 01
E − 01
E − 02

Liquid head

ft
in

m
mm
cm

3.048*
2.54*
2.54*

E − 01
E + 01
E + 00

Pressure drop/length

psi/ft

kPa/m

2.262 059 E + 01

Temperature, pressure, vacuum

bar
mmHg (0°C) = torr

1-5


TABLE 1-4

Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (Continued )
Customary or commonly
used unit

Quantity

SI unit

Alternate
SI unit

Conversion factor; multiply

customary unit by factor to
obtain SI unit

Density, specific volume, concentration, dosage
kg/m3
g/m3
kg/m3
g/cm3
kg/m3
kg/m3
g/cm3
kg/m3
kg/m3

1.601 846
1.601 846
1.198 264
1.198 264
9.977 633
1.601 846
1.601 846
1.0*
1.601 846

E + 01
E + 04
E + 02
E − 01
E + 01
E + 01

E − 02
E + 03
E + 01

ft /lbm
U.K. gal/lbm
U.S. gal/lbm

m3/kg
m3/g
dm3/kg
dm3/kg
dm3/kg

6.242 796
6.242 796
6.242 796
1.002 242
8.345 404

E − 02
E − 05
E + 01
E + 01
E + 00

Specific volume (mole basis)

L/(g⋅mol)
ft3/(lb⋅mol)

m3/kmol
m3/kmol

1
6.242 796 E − 02

Specific volume

bbl/U.S. ton
bbl/U.K. ton

m3/t
m3/t

1.752 535 E − 01
1.564 763 E − 01

Yield

bbl/U.S. ton
bbl/U.K. ton
U.S. gal/U.S. ton
U.S. gal/U.K. ton

dm3/t
dm3/t
dm3/t
dm3/t

Concentration (mass/mass)

wt %
wt ppm

kg/kg
g/kg
mg/kg

lbm/bbl
g/U.S. gal
g/U.K. gal
lbm/1000 U.S. gal
lbm/1000 U.K. gal
gr/U.S. gal
gr/ft3
lbm/1000 bbl
mg/U.S. gal
gr/100 ft3

kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
g/m3
g/m3
g/m3
mg/m3
g/m3
g/m3
mg/m3

ft3/ft3
bbl/(acre⋅ft)
vol%
U.K. gal/ft3
U.S. gal/ft3
mL/U.S. gal
mL/U.K. gal
vol ppm
U.K. gal/1000 bbl
U.S. gal/1000 bbl
U.K. pt/1000 bbl

m3/m3
m3/m3
m3/m3
dm3/m3
dm3/m3
dm3/m3
dm3/m3
cm3/m3
dm3/m3
cm3/m3
cm3/m3
cm3/m3

Concentration (mole/volume)

(lb⋅mol)/U.S. gal
(lb⋅mol)/U.K. gal

(lb⋅mol)/ft3
std ft3 (60°F, 1 atm)/bbl

kmol/m3
kmol/m3
kmol/m3
kmol/m3

Concentration (volume/mole)

U.S. gal/1000 std ft3 (60°F/60°F)
bbl/million std ft3 (60°F/60°F)

dm3/kmol
dm3/kmol

Throughput (mass basis)

U.K. ton/year
U.S. ton/year
U.K. ton/day

Density

lbm/ft3
lbm/U.S. gal
lbm/U.K. gal
lbm/ft3
g/cm3
lbm/ft3

Specific volume

ft3/lbm
3

Concentration (mass/volume)

Concentration (volume/volume)

cm3/g
cm3/g

L/t
L/t
L/t
L/t

g/dm3
g/L
mg/dm3
mg/dm3
mg/dm3
mg/dm3
mg/dm3

L/m3
L/m3
L/m3
L/m3

L/m3

L/kmol
L/kmol

1.752 535
1.564 763
4.172 702
3.725 627

E + 02
E + 02
E + 00
E + 00

1.0*
1.0*
1

E − 02
E + 01

2.853 010
2.641 720
2.199 692
1.198 264
9.977 633
1.711 806
2.288 351
2.853 010

2.641 720
2.288 351

E + 00
E − 01
E − 01
E + 02
E + 01
E + 01
E + 03
E + 00
E − 01
E + 01

1
1.288 931
1.0*
1.605 437
1.336 806
2.641 720
2.199 692
1
1.0*
2.859 403
2.380 952
3.574 253

E − 04
E − 02
E + 02

E + 02
E − 01
E − 01
E − 03
E + 01
E + 01
E + 00

1.198 264
9.977 644
1.601 846
7.518 21

E + 02
E + 01
E + 01
E − 03

3.166 91
1.330 10

E + 00
E − 01

1.016 047
9.071 847
1.016 047
4.233 529
9.071 847
3.779 936

1.016 047
9.071 847
4.535 924

E + 00
E − 01
E + 00
E − 02
E − 01
E − 02
E + 00
E − 01
E − 01

Facility throughput, capacity

U.S. ton/day
U.K. ton/h
U.S. ton/h
lbm/h

1-6

t/a
t/a
t/d
t/h
t/d
t/h
t/h

t/h
kg/h


TABLE 1-4

Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (Continued )
Customary or commonly
used unit

Quantity
Throughput (volume basis)

bbl/day
3

ft /day
bbl/h
ft3/h
U.K. gal/h
U.S. gal/h
U.K. gal/min
U.S. gal/min

SI unit

Alternate
SI unit

Conversion factor; multiply

customary unit by factor to
obtain SI unit
E + 01
E − 01
E − 03
E − 01
E − 02
E − 03
E − 03
E − 03
E − 03
E − 01
E − 02
E − 01
E − 02

t/a
m3/d
m3/h
m3/h
m3/h
m3/h
L/s
m3/h
L/s
m3/h
L/s
m3/h
L/s

5.803 036
1.589 873
1.179 869
1.589 873
2.831 685
4.546 092
1.262 803
3.785 412
1.051 503
2.727 655
7.576 819
2.271 247
6.309 020

kmol/h
kmol/s

4.535 924 E − 01
1.259 979 E − 04

Throughput (mole basis)

(lbm⋅mol)/h

Flow rate (mass basis)

U.K. ton/min
U.S. ton/min
U.K. ton/h
U.S. ton/h

U.K. ton/day
U.S. ton/day
million lbm/year
U.K. ton/year
U.S. ton/year
lbm/s
lbm/min
lbm/h

kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s
kg/s

1.693 412
1.511 974
2.822 353
2.519 958
1.175 980
1.049 982
5.249 912
3.221 864

2.876 664
4.535 924
7.559 873
1.259 979

E + 01
E + 01
E − 01
E − 01
E − 02
E − 02
E + 00
E − 05
E − 05
E − 01
E − 03
E − 04

Flow rate (volume basis)

bbl/day

U.K. gal/h
U.S. gal/h
U.K. gal/min
U.S. gal/min
ft3/min
ft3/s

m3/d

L/s
m3/d
L/s
m3/s
L/s
m3/s
L/s
dm3/s
dm3/s
dm3/s
dm3/s
dm3/s
dm3/s

1.589 873
1.840 131
2.831 685
3.277 413
4.416 314
4.416 314
7.865 791
7.865 791
1.262 803
1.051 503
7.576 820
6.309 020
4.719 474
2.831 685

E − 01

E − 03
E − 02
E − 04
E − 05
E − 02
E − 06
E − 03
E − 03
E − 03
E − 02
E − 02
E − 01
E + 01

Flow rate (mole basis)

(lb⋅mol)/s
(lb⋅mol)/h
million scf/D

kmol/s
kmol/s
kmol/s

4.535 924 E − 01
1.259 979 E − 04
1.383 45 E − 02

Flow rate/length (mass basis)

lbm/(s⋅ft)
lbm/(h⋅ft)

kg/(s⋅m)
kg/(s⋅m)

1.488 164 E + 00
4.133 789 E − 04

Flow rate/length (volume basis)

U.K. gal/(min⋅ft)
U.S. gal/(min⋅ft)
U.K. gal/(h⋅in)
U.S. gal/(h⋅in)
U.K. gal/(h⋅ft)
U.S. gal/(h⋅ft)

m2/s
m2/s
m2/s
m2/s
m2/s
m2/s

Flow rate/area (mass basis)

lbm/(s⋅ft2)
lbm/(h⋅ft2)

kg/(s⋅m2)
kg/(s⋅m2)

Flow rate/area (volume basis)

ft3/(s⋅ft2)
ft3/(min⋅ft2)
U.K. gal/(h⋅in2)
U.S. gal/(h⋅in2)
U.K. gal/(min⋅ft2)
U.S. gal/(min⋅ft2)
U.K. gal/(h⋅ft2)
U.S. gal/(h⋅ft2)

m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s

Flow rate

3

ft /day
bbl/h
ft3/h

L/s
L/s
L/s
L/s
L/s
L/s

m3/(s⋅m)
m3/(s⋅m)
m3/(s⋅m)
m3/(s⋅m)
m3/(s⋅m)
m3/(s⋅m)

2.485 833
2.069 888
4.971 667
4.139 776
4.143 055
3.449 814

E − 04
E − 04
E − 05
E − 05
E − 06
E − 06

4.882 428 E + 00

1.356 230 E − 03
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)
m3/(s⋅m2)

3.048*
5.08*
1.957 349
1.629 833
8.155 621
6.790 972
1.359 270
1.131 829

E − 01
E − 03
E − 03
E − 03
E − 04
E − 04
E − 05
E − 05

1-7

TABLE 1-4

Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (Continued )
Customary or commonly
used unit

Quantity

SI unit

Alternate
SI unit

Conversion factor; multiply
customary unit by factor to
obtain SI unit

Energy, work, power
Energy, work

therm

E + 02
E + 05
E + 01
E + 01
E + 00
E + 03
E − 01

E + 00
E + 03
E − 01
E + 00
E + 03
E + 00
E − 04
E + 00
E − 04
E + 00
E − 03
E − 03
E − 03
E − 03
E − 05
E − 07

kcal
cal
ft⋅lbf
lbf⋅ft
J
(lbf⋅ft2)/s2
erg

MJ
kJ
kWh
MJ
MJ

kJ
kWh
MJ
kJ
kWh
MJ
kJ
kJ
kWh
kJ
kWh
kJ
kJ
kJ
kJ
kJ
kJ
J

1.055 056
1.055 056
2.930 711
1.431 744
2.684 520
2.684 520
7.456 999
2.647 780
2.647 780
7.354 999
3.6*

3.6*
1.899 101
5.275 280
1.055 056
2.930 711
4.184*
4.184*
1.355 818
1.355 818
1.0*
4.214 011
1.0*

Impact energy

kgf⋅m
lbf⋅ft

J
J

9.806 650* E + 00
1.355 818 E + 00

Surface energy

erg/cm2

mJ/m2

1.0*

Specific-impact energy

(kgf⋅m)/cm2
(lbf⋅ft)/in2

J/cm2
J/cm2

9.806 650* E − 02
2.101 522 E − 03

Power

million Btu/h
ton of refrigeration
Btu/s
kW
hydraulic horsepower—hhp
hp (electric)
hp [(550 ft⋅lbf)/s]
ch or CV
Btu/min
(ft⋅lbf)/s
kcal/h
Btu/h
(ft⋅lbf)/min

MW

kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
W
W
W

2.930 711
3.516 853
1.055 056
1
7.460 43
7.46*
7.456 999
7.354 999
1.758 427
1.355 818
1.162 222
2.930 711
2.259 697

Power/area

Btu/(s⋅ft2)

cal/(h⋅cm2)
Btu/(h⋅ft2)

kW/m2
kW/m2
kW/m2

1.135 653 E + 01
1.162 222 E − 02
3.154 591 E − 03

Heat-release rate, mixing power

hp/ft3
cal/(h⋅cm3)
Btu/(s⋅ft3)
Btu/(h⋅ft3)

kW/m3
kW/m3
kW/m3
kW/m3

2.633 414
1.162 222
3.725 895
1.034 971

U.S. tonf⋅mi
hp⋅h

ch⋅h or CV⋅h
kWh
Chu
Btu

E + 00

E − 01
E + 00
E + 00
E − 01
E − 01
E − 01
E − 01
E − 02
E − 03
E + 00
E − 01
E − 02

E + 01
E + 00
E + 01
E − 02

3.930 148 E − 01

Cooling duty (machinery)

Btu/(bhp⋅h)

W/kW

Specific fuel consumption (mass
basis)

lbm/(hp⋅h)

mg/J
kg/kWh

kg/MJ

1.689 659 E − 01
6.082 774 E − 01

Specific fuel consumption (volume
basis)

m3/kWh
U.S. gal/(hp⋅h)
U.K. pt/(hp⋅h)

dm3/MJ
dm3/MJ
dm3/MJ

mm3/J
mm3/J
mm3/J

2.777 778 E + 02
1.410 089 E + 00
2.116 806 E − 01

Fuel consumption

U.K. gal/mi
U.S. gal/mi
mi/U.S. gal
mi/U.K. gal

dm3/100 km
dm3/100 km
km/dm3
km/dm3

L/100 km
L/100 km
km/L
km/L

2.824 807
2.352 146
4.251 437
3.540 064

1-8

E + 02

E + 02
E − 01
E − 01