2015 BPP f4 study text PART 8

Paper F4
Corporate and Business Law (English)
This ACCA Study Text for Paper F4 Corporate and
Business Law (English) has been comprehensively
reviewed by the ACCA examining team. This review
guarantees appropriate depth and breadth of content
and comprehensive syllabus coverage.

For exams up to June 2015

BPP House
142-144 Uxbridge Road
London W12 8AA
United Kingdom
T 0845 075 1100 (UK)
T +44 (0)20 8740 2211 (Overseas)
E
bpp.com/learningmedia

• A user-friendly format for easy navigation
• Exam focus points describing what the examining
team will want you to do
• Regular Fast Forward summaries emphasising the
key points in each chapter
• Questions and quick quizzes to test your
understanding
• A practice question bank containing exam-
standard questions with answers
• A full index
• All you need in one book

Study Text

Contact us

In addition to ACCA examining team reviewed
material you get:

Corporate and Business Law (English)

BPP Learning Media is dedicated to supporting aspiring business professionals
with top-quality learning material as they study for demanding professional
exams, often whilst working full time. BPP Learning Media’s commitment
to student success is shown by our record of quality, innovation and market
leadership in paper-based and e-learning materials. BPP Learning Media’s study
materials are written by professionally qualified specialists who know from
personal experience the importance of top-quality materials for exam success.

ACCA F4

ACCA approved content provider

ACCA APPROVED CONTENT PROVIDER

ACCA Approved
Study Text

Paper F4
Corporate and Business Law
(English)
Study Text for exams

up to June 2015

Free access
to our Exam
Success site
Look inside

June 2014
£32.00

ACF4(ENG)ST14 (RI).indd 1-3

27/05/2014 17:41


S
T
U
D
Y

PAPER F4
Corporate and Business Law
(English)

BPP Learning Media is an ACCA Approved Learning Partner – content. This means we
work closely with ACCA to ensure this Study Text contains the information you need to
pass your exam.
In this Study Text, which has been reviewed by the ACCA examination team, we:


Highlight the most important elements in the syllabus and the key skills you need



Signpost how each chapter links to the syllabus and the study guide



Provide lots of exam focus points demonstrating what is expected of you in the exam



Emphasise key points in regular fast forward summaries



Test your knowledge in quick quizzes



Examine your understanding in our practice question bank



Reference all the important topics in our full index

BPP's Practice & Revision Kit and i-Pass products also support this paper.

FOR EXAMS IN DECEMBER 2014 AND JUNE 2015

T
E
X
T


First edition 2007
Seventh edition June 2014
ISBN 9781 4727 1078 9
(Previous ISBN 9781 4453 9645 3)
e-ISBN 9781 4453 6732 3
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book
is available from the British Library

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of BPP Learning Media Ltd.
We are grateful to the Association of Chartered Certified
Accountants for permission to reproduce past
examination questions. The suggested solutions in the
practice answer bank have been prepared by BPP
Learning Media Ltd, unless otherwise stated.

Published by
BPP Learning Media Ltd
BPP House, Aldine Place

London W12 8AA
www.bpp.com/learningmedia
Printed in the United Kingdom by
Polestar Wheatons
Hennock Road
Marsh Barton
Exeter
EX2 8RP

Your learning materials, published by BPP Learning
Media Ltd, are printed on paper obtained from
traceable sustainable sources.

©
BPP Learning Media Ltd
2014

ii


Contents
Page

Introduction
Helping you to pass
Studying F4
The exam paper
Syllabus and Study Guide

v

vii
ix
x

Part A Essential elements of the legal system
1
2

Law and the legal system
Sources of law

3
17

Part B The law of obligations
3
4
5
6
7

Formation of contract I
Formation of contract II
Content of contracts
Breach of contract and remedies
The law of torts and professional negligence

37
55
73

89
105

Part C Employment law
8
9

Contract of employment
Dismissal and redundancy

123
139

Part D The formation and constitution of business organisations
10
11
12
13
14

Agency law
Partnerships
Corporations and legal personality
Company formation
Constitution of a company

157
167
177
195

209

Part E Capital and the financing of companies
15
16
17

Share capital
Loan capital
Capital maintenance and dividend law

227
243
257

Part F Management, administration and regulation of companies
18
19
20

Company directors
Other company officers
Company meetings and resolutions

269
293
303

Part G Legal implications of companies in difficulty or in crisis
21

Insolvency and administration

321

Part H Governance and ethical issues relating to business
22

Fraudulent and criminal behaviour

Practice question bank
Practice answer bank
List of cases and index
Review form

341

359
369
379

Contents

iii


A note about copyright
Dear Customer
What does the little © mean and why does it matter?
Your market-leading BPP books, course materials and e-learning materials do not write and update

themselves. People write them: on their own behalf or as employees of an organisation that invests in this
activity. Copyright law protects their livelihoods. It does so by creating rights over the use of the content.
Breach of copyright is a form of theft – as well as being a criminal offence in some jurisdictions, it is
potentially a serious breach of professional ethics.
With current technology, things might seem a bit hazy but, basically, without the express permission of
BPP Learning Media:
 Photocopying our materials is a breach of copyright
 Scanning, ripcasting or conversion of our digital materials into different file formats, uploading them
to facebook or e-mailing them to your friends is a breach of copyright
You can, of course, sell your books, in the form in which you have bought them – once you have finished
with them. (Is this fair to your fellow students? We update for a reason.) Please note the e-products are
sold on a single user licence basis: we do not supply ‘unlock’ codes to people who have bought them
second-hand.
And what about outside the UK? BPP Learning Media strives to make our materials available at prices
students can afford by local printing arrangements, pricing policies and partnerships which are clearly
listed on our website. A tiny minority ignore this and indulge in criminal activity by illegally photocopying
our material or supporting organisations that do. If they act illegally and unethically in one area, can you
really trust them?

iv


Helping you to pass
BPP Learning Media – Approved Learning Partner – content
As ACCA's Approved Learning Partner – content, BPP Learning Media gives you the opportunity to use
study materials reviewed by the ACCA examination team. By incorporating the examination team's
comments and suggestions regarding the depth and breadth of syllabus coverage, the BPP Learning
Media Study Text provides excellent, ACCA-approved support for your studies.

The PER alert

Before you can qualify as an ACCA member, you not only have to pass all your exams but also fulfil a three
year practical experience requirement (PER). To help you to recognise areas of the syllabus that you
might be able to apply in the workplace to achieve different performance objectives, we have introduced
the 'PER alert' feature. You will find this feature throughout the Study Text to remind you that what you
are learning to pass your ACCA exams is equally useful to the fulfilment of the PER requirement.
Your achievement of the PER should now be recorded in your on-line My Experience record.

Tackling studying
Studying can be a daunting prospect, particularly when you have lots of other commitments. The different
features of the text, the purposes of which are explained fully on the Chapter features page, will help you
whilst studying and improve your chances of exam success.

Developing exam awareness
Our Texts are completely focused on helping you pass your exam.
Our advice on Studying F4 outlines the content of the paper, the necessary skills you are expected to be
able to demonstrate and any brought forward knowledge you are expected to have.
Exam focus points are included within the chapters to highlight when and how specific topics were
examined, or how they might be examined in the future.

Using the Syllabus and Study Guide
You can find the syllabus and Study Guide on pages x – xvii of this Study Text

Testing what you can do
Testing yourself helps you develop the skills you need to pass the exam and also confirms that you can
recall what you have learnt.
We include Questions – lots of them – both within chapters and in the Practice Question Bank, as well as
Quick Quizzes at the end of each chapter to test your knowledge of the chapter content.

Introduction

v


Chapter features
Each chapter contains a number of helpful features to guide you through each topic.
Topic list
Topic list

Syllabus reference

What you will be studying in this chapter and the relevant
section numbers, together with ACCA syllabus references.

Introduction

Puts the chapter content in the context of the syllabus as
a whole.

Study Guide

Links the chapter content with ACCA guidance.

Exam Guide

Highlights how examinable the chapter content is likely to
be and the ways in which it could be examined.

Knowledge brought forward from earlier studies

What you are assumed to know from previous

studies/exams.

FAST FORWARD

Summarises the content of main chapter headings,
allowing you to preview and review each section easily.

Examples

Demonstrate how to apply key knowledge and
techniques.

Key terms

Definitions of important concepts that can often earn you
easy marks in exams.

Exam focus points

When and how specific topics were examined, or how
they may be examined in the future.

Formula to learn

Formulae that are not given in the exam but which have to
be learnt.
Gives you a useful indication of syllabus areas that
closely relate to performance objectives in your Practical
Experience Requirement (PER).

vi

Introduction

Question

Gives you essential practice of techniques covered in the
chapter.

Case Study

Real world examples of theories and techniques.

Chapter Roundup

A full list of the Fast Forwards included in the chapter,
providing an easy source of review.

Quick Quiz

A quick test of your knowledge of the main topics in the
chapter.

Practice Question Bank

Found at the back of the Study Text with more
comprehensive chapter questions. Cross referenced for
easy navigation.

Studying F4
This paper examines a basic understanding of legal principles and their application. You may find the
material a little different from what you are used to because there are virtually no numbers involved.
Therefore it is important to develop a concise style of writing in order to get your points across quickly
and clearly.

1 What F4 is about
The main aims of the F4 exam are:


To develop knowledge and skills in the understanding of the general legal framework and of
specific legal areas relating to business, but



To recognise the need to seek further specialist legal advice where necessary

The exam is not designed to turn you into a legal expert. Instead you will be a well-informed professional
accountant who appreciates the legal issues of doing business but who recognises the boundaries of their
legal knowledge and therefore the point at which professional legal expertise must be sought. The
sequence of the syllabus and study guide takes you through the main areas of what you need to know.
Essential elements of the legal system
In this part of the syllabus you are covering areas that underlie all the other areas, namely: what is law and
how the UK legal system creates and administers it. The distinctions between criminal law and civil law,
between common law and civil law and between public law and private law, are very important. Most of
the paper is concerned with civil law, namely the law that sets out the rights and duties of persons in
relation to each other. There are elements of criminal law in relation to companies, insolvency, insider
dealing and money laundering, in addition to the topical area of human rights legislation.
Law of obligations
The syllabus clearly distinguishes two important types of obligation that individuals and businesses have.

Contract
When individuals or businesses make agreements, a legally binding contract may be formed. This paper
focuses on the requirements that must be met for a contract to be binding on the parties, what valid
contracts must contain, under which circumstances the contractual terms are breached and what
remedies are available for the affected party.
Tort
All members of society have a duty not to harm others and this principle forms the basis of tort. The tort
of negligence is highly topical and has an impact on individuals, businesses and professionals (such as
accountants). It is important for you to understand how such a duty is formed, the circumstances that will
cause a breach of that duty and if there are any defences to a breach that the perpetrator can call on.
Employment law
Employees and employers are bound to each other by an employment contact. It is important that you
have a good understanding of the contents of such a contract. Both employers and their employees owe
duties to each other and breach of these duties can result in legal action being taken.
Termination of employment can be fraught with danger for employers if it is not handled correctly. The
terms of 'wrongful' and 'unfair' dismissal are used commonly in the media, but the causes and remedies
are distinct and it is important for you to understand the difference.

Introduction

vii


Formation and constitution of business organisations
The syllabus is very concerned with the various legal forms through which business transactions may be
conducted. It is important to distinguish initially between natural persons (human beings) and legal
persons (including natural persons, but extending to some forms of partnership and, most significantly,
companies). The law of agency underlies a substantial part of our study of business forms, since partners
and directors can and sometimes do act as agents.
Capital and the financing of companies

Most trading companies are financed by a mix of share capital (provided by their owners) and loan capital
(provided by third party lenders). Share capital may take a variety of forms, with each class of share
having different rights within the company. However, the primary responsibility of the shareholder is to
contribute funds to the company in accordance with the terms of the company's constitution and the
shares which they own. The return of these funds to shareholders is restricted since they are seen as the
'creditors' buffer', that is the funds which are available to settle creditors' outstanding debts in preference
to amounts due to shareholders. Hence there are detailed laws on 'capital maintenance'. These extend to
how far companies may distribute accumulated retained earnings to their shareholders in the form of
dividends or buyback of shares.
Loan capital is usually provided by lenders only if they can be assured of its repayment to them. If lenders
supply funds in return for debentures in the company, they usually require security for their loan: the
debenture is secured by means of a registered charge on particular or general assets of the company,
which can (within limitations) be realised so that the loan is repaid.
Management, administration and regulation of companies
As an artificial legal person a company cannot manage itself. This is the role primarily of the company's
directors, who owe duties to the company to manage it for the benefit of the company and thereby for the
benefit of its owners, the shareholders. There are a great many legal rules which regulate the appointment,
remuneration, disqualification, powers and duties of directors. These have grown up largely because of
problems that frequently occur. Most of these can be said to arise from conflicts between directors'
personal interests and their duties to act in the company's interest. Directors are termed officers of the
company along with the company secretary. Many companies also have to have an auditor.
Directors come into immediate contact with shareholders via company meetings, and the resolutions that
are passed at these meetings. There are therefore a plethora of legal rules on meetings and resolutions,
designed to ensure that the company is taking decisions properly and in accordance with the legitimate
interests of shareholders as a body.
Legal implications of companies in difficulty or in crisis
Not everything goes according to plan and frequently companies will encounter financial or other
difficulties, or will even reach crisis point and find themselves insolvent. At this point all parties –
shareholders, directors, lenders, customers, suppliers and employees – are in danger of losing out. There
are procedures designed to protect struggling companies to give them a 'breathing space' while they

resolve their issues. There are also rules for how a company which cannot be saved should be 'wound up',
depending on whether or not the company has any funds left.
Fraudulent behaviour
Finally the syllabus covers the situations where activities of directors and others have strayed into criminal
behaviour. This often arises in the context of companies running out of money, but the law is also
concerned with company insiders with superior knowledge benefiting from insider dealing, and crime in
the form of money laundering.

viii

Introduction


2 What skills are required?
To pass the F4 exam you will need to bring different professional attributes to bear.
First you need technical knowledge. There is a huge amount of technical content in the syllabus: case law,
conventions, codes of practice, and legislation. You need to learn this and be able to identify which parts
of the knowledge you have are being called for in a particular question.
Secondly you need to be able to apply knowledge to the scenarios that are presented in the last five
questions on the paper. You are aiming to solve practical problems here.

3 How to improve your chances of passing


There is no choice in this paper, all questions have to be answered. You must therefore study the
entire syllabus, there are no short-cuts



The first section of the exam consists of 45 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) worth either one or

two marks each. The total marks on offer in this section is 70. These will inevitably cover a wide
range of the syllabus



The second section of the exam consists of 5 Multiple Task Questions (MTQs) worth 6 marks
each. Each MTQ will be broken down into sub-questions. The total marks on offer in this section is
30. Each MTQ question will be based on a scenario and will require some application of your
knowledge
Practising questions under timed conditions is essential. BPP's Practice and Revision Kit and ipass contain questions on all areas of the syllabus





Keep an eye out for articles as the examination team will use Student Accountant to communicate
with students
Read journals etc to pick up on ways in which real organisations apply the law and think about
your own organisation if that is relevant

4 Brought forward knowledge
There is no brought forward knowledge for the F4 Exam.

The exam paper
Format of the paper
The exam lasts two hours and is divided into two sections.
Section A consists of 45 MCQs, a mixture of one or two marks each. One mark MCQs will require you to
choose one correct option from three, and two mark MCQs will require you to choose one correct option
from four.
Section B consists of 5 MTQs containing a total of 6 marks each.

All questions are compulsory.
The exam will cover as much of the syllabus as possible.

Introduction

ix


Syllabus and Study Guide
The F4 syllabus and study guide can be found below.

x

Introduction


Introduction

xi


xii

Introduction


Introduction

xiii

xiv

Introduction


Introduction

xv


xvi

Introduction


Introduction

xvii


xviii

Introduction


P
A
R
T

A

Essential elements of the legal
system

1


2


Law and the legal
system

Topic list

Syllabus reference

1 What is law?

A1(a)

2 Types of law

A1(a)

3 The system of courts

A1(b)

Introduction
Welcome to your study of Corporate and Business law. In this chapter we set
the scene and framework of the English Legal System.
We start by defining what law is and why it is important to society. Our study
continues by considering the different types of law that we have in the UK and
how they have developed over time.
The chapter concludes with an analysis of the criminal and civil court
systems.

3


Study guide
Intellectual level
A

Essential elements of the legal system

1

Law and the legal system

(a)

Define law and distinguish types of law

1

(b)

Explain the structure and operation of the courts

1

Exam guide
The nature of law and the operation of the legal system form a basis for your later studies but will also be
examined as a topic all by itself.

1 What is law?
FAST FORWARD

'Law is a formal mechanism of social control', Business Law 5th Edition, David Kelly, Ann Holmes and
Ruth Hayward
Human society has developed over thousands of years from a primitive culture where the very survival of
the species was at stake to the complex, diverse and dominating species that humans are today.
Much of the success of this development can be attributable to rules and regulations laid down by
society. With a little further study the need for such rules becomes clear. In the early days of human
existence, survival was achieved by working as a group. There was a fine line between life and death, for
example the stealing of food from another group member could eventually result in starvation or death of
the victim.
Social order, created by rules is at the foundation of the society that we see today. The framework that
was created influences how individuals interact and how businesses operate. In other words, it provides
social control.
The framework of social control can be viewed as having two aspects:



Formal control mechanisms
Informal control mechanisms

Law is a formal control mechanism. It provides a structure for dealing with and resolving disputes that
may arise, as well as providing some deterrent to those wishing to disrupt social order.
Informal mechanisms include ethical and moral guidance. These are 'norms' or behavioural expectations
that society has developed over time through its culture. Such mechanisms have little formal structure to
organise, control or to punish – such matters are dealt with informally by pressure from other individuals
or groups.
PER 1 requires you to demonstrate the application of professional ethics, values and judgement. The
contents of this Study Text should help you identify common legal and regulatory compliance
requirements.

2 Types of law
The English legal system distinguishes several different types of law.




4

Common law and equity
Statute law
Private law and public law
Criminal law and civil law

1: Law and the legal system  Part A Essential elements of the legal system


2.1 Common law and equity
The earliest element of the English legal system is common law, a system of rigid rules laid down by royal
courts following the Norman conquest. Application of law was by judges who travelled around the country
to keep the King's peace and judgements often resulted in harsh consequences.

The judges actually made the law by amalgamating local customary laws into one 'law of the land'.
Remedies under common law are monetary, and are known as damages.
However, there are times when money is not a suitable remedy. For example, you have agreed to buy a
unique painting from an art dealer. Should the dealer at the last minute sell the painting to someone else,
damages are unlikely to be acceptable, after all you wanted that painting.
Equity was developed two or three hundred years after common law as a system to resolve disputes
where damages are not a suitable remedy and to introduce fairness into the legal system.

2.2 Statute law
Whilst the judiciary is responsible for the creation of common law, Parliament is responsible for statute
law. Statute law is usually made in areas so complicated or unique that suitable common law alternatives
are unlikely, or would take an unacceptable length of time, to develop – company law is one example of
this.

2.3 Private law and public law
Most of the law that you will be studying is private law. That is law which deals with relationships and
interactions between businesses, and private individuals, groups or organisations.
The state provides a framework for dealing with disputes and for enforcing decisions, but it is for
individuals to handle matters between themselves. For example, the Sale of Goods Act 1979 regulates the
sale of goods. It provides rules that must be adhered to when making a sale. Should any dispute arise that
is covered by the Act, it is up to the parties to resolve the matter themselves using rules laid down by the
legislation, the state does not get involved.
Public law is mainly concerned with government and the operation and functions of public organisations
such as councils and local authorities. It will not be of great interest to you in your studies of corporate
law, however examples of public law can be found in planning rules that must be adhered to when
building or expanding offices.
A key distinction between public and private law is who takes up the case when a wrong is committed.
The state prosecutes the alleged perpetrator under public law, whereas we have already seen, under
private law it is for the individual concerned to take action.
Criminal law is a part of public law and deals with behaviour that the state considers unwelcome and

wishes to prevent. Criminal law also decides how those guilty of committing unlawful behaviour should be
punished. You will notice the names of criminal cases are reported as R v Jones or Regina v Jones. This
indicates that the state takes action on behalf of the crown (Regina is Latin for Queen).

2.4 Criminal and civil law
FAST FORWARD

The distinction between criminal liability and civil liability is central to the English legal system.
It is often the criminal law about which the general public has a clearer perception and keener interest.
Some of the high profile criminal cases at London's Old Bailey are deemed extremely newsworthy. Civil
law, on the other hand, receives less overt media coverage. However, every time you buy or sell goods, or
start or finish an employment contract, your actions, and those of the other party, are governed by civil
law.
The distinction between criminal and civil liability is central to the English legal system and to the way the
court system is structured.
Part A Essential elements of the legal system  1: Law and the legal system

5


2.4.1 Criminal law
FAST FORWARD

Key term

In criminal cases, the state prosecutes the wrongdoer.

A crime is conduct prohibited by the law.
In a criminal case the State is the prosecutor because it is the community as a whole which suffers as a
result of the law being broken. Persons guilty of crime may be punished by fines payable to the State,

imprisonment, or a community-based punishment.
Generally, the police take the initial decision to prosecute, but this is then reviewed by the Crown
Prosecution Service. Some prosecutions are started by the Director of Public Prosecutions, who is the
head of the Crown Prosecution Service.
In a criminal trial, the burden of proof to convict the accused rests with the prosecution, which must
prove its case beyond reasonable doubt.

2.4.2 Civil law
FAST FORWARD

Civil law exists to regulate disputes over the rights and obligations of persons dealing with each other and
seeks to compensate injured parties.
Civil law is a form of private law. In civil proceedings, the case must be proved on the balance of
probability. The claimant must convince the court that it is more probable than not that their assertions
are true.
There is no concept of punishment, and compensation is paid to the wronged person. Both parties may
choose to settle the dispute out of court should they wish.
Terminology in civil cases is different to that of criminal cases. A claimant sues a defendant. A civil case
would therefore be referred to as, for example, Smith v Megacorp plc.
One of the most important areas of civil liability for business, and accountants in particular, is contract
law.

2.4.3 Distinction between criminal and civil cases
It is not an act or event which creates the distinction, but the legal consequences. A single event might
give rise to criminal and civil proceedings.

Illustration
A broken leg caused to a pedestrian by a drunken driver is a single event which may give rise to:



Criminal case (prosecution by the State for the offence of driving with excess alcohol), and
Civil case (the pedestrian sues for compensation for pain and suffering).

The two types of proceedings can be easily distinguished because three vital factors are different:




6

The courts where the case is heard
The procedures
The terminology

1: Law and the legal system  Part A Essential elements of the legal system