Information and communication technology (ICT) and teaching english in rural vietnamese primary schools policies, pratices and implementation factors

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
and teaching English in rural Vietnamese primary schools:
Policies, practices and implementation factors

Submitted by

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang
M.A. in TESOL
B.A. in English Literature

A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Education
Division of Education, Arts and Social Sciences

January, 2015


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Table of Contents
List of Figures

vi

List of Tables

viii

List of Appendices

ix

Glossary

x

Summary

xii

Declaration

xiv

Thesis-related publications and presentations

xv

Acknowledgements

xvi

Chapter 1
1.1

Introduction

1

Context of the study

3

1.1.1

Primary schooling in Vi t Nam

4

1.1.2

Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam

6

1.1.3

The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools

7

1.1.4

Introduction of ICT into Vietnamese primary schools

8

1.1.5

Section summary

9

1.2

Coming to this research: A personal story

10

1.3

The research problem

13

1.4

Objectives and research question

14

1.5

Definition of terms

15

1.6

Significance of the study

16

1.7

Foreseen limitations

17

1.8

Thesis organisation

17

Chapter 2

Policy and implementation relating to ICT and English
language teaching

2.1

19

English language teaching in primary schools

19

2.1.1

Introduction of the English language to primary students

20

2.1.2

Issues in teaching English to primary students

21

2.1.3

Leadership for teaching English in primary schools

23

2.1.4

Professional development and online resources for primary
English teachers

23

i


2.2

ICT in primary schools

26

2.2.1

Use of ICT in primary schools

27

2.2.2

Obstacles to the implementation of ICT

28

2.2.3

Leadership for the use of ICT in primary schools

31

2.2.4

Professional development for ICT implementation

33

2.2.5

Online forum for professional development and learning

35

2.3

ICT in English language teaching in primary schools

38

2.3.1

History of Computer Assisted or Aided Language Learning (CALL)

39

2.3.2

The benefits of ICT in English language teaching

40

2.3.3

Use of ICT in primary ELT

41

2.3.4

Changes in EFL classroom practice with the use of technology

43

2.4

Equity and rural education

44

2.4.1

Equity in education in rural areas

45

2.4.2

Equity in English language learning and teaching in rural areas

46

2.4.3

Equity and ICT in rural education

48

2.4.4

Effective language teaching in limited technology contexts

48

2.4.5

Section review

49

Chapter Review

49

2.5

Chapter 3

Methodology

51

3.1

Research approach

51

3.2

Theoretical perspectives

53

3.2.1

Language-in-education planning goals

53

3.2.2

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

55

3.2.3

Application of theoretical perspectives

61

3.3
3.3.1

Research design

61

Research sites

61

Rural primary schools in Ti n Giang province

62

The virtual online forum site

63

3.3.2

Research participants

63

3.3.3

Data collection methods

64

Questionnaires

66

Interviews

67

Document analysis

69

Online forum analysis

70

Summary of data collection methods and objectives

70

ii


3.4

Data analysis

72

3.4.1

Quantitative data

72

3.4.2

Qualitative data

72

3.5

Preparation for analysis

72

Thematic analysis

73

Ethical considerations

74

3.5.1

Recruitment of participants

74

3.5.2

Confidentiality

75

3.6

Chapter review

Chapter 4

75

Implementation of English language education policy in
rural primary schools

77

4.1

English language education policy production

4.2

Achievement of policy planning goals for primary English
language teaching

78

79

4.2.1

Access policy: who learns what when?

80

4.2.2

Personnel policy: Where do teachers come from and how are they
trained?

84

Gender, age and teaching experience

84

Pre-service training and qualifications

85

English language proficiency

88

Participation in professional development

90

Teacher retention

91

4.2.3

Curriculum policy: What are the objectives in language teaching/learning? 92

4.2.4

Methods and materials policy: What methodology and what materials
are employed over what duration?

93

4.2.5

Resourcing policy: How is everything paid for?

97

4.2.6

Community policy: Who is consulted/involved?

98

4.2.7

Evaluation policy: What is the connection between assessment, on the
one hand, and methods and materials that define the educational
objectives, on the other?

98

Summary: Key features relating to the achievement of the MOET’s
policy planning goals for primary English language teaching in
participating schools

99

4.2.8

4.3

Chapter review

Chapter 5
5.1

100

Introducing ICT in rural primary schools

102

Introduction of ICT through the MOET and the DOET

102

iii


5.2

School facilities for ICT: Use by English teachers

106

5.3

School leaders’ views on the introduction of ICT

112

5.3.1

School leaders’ attitudes towards ICT

112

5.3.2

School leaders’ support for ICT implementation

114

5.3.3

School leaders’ attitudes to professional development

115

5.3.4

Section Review

116

5.4

English teachers and the use of ICT

116

5.4.1

Attitudes to ICT

117

5.4.2

Competence with ICT

119

5.4.3

Attitudes to professional development

121

5.4.4

Access to professional development

122

5.4.5

Province level

122

Expectations for future professional development

123

5.5

Issues in implementing ICT use in schools
Chapter review

Chapter 6

131

Analysis of an online forum for professional development for
ICT in ELT

6.1

126

132

The development of an online forum

132

6.1.1

Forum location and basic structure

133

6.1.2

Forum structure

134

6.1.3

Characteristics of the ‘ICT in Teaching English to Primary Students’
forum

138

Selection criteria for posting forum resources
6.1.4
6.2

Section review

138
144

The online forum in action

145

6.2.1

Teacher training sessions

145

6.2.2

Key sub-forums

145

Sub-Forum: Online resources

146

Sub-Forum: English teaching methods

147

Sub-Forum: Sample lessons

148

Sub-Forum: ICT tips

150

6.2.3

Participation

151

6.2.4

Number of viewings

151

6.2.5

Interaction

153

6.3

Factors in the non-use of the forum by case study teachers

6.3.1

Time

155
156

iv


6.3.2

Family responsibilities

156

6.3.3

Skills

156

6.3.4

Facilities

157

6.3.5

Age

158

6.3.6

Forum content

158

6.3.7

Limitations of the forum

159

6.4

Chapter review

Chapter 7

159
161

Limitations of the study

162

7.1

Discussion

7.1.1

Limitations in data generation methods

162

7.1.2

Limitations in research participation

163

7.1.3

Limitations in timing and duration

164

7.1.4

Limitations of geographical location

165

7.1.5

Section review

165

7.2

Rurality factors shaping primary English language education
and ICT use

165

7.2.1

Factor 1: Policies as universal documents

166

7.2.2

Factor 2: Provincial policy implementation decisions

167

7.2.3

Factor 3: School leadership in rural schools

168

7.2.4

Factor 4: Facilities and English teaching resources in rural settings

170

7.2.5

Factor 5: Rural teacher knowledge and skills

171

7.2.6

Factor 6: Time and family responsibilities in rural communities

175

7.2.7

Factor 7: Rural teachers’ professional development and learning

177

7.2.8

Section review

179

Recommendations

183

7.3

7.3.1

Recommendations regarding policy development

184

7.3.2

Recommendations for school leaders

184

7.3.3

Recommendations for English teachers

187

7.3.4

Recommendations for professional development and learning

188

7.3.5

Recommendations for further research

192

7.3.6

Summary of recommendations

194

7.4

Thesis conclusion

195

References

197

Appendices

217

v


List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Resources pyramid ......................................................................................................................25
Figure 2.2 A model of rural social space .....................................................................................................45
Figure 3.1 The TPACK image .....................................................................................................................56

Figure 3.2 Visual description of teacher levels as their thinking and understanding merge
toward the interconnected and integrated manner identified by TPACK .............................60
Figure 3.3 Research site and distances of rural primary schools...............................................................63
Figure 3.4 Sequence of research procedures ...............................................................................................65
Figure 4.1 Number of English teachers per school.....................................................................................83
Figure 4.2 Primary English teachers’ age range .........................................................................................84
Figure 4.3 Primary English teachers’ experience range.............................................................................85
Figure 4.4 Teachers’ qualifications (n=47)..................................................................................................86
Figure 4.5 Use of teaching tools in the English classroom ........................................................................96
Figure 5.1 ICT facilities available in the schools ..................................................................................... 106
Figure 5.2 View of a computer room in a rural primary school in Ti n Giang province ................... 107
Figure 5.3 View of a computer room used for English language learning in a primary school
in H Chí Minh City................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 5.4 Use of ICT in the classroom by English teachers ................................................................. 109
Figure 5.5 School leaders’ awareness of the benefits of ICT in teaching ............................................. 112
Figure 5.6 Comparison of the awareness of the benefits of ICT in English teaching between
teachers and school leaders...................................................................................................... 113
Figure 5.7 English teachers’ awareness of the benefits of ICT in teaching .......................................... 117
Figure 5.8 Teachers’ self-rating for ICT skills ......................................................................................... 119
Figure 5.9 English teachers using ICT tools............................................................................................. 120
Figure 5.10 Comparison of the awareness of the importance of professional development for
technology-enhanced ELT between teachers and school leaders ....................................... 122
Figure 5.11 Duration of professional development activities (n=46)...................................................... 124
Figure 5.12 Approaches for professional development activities ............................................................ 125
Figure 5.13 Necessary professional development topics for English teachers: Comparison
between teachers and school leaders' opinions ...................................................................... 126
Figure 5.14 English teachers rating their computer skills based on age .................................................. 129
Figure 6.1 Screenshot of Forum for Education homepage ..................................................................... 133
vi

Figure 6.2 Forum Structure.........................................................................................................................135
Figure 6.3 Sub-forum structure ..................................................................................................................137
Figure 6.4 Snapshot of the sub-forums......................................................................................................137
Figure 6.5 Online forum contents relating to TPACK.............................................................................140
Figure 6.6 Snapshot of Moderation Tools.................................................................................................141
Figure 6.7 Snapshot of forum post .............................................................................................................142
Figure 6.8 Snapshot of a forum post ..........................................................................................................143
Figure 6.9 Snapshot of forum post .............................................................................................................144
Figure 6.10 Snapshot of sub-forum 'Online resources' ..............................................................................146
Figure 6.11 Snapshot of sub-forum 'English teaching methods' ...............................................................147
Figure 6.12 Snapshot of sub-forum 'Sample lessons'.................................................................................148
Figure 6.13 Snapshot of a thread on Let's go songs....................................................................................149
Figure 6.14 Snapshot of sub-forum 'ICT tips' .............................................................................................150
Figure 6.15 A snapshot of a post by a forum member ...............................................................................151
Figure 6.16 Forum thread follow-up............................................................................................................152
Figure 6.17 Follow-up of the thread titled ‘Resources for Let's Go series – Third edition’ from
the start date of posting for one month ....................................................................................152
Figure 6.18 Follow-up of the thread titled ‘Magic English - Learn English with Disney
characters’ for 11 months since the start date of posting.......................................................153
Figure 6.19 Post smileys of 'thanks' and 'like'..............................................................................................153
Figure 6.20 Snapshot of forum post .............................................................................................................154
Figure 6.21 Snapshot of visitor message .....................................................................................................154
Figure 6.22 Internet searching skill by age ..................................................................................................158
Figure 7.1 A TPACK representation of primary English language teaching (PELT) practice
in the rural sample .....................................................................................................................172
Figure 7.2 Examining English teachers’ knowledge with TPACK levels ............................................174
Figure 7.3 Relationship among rurality factors shaping ICT integration in Primary English
teaching.......................................................................................................................................181
Figure 7.4 TPACK and Primary English Language Teaching (PELT).................................................191

vii


List of Tables
Table 1.1

Sample of a school timetable for Grade 3 ...................................................................................5

Table 2.1

Possible implications for schools and teachers for the integration of ICT
into education ............................................................................................................................30

Table 2.2

Leadership of professional learning (Timperley, 2011, p. 113)..............................................32

Table 2.3

Three stages of CALL.................................................................................................................39

Table 3.1

Language-in-education policy planning goals..........................................................................54

Table 3.2

Summary of research participants in case studies ....................................................................64

Table 3.3

An overview of the questionnaire structure ..............................................................................67

Table 3.4

Data collection methods..............................................................................................................71

Table 3.5

Examples of participant coding..................................................................................................73

Table 3.6

Phases of thematic analysis.........................................................................................................74

Table 4.1

A summary of primary English language teaching policies in Vi t Nam.............................79

Table 4.2

Key features relating to the achievement of the MOET’s policy planning goals for
primary ELT in participating schools ........................................................................................99

Table 4.3

Obstacles to the successful implementation of ELT in the rural primary schools............. 100

Table 5.1

A summary of ICT policies in Vi t Nam............................................................................... 103

Table 5.2

Comparison of computer-based resources and supports in the four case study schools ......... 111

Table 5.3

School leaders’ awareness of the importance of teacher professional development......... 115

Table 5.4

English teachers’ awareness of the importance of professional development for
ICT-enhanced ELT .................................................................................................................. 121

Table 5.5

Obstacles to the implementation of ICT for teaching English in the rural
primary schools ...................................................................................................................... 130

Table 6.1

List of sub-forums..................................................................................................................... 135

Table 6.2

Forum content targeting TPACK ........................................................................................... 139

Table 6.3

Sample of selection criteria of forum resources .................................................................... 141

Table 6.4

Obstacles to the successful implementation of the online forum for English teacher
professional learning in rural primary schools....................................................................... 160

Table 7.1

Categorising rurality factors..................................................................................................... 180

Table 7.2

Suggestions for rural school leaders’ support for integrating ICT and English ................. 186

Table 7.3

Suggestions for rural English teachers’ move into integrating ICT and English............... 188

Table 7.4

Recommendations for ICT integration in Primary English teaching in rural schools ...... 194
viii


List of Appendices
Appendix 1.1

The structure of Vietnamese education system .............................................................218

Appendix 2.1

CEFR global scale ............................................................................................................219

Appendix 3.1

Map of Ti n Giang province ...........................................................................................220

Appendix 3.2

Letter to the Director of Ti n Giang DOET...................................................................221

Appendix 3.3

Ti n Giang DOET’s Approval (Translation) ................................................................222

Appendix 3.4

Ethics approvals ................................................................................................................223

Appendix 3.5

Information sheet (for questionnaires in Stage 1)........................................................224

Appendix 3.6

Questionnaire (for English Teachers in Stage 1) ..........................................................225

Appendix 3.7

Questionnaire (for principals/vice-principals in Stage 1).............................................228

Appendix 3.8

Questions for telephone interviews with school principals (Stage 1)..........................230

Appendix 3.9

Letter to the Principal of Primary Schools .....................................................................231

Appendix 3.10

Questions for interviews with teachers (Stage 1) ..........................................................232

Appendix 3.11

Consent form (Interview).................................................................................................233

Appendix 3.12

Outline for the training session ........................................................................................234

Appendix 3.13

Information sheet (for school principals in Stage 2).....................................................235

Appendix 3.14

Information sheet (for English teachers in Stage 2) ................................................237

Appendix 3.15

Interview questions for the principals (Stage 2).............................................................239

Appendix 3.16

Interview questions for the teachers (Stage 2) ...............................................................240

Appendix 4.1

Detailed syllabus for teaching English in Grade 3...................................................241

ix


Glossary
BOET

District-level Bureau of Education and Training

CALL

Computer Assisted Language Learning

CEFR

Common European Framework of Reference for languages

DOET

Province/City-level Department of Education and Training

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ELT

English Language Teaching

ESOL

English for speakers of other languages. University of Cambridge
ESOL Examinations (Cambridge ESOL) offers Cambridge Young
Learners English Tests designed for school children aged between 7
and 12 in 3 levels: Starters, Movers and Flyers.

ICT

Information and Communication Technology refers to various
technologies concerned with speeding and facilitating the exchange
and distribution of information. Examples of computer-based ICT in
this study include laptop/desktop computers, Internet, software, data
projectors.

MOET

Ministry of Education and Training in Vi t Nam

PD

Professional development refers the traditional approach for inservice that teachers often experience when they are asked to
implement a new curriculum or some other policy initiative.

PL

Professional learning refers the learning that occurs through a less
formalised structure providing increased flexibility. Involvement in
professional learning is therefore more likely to be voluntary, and
the subsequent learning is personal and appropriately shaped and
directed by each of us as individuals (Timperley, 2007).

x


Project 2020

Vi t Nam’s National Foreign Language 2020 Project is a national
project to carry out the Vietnamese Government’s Decision 1400 to
build national foreign language capacity. The Project is the MOET

TPACK

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge is a framework that
identifies the knowledge teachers need to teach effectively with
technology (Mishra & Koehler, 2009)

xi

Summary
The 21st century has seen the explosion of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT), including its ability to facilitate English language learning and
teaching. However, although ICT has been rapidly emerging in Vietnamese schools,
little is known about its integration into English language education especially in rural
areas.
The purpose of this research study was to investigate the use of ICT in facilitating
English language teaching in rural primary schools in Vi t Nam 1. It employed a
mixed methods approach using document analysis and three sequential data collection
methods—questionnaire, interview and online forum. The selected research site was
Ti n Giang, a province in Mekong Delta in the South of Vi t Nam. Research
participants were primary school leaders and English teachers in rural districts of this
province. The research was conducted in three stages: the first to administer the
questionnaire to 100 schools and identify follow-up case study participants, the
second to conduct data collection with school leaders and English teachers in four
case study schools, and the third to develop and trial an online forum to assist English
teachers with integrating ICT. Analysis of the data involved the application of the
seven language-in-education planning goals proposed by Kaplan and Baldauf (2005)
and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework,
developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006; 2009), as well as reference to diverse
Vietnamese sources of contextual information.
In exploring policies and practices related to English language teaching and the use of
ICT, it became evident that while rural primary schools in Ti n Giang province have
attempted to implement government policies to introduce English language teaching
in their schools, they have not been able to achieve full implementation due to various

1

A note for use of Vietnamese diacritical marks in this thesis. Vietnamese is written using letters of the

Latin alphabet along with additional diacritical marks on certain letters to indicate tones and certain
vowel sounds. Vietnamese words or names without these diacritics are incomplete. Therefore, I use
diacritical marks on all Vietnamese words within the text for their accurate meaning or identification.
Diacritical marks are used in: (a) names of Vietnamese individuals in the thesis and authors in citations
and references; (b) quotes and other words in Vietnamese; (c) names of places in Vi t Nam such as
cities and provinces including published places in references.

xii


obstacles. As a result, equity in foreign language policy and implementation is an
issue for the rural areas. Similarly, the findings regarding ICT policy implementation
highlighted significant obstacles, particularly in regard to integrating ICT across
curriculum areas. Professional development was identified as a crucial factor to bring
about use of ICT in schools, and consequently the research design included the
development and analysis of an online forum intended to facilitate primary English
teachers’ professional learning. Although the forum had limitations in terms of
participation by the rural case study teachers, the forum itself indicated achievable
ways of supporting independent professional learning for Vietnamese English
teachers and providing opportunities for sharing knowledge and building up a better
connection between cities and rural areas.
This study provides an in-depth insight into the current implementation of ICT in
teaching English in rural primary schools. In addition, it has identified and described
seven distinctive rurality factors shaping the achievement of policy implementation in
primary English language education and ICT use. These are: policies as universal
documents, provincial policy implementation decisions, school leadership in rural
schools, facilities and English teaching resources in rural settings, rural teachers’
knowledge and skills, time and family responsibilities in rural communities, and rural
teachers’ professional development and learning need. To effectively facilitate the use

of ICT across the curriculum in rural primary schools, all of these factors need to be
considered, and all have implications not only for English language teachers but also
for policy makers, school leaders, and curriculum and textbook writers.

xiii


Declaration

I declare that:
this thesis presents work carried out by myself and does not incorporate without
acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university; to the best of my knowledge it does not contain any materials previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text;
and all substantive contributions by others to the work presented, including jointly
authored publications, is clearly acknowledged.

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang

Date
15 January, 2015

xiv


Thesis-related publications and presentations
Nguy n, Th Thu Trang. (2011). ICT implementation and teacher development for
teaching English in rural primary schools. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual
International Conference on TESOL, Hu , Vi t Nam.
Nguy n, Th Thu Trang. (2012). English language policies for Vietnamese primary

schools and issues of implementation in rural settings. The Journal of Asia
TEFL Special Issue (Winter 2012), 115-134.
Nguy n, Th Thu Trang. (2013). The impact of leadership on the use of ICT and
teacher professional development in rural primary schools in Vi t Nam.
Paper presented at the 1st International Seminar on Leadership and
Development: Leading for positive change, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

xv


Acknowledgements
This thesis owes its existence to a large number of people. Without their contribution
this study would not have been possible.
I would like to dedicate this doctoral thesis to my two supervisors, Dr Jenny Barnett
and Dr Ruth Geer. They both provided me with not only invaluable advice, guidance,
supervision and various detailed comments but also unwavering patience and
encouragement during the process of this study. Thank you, Jenny and Ruth.
My thesis grew also through the vital aid of other researchers. Dr Monica Behrend
provided the critical reading on my manuscripts and ongoing guidance. She has been
my advisor, colleague and friend. Dr Hannah Young also always extended honest and
helpful feedback, and more importantly her time, which shaped and influenced my
writing and presentation. Nur Sofurah Mohd Faiz, my close friend and officemate, I
will never forget your kindness and assistance from day one! To these individuals,
thank you.
I would like to acknowledge the influence of Associate Professor
Huy Th nh, the
previous Director of Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional
Training Centre (SEAMEO RETRAC) for his important guidance, encouragement
and support for my study. He nurtured my interest and stimulated my constant
lifelong curiosity in the use of technology in education, especially in the field of

English language teaching and learning.
To my colleagues and teachers at SEAMEO RETRAC for having shared my
concerns, for having understood my needs and for always being there with a helping
hand.
To all the primary English teachers and school leaders that have participated in the
research, for their kindness and collaboration, for inspiring me in so many instances
and for their openness towards change and innovation.
I would like to thank my parents and my younger brother for their understanding and
patience and their unconditional love and their support all throughout my life. I am
also grateful to my uncle, Dr Nguy n B o Toàn and his family for their great support
during my study in Australia.
This study would have never been possible without the financial sponsorship of the
Ministry of Education and Training in Vi t Nam, SEAMEO RETRAC and the
University of South Australia.
Finally, I would like to thank my officemates, friends and the TESOL Research
Group who made time to comment on my writing and encouraged me during this
academic journey for a cause I so strongly believe in.
xvi


Chapter 1

Introduction

[C]omputers will not replace teachers,
teachers who use computers will eventually replace teachers who don't.
(Clifford, 1987, p. 13)

The purpose of this research is to investigate the implementation of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in the teaching of English in rural Vietnamese primary

schools. In common with many other countries in South East Asia, Vi t Nam regards
English language education as critical to its future. This is in line with the worldwide 21st
century explosion of learning and teaching the English language, due to the fact that
English is considered to be the foremost ‘lingua franca’ (Seidlhofer, 2005, p. 50) in world
interactions. Vi t Nam, although still a relatively poor country after going through a
series of wars, is one of the fastest growing economies in South East Asia (Brown, 2013).
The introduction in 1986 of the policy of

i M i (Economic Renovation) by the

Communist Party of Vi t Nam has made this possible and is allowing Vi t Nam to
gradually instigate global innovations and growth. Vi t Nam has made significant
progress in its economic development and it is now a member of the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and an emerging member of the globalised community (H. C.
Nguy n et al., 2009; WTO, 2006). Learning and teaching English as a foreign language
has been influential in this process (

, 2006; Wright, 2002). Vi t Nam’s Ministry of

Education and Training (MOET) aims to comprehensively renew and implement foreign
language teaching and learning programs at different education and training levels in the
national education system in order to improve the foreign language proficiency of its
human resources (Government of Vi t Nam, 2008).
With the rapid development in ICT, and its capacity to facilitate learning and teaching
(Underwood, 2009), teachers around the world are exploring more teaching resources
with new teaching methods that utilise computer-based ICT. Similarly, the Vietnamese
1


government and many educators have been aware of the need to incorporate

computer-based ICT into the foreign language curriculum (T. N.

ng, 2011; X. T.

ng,

2012; Government of Vi t Nam, 2008; V. L. Nguy n, 2009), going beyond the already
current use of other digital technologies such as cassette/CD players. ICT in this study
thus will generally refer to digital technologies or computer-based technologies which
reflects the use of the term in many recent policies issued by the MOET (2003, 2008a,
2011a).
Five years ago, in a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) document aiming to promote ICT literacy in the Asia-Pacific region, Pernia
(2008) estimated that Vi t Nam was high in appreciation but low on availability of
technology. Only three years later, as reported by Vi t Nam’s Ministry of Information
and Communications (MOIC), ‘all schools, colleges and universities in the country have
the Internet connection’ (MOIC, 2011, p. 15). Initially the limited infrastructure in
schools only allowed Internet access for school administration purposes, and not for
classroom purposes. However, infrastructure in schools has gradually improved, starting
with big cities such as Hà N i and H Chí Minh City where most classrooms are now
equipped with computers and data/LCD projectors. As a result, more and more ICT-based
instruction has been seen in metropolitan classrooms and in particular in language
classrooms, which is the focus of this study. In recent research into the use of ICT in five
teacher education institutes in five Northern and Central provinces of Vi t Nam, Peeraer
and Petegem (2010) note that important conditions, such as availability of equipment and
teacher educators’ awareness of ICT potentials for successful implementation, are now
met, with computer access no longer being the main factor holding back the use of ICT in
these teacher education institutions. They conclude their article by emphasising that
‘Vietnamese teachers and teacher educators should be prepared for a changed teacher role
and should know how ICT can be used in a way it improves the learning process towards

active teaching and learning’(p. 922). This suggests that the challenge will now be for
professional development on effective pedagogical implementation, a position basic to
this study.
Also central to this study is the question of whether all the important conditions for
successful implementation of ICT in English language teaching are met specifically in the
rural areas of Vi t Nam, as distinct from the urban areas. According to the World
Development Indicators produced in 2011 by the World Bank, Vi t Nam as an
2


agricultural country has 69% of its population living in rural areas as defined by the
General Statistics Office of Vi t Nam (World Bank, 2013b). Yet there has been a
widening gap between urban and rural education in terms of access and quality (V ,
2012), with the minority urban population having much greater access to technology and
Internet resources than those in rural areas, thus resulting in increased inequality.
The idea of this research grew out of my realisation that ICT is expected to be integrated
in teaching English in rural Vietnamese schools, especially at primary level, but little
information is available about accessibility to technology in rural schools, how ICT has
been used in such schools and whether ICT can help English teachers to facilitate their
professional learning. There is little research evidence on related questions such as the
following. Do the primary schools in rural areas have any obstacles in implementing ICT?
What are the views of school leaders and English teachers about ICT and its use in
teaching and learning? Can ICT bring any benefits for rural English teachers to improve
their professionalism and compensate for the disadvantages of distance?

1.1 Context of the study
The administration of the education system in Vi t Nam is centralised and hierarchical
(London, 2011). The MOET is mainly responsible for educational matters including
planning strategies, budget and human resources management, and policy formulation. At
the province-level, Departments of Education and Training (DOETs) are in charge of

educational affairs to implement the national policies. At the district-level, Bureaus of
Education and Training (BOETs) manage all schools in the district and are accountable to
their provincial DOET. The DOETs and the BOETs
… also play liaising roles (communication, management…) between the MOET and
the institutes. The BOET-members are thus the specialized, liaising education
officers which are the closest to the communities and the schools. (Flemish
Association for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance in Viet Nam,
2008, p. 9)

The structure of the Vietnamese education system comprises 12 years of schooling for
general education consisting of five years in primary (Grades 1–5), four years in lower
secondary (Grades 6–9) and three years in upper secondary education (Grades 10–12).
All Vietnamese children have to complete at least primary education. General education
can be followed by three to six years for a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree, two years for a
Master (MA) degree, and three to four years for a Doctoral degree. (See Appendix 1.1 for
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an overview of education and training in Vi t Nam.) This following section outlines the
context of the research with a focus on rural primary schools.
1.1.1

Primary schooling in Vi t Nam

According to the 2005 Education Law of Vi t Nam issued by the National Assembly of
the Socialist Republic of Vi t Nam (2005), children start primary education at the age of
six and continue for five years. Education at this level is free and compulsory for all
Vietnamese children. Primary students receive a certificate issued by the school principal
when they successfully complete their primary education. The Education Law of Vi t
Nam states:

Primary education aims to help the pupils form initial foundations for a correct and
long-lasting moral, intellectual, physical and aesthetic development, along with the
development of basic skills for them to enter lower secondary education. (National
Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vi t Nam, 2005, p. 10)

The total enrolment in primary education of Vietnamese children in 2011 was 99%
(UNESCO, 2013). In the school year of 2010–2011, there were 15,242 primary schools
with a total of 7,048,493 students and 359,039 teaching staff in the whole country
(MOET, 2012a).
As stated in this law, the aim of primary education is to assist students to ‘acquire simple
and necessary knowledge about nature, society and human beings; with basic skills in
listening, reading, speaking, writing and calculating, with habits of physical exercise and
hygiene; and with initial understanding of singing, dancing, music and arts’ (p. 11).
Therefore, the education program at this level is structured with compulsory subjects,
namely Vietnamese Language, Mathematics, Morality, Science, History, Geography,
Basic Techniques, Music, Arts and Physical Education (Tr nh, 2006). This program is
followed by all primary schools in the Vietnamese educational system.
Normally, primary students study compulsory subjects for about four hours per day.
Depending on each school, this class time can be divided into class periods lasting 35
minutes each with five-minute break between two periods and a thirty-minute break after
two class periods (See Table 1.1). Students spend about thirty to forty minutes per day on
play activities. In those schools that can meet all the basic requirements of teaching, such
as classroom equipment and sufficient teachers, the students can study elective subjects
such as English (see Section 1.2.3) and Computing.
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A school year runs from September through May, divided into 35 weeks. Most primary
students throughout the country are at school five days per week: four periods between
about 7:00 and 10:00 o’clock in the morning and three class periods from 1:30 o’clock in

the afternoon. The break between the morning and afternoon shift allows students to
return home or to their relative’s place nearby for a meal and rest.

Morning

Table 1.1 Sample of a school timetable for Grade 3
Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Period 1
7:00-7:35

School
meeting

Maths

Vietnamese

Physical
education

Maths

Period 2
7:40-8:15

Vietnamese

Vietnamese

English

Maths

Nature and
Society

Period 3
8:45-9:20

Vietnamese

English

Maths

Vietnamese

Vietnamese

Period 4
9:25-10:00

Maths

Extra
activities

Vietnamese

Vietnamese

Extra
activities

Period 1
13:30-14:05

Music

Handicraft

Nature and
Society

Computing

Period 2
14:10-14:45

Fine Arts

Citizenship
education

Computing

Vietnamese

Period 3
14:55-15:30

Physical
education

Team
activities

Team
activities

Class
meeting

Afternoon

Lunch break
off

Vi t Nam has five municipalities and 58 provinces and each municipality or province has
its own teacher training college/university. Therefore, local primary teachers are mainly
trained by provincial universities or colleges. In the past, primary teachers in the

provinces were trained in the local Vocational Teacher Training School or Teacher
Training College for two years after they finished their upper secondary education. They
received a Primary Teacher Certificate when completing the training and applied to be a
teacher in a local primary school. In recent times, all primary teachers have been trained
at a local college or university.
There are three types of primary teachers. Some teach all compulsory subjects in primary
education including Music and Arts, some are in charge of only the core subjects
(excluding Music and Arts), while others teach only one subject, e.g. Music, Arts,
Computing or English. Teachers in the first and second group work as a class teacher with

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their own class, while teachers in the third group teach many classes across all year
levels, each for a small number of periods.
At the time of the study, a primary teacher was required to teach 23 periods per week
(MOET, 2006) out of more than 30 that students engage in. This would suggest that
teachers had adequate free time for preparing their lessons. However, in reality their
schools assigned a higher workload to them. They had to attend a variety of meetings and
be in charge of different duties at their schools, such as being involved in the school trade
union, administrative work, or school events.
1.1.2

Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam

Despite a perceived established primary education system in Vi t Nam, differences
between urban and rural primary school have been reported. In his introduction to
primary education in Vi t Nam, Tr nh (2006) states that there has been an ongoing
difference in the quality of primary education between regions in the country. The main
difference between urban and rural primary schools relates to funding sources and

structure. Primary schools are funded by MOET through DOETs and each DOET’s
district representative offices (BOETs). Most of this funding is spent on salaries for
teachers and administrative officers at schools (World Bank, 2013a).
The operating expenditure in education includes wages, salaries, and excludes capital
investments in buildings and equipment. The education sector receives a larger share of
the total public expenditure than other sectors, receiving 20% in 2011 (World Bank,
2013a) in which 80% was for salaries and 20% for school operation.
However the introduction of the policy of ‘xã h i hoá giáo d c’ (‘socialization of
education’) issued by the Government of Vi t Nam in 2005 has resulted in some
inequities. The policy aims to draw on community financial resources to contribute to
educational services, but the rural areas generally have less financial capability than the
urban areas. As part of the ‘socialization of education’ policy, primary schools are
expected to receive donations from students’ parents and communities through bodies
called Parents’ Unions. These donations go to school construction and maintenance,
school facilities, instruction materials and teaching aids, and pay for additional classes.
Students’ parents are invited to join the Parents’ Committee at their children’s school and
voluntarily ‘pay for materials, school renovations, uniforms, and anything outside the
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basic curriculum’ (Behr, 2005, p. 17). However, the Parents’ Union is the main reason for
the difference in funding between urban and rural schools (Behr, 2005).
Parents in rural areas have less money, most are farmers or labourers. They have
enough money for their students to attend required classes and own necessary
materials, but not enough to give to the school for language teachers, school
construction, or full day staff. In the city the Parents’ Unions are stronger and more
able to build new schools and hire teachers for not just English, but also French and
other extracurricular classes. (Behr, 2005, p. 17)

Thus, this policy contributes to the differences between urban and rural primary schools

in terms of financial resources for English. Students’ parents in the cities voluntarily
contribute 30–60% to the primary school budget (Nguyên Minh, 2010). To date I have
not been able to find statistics on how much parents in rural areas contribute, although
statistics on general income levels indicate that rural incomes are lower (Justino &
Litchfield, 2003; T. H. Lê & Booth, 2013).
Behr (2005) also indicates that ‘probably the most significant difference is the amount of
time that children spend at school’ (p. 20). Students in urban schools can stay at school
nearly the whole day whereas far fewer students in rural schools can stay all day because
their parents cannot afford it. Some of the students have to help their parents in the fields
or fishing farms after schools to earn some more money for their family. This has direct
effects because ‘[t]he amount of time at school determines how much material is learned
and how thoroughly it can be learned’ (p. 20). The curriculum, including that for English
language, is also offered differently based on how much time the students spend at
school. Finally, yet importantly in regard to the English language program, students in the
urban areas may have more opportunities to study English and communicate with native
English speakers, and see some relevance for English in the world outside school.
1.1.3

The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools

Since the 1990s, English has been taught in language centres and in some private primary
schools in large cities such as Hà N i and H Chí Minh City. In 1996, English was
introduced as an elective subject in primary schools with two 40 minute teaching periods
per week in some provinces because of the strong demand from parents and society (T.
M. H. Nguy n, 2011). This demand put pressure on the education system to legislate for
compulsory English language teaching. Following the Decision No. 1400/QD-TTg
(Government of Vi t Nam, 2008), which approved the scheme on foreign language

7