USING HIGHLIGHTING OF HYPERLINKED ANNOTATIONS TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ INTENTIONAL VOCABULARY LEARNING

Ketnooi.com chia se
__________

DANG VAN TOAI

USING HIGHLIGHTING OF HYPERLINKED
ANNOTATIONS TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’
Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

INTENTIONAL VOCABULARY LEARNING
M.A. THESIS

Major: Principles and Methodology in English Language Education

Course Code: 601410

Supervisor: NGUYEN BUU HUAN

Can Tho October, 2008


BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC CẦN THƠ
KHOA SƯ PHẠM

ĐẶNG VĂN TOẠI

USING HIGHLIGHTING OF HYPERLINKED
ANNOTATIONS TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’
Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

INTENTIONAL VOCABULARY LEARNING
LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ
Chuyên ngành: Lí luận và Phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh

Mã số: 601410

Giáo viên hướng dẫn: NGUYỄN BỬU HUÂN

Cần Thơ, tháng 10 năm 2008


Luận văn Thạc sĩ với đề tài:

“USING HIGHLIGHTING OF HYPERLINKED ANNOTATIONS TO
IMPROVE STUDENTS’ INTENTIONAL VOCABULARY LEARNING”
do học viên Đặng Văn Toại thực hiện và báo cáo đã được Hội Đồng Chấm Luận
Văn thông qua.

Thư ký

Ủy viên

(Ký tên)

(Ký tên)

……………………………….

……………………………….

Trung tâm Học
Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học
Phảnliệu
biện ĐH
1
Phản tập
biện và
2 nghiên cứu
(Ký tên)

(Ký tên)

……………………………….

……………………………….

Cần Thơ, ngày …… tháng …… năm 2008
Chủ tịch Hội Đồng
(Ký tên)

……………………………….

iii


DECLARATION

This thesis entitled “Using Highlighting of Hyperlinked Annotations to Improve
Students’ Intentional Vocabulary Learning” is constructed under the supervision of
Nguyen Buu Huan, a senior lecturer of English of Center of Foreign Languages,

Can Tho University.
I declare that the information reported in this thesis is the results of my own work,
except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree
and is not concurrently submitted in any candidature for any other degree or
diploma.

Signature:………………………
Đặng Văn Toại
Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @Name:
Tài liệu học
tập và nghiên cứu
Date:

October 24, 2008

iv


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis has been completed with the help and support of many persons.
Therefore, I am particularly grateful to the following teachers and colleagues.
First and foremost, I would like to express my special thanks to my supervisor
Nguyen Buu Huan, Deputy Director of Center of Foreign Languages (CFL), Can
Tho University, who spent time and energy counseling me and correcting my thesis.
My deep gratitude goes to Dr. Trinh Quoc Lap, Deputy Dean of School of
Education and the teacher in Research Methods at Can Tho University, and
Associate Professor Dinh Ngoc Thanh, the Vice Rector of Mekong University, who
all shaped me to be an independent researcher and helped me gain insights into how
to conduct an empirical study. I would like to acknowledge Mr. Nguyen Cao Dat,

Rector of Mekong University, who created the opportunity for me to work on this
study.

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
I would like to express my thanks to Dr. Nguyen Thu Huong for his useful advice
and valuable lessons. I sincerely appreciate the helpful comments from the senior
lecturers Mr. Huynh Trung Tin and Ms. Truong Thi Kim Lien. I am very thankful to
Mr. Ly Hong Thai, a CFL instructor, who helped me find useful reference sources
for my thesis. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Huynh Minh Hien
for his generous support during my study. I highly acknowledge Mr. Nguyen Duy
Nhat an IT teacher at Mekong University, who helped design software for my
teaching. I would like to thank all my colleagues and students at Mekong University,
who helped me collect data.
Finally, I would like to give special thanks to my family, especially my wife and
daughters, who shared with me the difficulties and provided me with best conditions
and mental support to complete my thesis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration

Page iv

Acknowledgements

v

Tables of contents

vi

List of tables and Figures

ix

Tóm lược

x

Abstract

xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1

1.1

Rationale

1

1.2

Research hypothesis and aims

2

1.2.1 Research hypothesis

2

1.2.2 Research aims

3

Organization and significance of the thesis

3

1.3.1 Organization of the thesis

3

1.3.2 Significance of the thesis

4

1.3

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

5

The definition of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations and intentional

vocabulary

5

2.2

The role of hyperlinked annotations on intentional vocabulary learning

7

2.3

Required conditions for intentional vocabulary learning

9

2.3.1 Conditions of successful intentional vocabulary learning

9

2.3.2 Hyperlinked annotations in language learning

9

2.4

2.3.3 The effects of hyperlinked annotations in language learning

10

2.3.4 The value of hyperlinked annotations in intentional learning

11

Possible problems

12

2.4.1 Intentional vocabulary learning

12

2.4.2 Limitations of hyperlinked annotations in language learning
environments

12

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOD

14

3.1

Research questions

14

3.2

Research design

14

3.3

Participants

14

3.4

Research instruments

15

3.4.1 The Vocabulary test

15

3.4.2 Questionnaire on students’ motivation and attitudes

16

Materials

16

3.5

3.6. Procedures
3.6.1 The procedure of data collection

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
4.1

17
17

19

Analysis of students’ vocabulary knowledge

19

4.1.1 Students’ vocabulary knowledge before the study

19

4.1.2 Students’ vocabulary knowledge after the study

20

Analysis of students’ attitudes and motivation

22

4.2.1 Students’ attitudes and motivation towards the use of HHA

23

4.2.2 The level of motivation

24

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liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên 21
cứu
4.1.3 Comparison of students’ vocabulary knowledge
4.2

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
5.1

26

Discussions

26

5.1.1 Theoretical framework of the study

26

5.1.2 Discussion of the findings gained by using questionnaires

26

Conclusion and Implications

27

5.2.1 Conclusion

27

5.2.2 Implications

27

5.3

Limitations of the research

28

5.4

Suggestions for further research

28

5.2

vii

References

30

Appendices

35

Appendix 1: Pre-test

35

Appendix 2: Post-test

37

Appendix 3 : Lesson plan 1

39

Appendix 4 : Lesson plan 2

41

Appendix 5: Lesson plan 3

43

Appendix 6: Lesson plan 4

45

Appendix 7: Questionnaire

47

Appendix 8: Raw calculation of questionnaire

49

Appendix 9: The importance of the use of HHA

50

Appendix 10: The enjoyment of the use of HHA

51

Appendix 11: The objection or pressure of the use of HHA

52

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viii


LIST OF TABLE AND FIGURES
List of tables
Table 3.1: Procedures of the research

17

Table 4.1: Descriptive statistics of pre-test

19

Table 4.2: Comparison mean pre-test with the expected mean score
(Test value = 7.5)
Table 4.3: Descriptive statistics of post-test

20
21

Table 4.4: Comparison mean post-test with the expected mean
(Test value = 7.5)

21

Table 4.5: Comparison between pre-test and post-test

22

Table 4.6: Descriptive statistics of questionnaire

23

Table 4.7: Comparison of mean questionnaire to the expected mean
(Test value = 3)

24

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
List of Figures

Figure 4.1: Mean score of pre-test and post-test in comparison with the test value 22

ix


TÓM LƯỢC

Trong bài nghiên cứu này tôi trình bày kết quả nghiên cứu mà tôi đã thực hiện tại
truờng Đại học Cửu Long. Mục đích của đề tài nhằm nghiên cứu (1) tính hiệu quả
của việc dùng các liên kết có chú thích (HHA) trong việc học từ vựng có chủ ý, (2)
thái độ và động cơ của sinh viên trong việc học từ vựng. Nghiên cứu được tiến hành
với một nhóm thực nghiệm và đối tượng là ba mươi sinh viên không chuyên năm thứ
hai ngành kế toán trường Đại học Cửu Long. Công cụ chính để thu thập dữ liệu
trong nghiên cứu này là các bài kiểm tra về từ vựng và một bảng câu hỏi về thái độ
và động cơ học tập của sinh viên. Việc dùng kĩ thuật làm nổi bật các liên kết có chú
thích mang lại kết quả có ý nghĩa. Những kết quả tìm thấy trong nghiên cứu này cần
được nghiên cứu thêm để có thể ứng dụng rộng rãi trong việc học tiếng Anh.

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

x


ABSTRACT
In this paper, the researcher presents the results of the study on the use of

highlighting of hyperlinked annotations in Mekong University. The study aims to
examine (1) effectiveness of using highlighting of hyperlinked annotations in
vocabulary learning, and (2) students’ attitudes and motivation in vocabulary
learning. The study was performed by one experimental group design in which the
use of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations was independent variable and
students’ attitudes and motivation dependent variable. 30 second-year students of
non-English majors of accounting class at Mekong University participated in the
study. In this research, the pre-test, the post-test and the questionnaire were used as
main instruments. Results show that the effectiveness of the use of highlighting of
hyperlinked annotations and students’ attitude and motivation in intentional
vocabulary learning were significant. The thesis calls for further research on the

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Tàiinliệu
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highlighting
of hyperlinked
annotations
(HHA)
a wider
range
learning
English.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter one describes (1) the rationale of the highlighting of hyperlinked annotations in
intentional vocabulary learning of non-English major students in Mekong University, (2)
the research aims and hypothesis and (3) the organization and the significance of the thesis.

1.1 Rationale
As a teacher of English, the researcher has worked at the Centre of Foreign
Languages in Mekong University for 8 years. The researcher realizes that students
do not have good conditions to learn English. Although English is one of the
compulsory subjects at the first three semesters in university, non-English majors
learn only one general English course and they do not have a good chance to
enhance their background knowledge of English. Especially, the students don’t
knowHọc
how toliệu
improve
vocabulary
knowledge
because
heart what
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Tài liệu
họcthey
tậplearn

vàbynghiên
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their teachers taught from the textbook. From the final exams and personal
interviews, the researcher discovered that non-English majors had a big problem
with vocabulary learning

_

they failed in vocabulary tests. To help non- English

majors at Mekong University (MU) improve their vocabulary knowledge, the
researcher carried out the research “Using the Highlighting of Hyperlinked
Annotations to improve students’ intentional vocabulary learning.”
Highlighting of Hyperlinked Annotations (HHA) is a computer program
(software). Using highlighting of hyperlinked annotations, students can look up the
definitions and the meanings of new words within the reading texts. Using the
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations can help students improve intentional
vocabulary learning. When students want to look up the meanings of the key word,
they click a mouse on that word (highlighted words with hyperlinked annotations)
the meanings will appear in a pop-up window (a small box) underneath the word. It
(HHA) functions like an electronic dictionary on the computer.

1


Vocabulary

learning

is

probably

the

most

important

component

in

comprehending the reading texts. Consequently, using highlighting of hyperlinked
annotations in vocabulary learning is very essential to improve students’ intentional
vocabulary learning. The main research trend investigates the factors contributing to
efficient vocabulary learning. Recent vocabulary learning research has been based
on the importance of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in intentional
vocabulary learning (Huckin & Coady, 1997; Nation, 1990; Schmitt & McCarthy,
1997; Singleton, 1999). It has also been proposed that learners can successfully use
intentional vocabulary learning into their knowledge system and they comprehend it
(Hulstijn, 1990; Gass & Selinker, 1994).
Many studies examined the effect of using highlighting of hyperlinked
annotations on vocabulary learning in reading comprehension. These studies yielded
positive results concerning the impact of computerized annotations on vocabulary
learning and retention of second language lexical elements. The availability of this
kind of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations is considered one of the advantages

Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ @ Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu
of vocabulary learning via computer. The researchers found that using the

highlighting of hyperlinked annotations was beneficial to several aspects of
language learning (Brett, 1998; Chun & Plass, 1996, 1997; Reidanus, 1996;
Lomicka, 1998).
For all reasons stated, the researcher carried out the research “Using the
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations to improve students’ intentional vocabulary
learning” to help non-English majors in Mekong University improve their
vocabulary knowledge.
1.2 Research Hypothesis and aims
1.2.1 Research hypothesis
Based on the analysis of the background of vocabulary learning classes at
Mekong University and the benefits of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations, the
researcher hypothesized that the highlighting of hyperlinked annotations would
work well to help students learn vocabulary and increase their vocabulary

2


knowledge. Particularly, the highlighting of hyperlinked annotations would help
enhance students’ attitudes and improve the quality of intentional vocabulary
learning.
1.2.2 Research aims
The aims of the research are (1) to investigate the effectiveness of using
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations applications in vocabulary learning, and (2)
to observe the students’ attitudes and motivation towards using the highlighting of
hyperlinked annotations in intentional vocabulary learning.
1.3 Organization and significance of the thesis
1.3.1 Organization of the thesis
The thesis consists of five chapters, including (1) Introduction, (2) Literature
Review, (3) Research Methodology, (4) Results, and (5) Discussions, Conclusion,
Limitations, and Recommendations

Chapter
oneĐH
presents
rationale
using
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hyperlinked
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annotations on learners’ intentional vocabulary learning and their motivation in
language learning in the context of non-major English students in Mekong
University. Chapter two attempts to clarify the terms “hyperlinked annotations” and
“intentional vocabulary learning”, and introduces the theoretical background of
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations on intentional vocabulary learning in nonEnglish major classes. Chapter three focuses on the research method, the research
design, procedures, participants, and the materials. Chapter four discusses the results
of the pre-test and the post-test on students’ intentional vocabulary learning
analyzed by SPSS. The results of the pre-test and the post-test are also presented
and then compared to see to what extent highlighting of hyperlinked annotations
affects the quality of the participants’ intentional vocabulary learning ability.
Chapter five concludes the research by discussing both theoretical findings on the
significant role of the highlighting of hyperlinked annotations in intentional
vocabulary learning, and the implications for teachers of English in Mekong

3


University. The limitations of the research and suggestions for further research are
also mentioned.
1.3.2 Significance of the thesis
The research is expected to explore the effectiveness of using the
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations in developing students' intentional
vocabulary learning and students’ motivation to learn vocabulary.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter focuses on (1) the definitions of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations and
intentional vocabulary learning, (2) its role, (3) required conditions, and (4) possible
problems.

2.1 The definitions of highlighting hyperlinked annotations and intentional
vocabulary learning
What is Hyperlink? A hyperlink, or simply a link, is a reference in a
hypertext document to another document or other resource. As such it would be
similar to a citation in literature. However, combined with a data network and
suitable access protocol, it can be used to fetch the resource referenced. This can
then be saved, viewed, or displayed as part of the referencing document.
A hyperlink
is a link

youThơ
can click
activate
withtập
the keyboard
or other
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liệu ĐH
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device in order to go somewhere else. A hyperlink is defined by its function, not by
its appearance. What it looks or sounds or smells like is completely irrelevant except
as a way of recognizing it. Visually impaired people follow hyperlinks with speechbased browsers and never see text at all. A hyperlink without a colour underline is
still a hyperlink if your browser allows you to click on it or otherwise activate it to
go somewhere else on the World Wide Web, or in another hypertext system
A reference links from some point in one hypertext document to another
document or another place in the same document. A browser usually displays a
hyperlink in some distinguishing way, (e.g. in a different colour, font or
style). When the user activates the link (e.g. by clicking on it with the mouse) the
browser will display the target of the link.
According to DeRidder (2002) defined words or phrases in one document
that point to another text with more information related to that word or phrase.

5

“Difficult words highlighted in a bold typeface, different color or underlining”
called highlighting hyperlinked annotations.
What is an Annotation? Annotations are comments, notes, explanations, or
other types of external remarks that can be attached to a document or a selected part
of the document. As they are external, it is possible to annotate any document
independently, without needing to edit that document. From the technical point of
view, annotations are usually seen as metadata, as they give additional information
about an existing piece of data. In this thesis, the researcher used a special
annotation schema for describing annotations.
From the definitions of hyperlink and annotation mentioned above, the
researcher viewed highlighting of hyperlinked annotations as “words or phrases in
one document that linked to another text with more information related to that word
or phrase. Target words or key words were highlighted in a bold typeface, different
color or underlining.”

Trung tâm Học
ĐH Cần
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Tài liệu
và nghiên
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What liệu
is intentional
vocabulary
As học
Korentập
(1999)
emphasized,
intentional learning meant months and years of “intentional study”, involving the
deliberate committing to memory of thousands of words and dozens of grammar

rules. Intentional vocabulary learning “by definition, is intended learning of
vocabulary”. Intentional learning in vocabulary refers to the rehearsal and
memorizing techniques applied by learners when they have the intention of learning.
Intentional learning involved a deliberate attempt to commit new information
to memory through rehearsal and mnemonic techniques. Intentional learning needed
attention and notice from learners. In second language vocabulary learning, it was
seen as a distinct category because intentional learning implies the use of deliberate
retention techniques.
What is Pop-up window? A window that suddenly appears (pops up) when
we select an option with a mouse or press a special function key. Usually, the popup window contains a menu of commands and stays on the screen only until we

6


select one of the commands. It then disappears. Pop-ups can be initiated by a single
or double mouse click. A pop-up window must be smaller than the background
window or interface; otherwise, it is a replacement interface.
2.2 The role of hyperlinked annotations on intentional vocabulary learning
Researchers and second language teaching experts started paying more
attention to vocabulary learning and teaching. In fact, some researchers now claim
that, compared to the other components of language, vocabulary was the most
essential one. McCarthy (1990), for example, stated, “no matter how well the
student learns grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of second language
are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in
second language just cannot happen in any meaningful way”. It was also argued that
students, while communicating in the target language, find vocabulary to be the
greatest hurdle to use the language Ludwig (1984). Language teachers and learners
were challenged by the task of teaching and learning the large number of new words.
Due to
limited

and Thơ
the need
focus
on học
many tập
language
skills, direct
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instruction alone may not make a major contribution in this respect. Moreover, it
was not guaranteed that learners would attend to such instruction. When looking at
the large stock of vocabulary that proficient second language learners possess, it
would appear that this huge amount of vocabulary could not be simply learned in
the classroom or through intentional means.
Gass (1999) also noticed that vocabulary learning was generally considered
to be a conscious learning process. Laufer and Hill (2000) stated that it should not
be confused with unattended learning. Several scholars Ellis (1994) and Fraser
(1999) argued that attention was a prerequisite for any learning to occur, and what
differentiated from intentional vocabulary learning with regard to attention.
According to Ellis (1994) was the type of attention the students made to the lexical
item “whereas intentional learning requires focal attention to be placed on linguistic
form, but allows peripheral attention to be directed at form”. Within the type of
attention resulting in intentional learning, Gass (1999) argued for a distinction

7


between two subtypes, namely externally and internally driven attention. Nation
(2001) made a distinction of intentional learning similar to that of Ellis.
Hulstijn et al. (1996) mentioned the distinction between the two intentions of
the learners. They defined vocabulary learning as the “accidental learning of
information without the intention of remembering that information”. Second
language researchers such as Hulstijn and Laufer (2001) and Trompetter (1998),
Luppescu and Day (1993) considered learning that results from tasks during which
learners were not informed of subsequent recall tests.
Many scholars Fraser (1999), Huckin and Coady (1999) argued that most
intentional vocabulary learning results from reading. Research on vocabulary
learning through reading compared various methods and strategies for learning the
new words that appeared in the context. These methods and strategies included
hyperlinked annotations and looking words up in the dictionary. These different
methods and strategies for discovering the meanings of new words in a text had the
subject
of considerable
the@
experiments
evaluating
them
Trung tâm
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liệu ĐH debate
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have produced contradictory findings. Regardless of the method and strategy used
while reading, it has been shown that intentional vocabulary learning through
reading yields a very high rate of retention. This view was also supported by
Pressley, Levin and McDaniel (1987) who argued that “learners can derive
vocabulary meanings from context, but this process alone does not foster retention
of meanings”. Due to the fact that vocabularies and the results that gained from
reading were not sufficient, there seems to be a need for effective tasks to reinforce
what the students have learned during the reading session. As Stoller and Grabe
(1993) suggested that second language reading and related vocabulary activities
might be one appropriate way to direct and enhance the effects of learning resulting
from reading.
Wesche and Paribakht (2000) argued that “tasks provide learners with varied
and multiple encounters with given words that highlight different lexical features,
promoting elaboration and strengthening of different aspects of word knowledge”.

8


Many studies have attempted to investigate the effectiveness of vocabulary learning
tasks on the development of learners’ vocabulary knowledge and retention of new
words. One of the studies that attempted to explore this issue was that of Wesche
and Paribakht (1997). The researchers tried to determine whether reading
comprehension plus vocabulary enhancement exercises lead to more effective
learning of selected vocabulary items than an equal amount of learning spent on
reading additional texts that incorporated the same words.
2.3 Required conditions for intentional vocabulary learning

2.3.1 Conditions of successful intentional vocabulary learning
Rott (1999) investigated the effect of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations
on vocabulary learning and retention through reading text. She measured the
productive and receptive learning and retention of unfamiliar target words in
reading text. It has been shown that making particular words highlighted through
marking has a positive effect on vocabulary learning (see Brett, 1998). Hyperlinked

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Học were
liệu also
ĐHfound
Cầnto Thơ
@ intentional
Tài liệuvocabulary
học tậplearning
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annotations
influence
favorably
(see Hulstijn, 1992), and the number of consulted annotations were found to be in
direct proportion to vocabulary knowledge.
Ellis, N. (1997) reminded that “inferring the meaning of new words is neither
an automatic nor an implicit process. It involved conscious application of strategies
for searching for information, hypothesis formation and testing.” He contended that
words are more likely to be remembered when their meaning was guessed from
context, (i.e. when learners made a greater mental effort in the study process). As
most of the views and research results distinctly showed an important condition of
successful vocabulary learning was reading or having the target words in context.

2.3.2 Hyperlinked annotations in language learning
Hyperlinked annotations extended the notion of text in hypertext by adding
other kinds of data, such as sound, animation, and some kind of information.
Landow (1997) underscored the importance of Bush’s (1945) original idea that the

9


human mind worked by association rather than in a linear way, and while traditional
printed text does not allow for this factor, highlighting of hyperlinked annotation
can imitate this process. Landow pointed out that although highlighting of
hyperlinked annotation was tangible like printed materials, it allowed the reader to
participate in learning more actively by having to filter the good information from
the bad, linking information together at their will, or even adding their own
hyperlinked annotations. In this way, the reader became a producer of the text rather
than its consumer. Slatin (1990) claimed that linkages in reading text stimulate the
connections in the reader’s or learner’s mind. “Perhaps the greatest value of
hyperlinked annotations was its ability to link enormous quantities of material that
in a conventional text environment would be kept separate so that things which
someone perceives as being related to do in fact become related.”
Son (1998) stated that hyperlinked annotation was the combination of
hypertext and multimedia. It implied managing information in multimedia format
while users may choose their own non-linear paths through text, graphics, audio and
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video in the available databases. Brett (1998) also emphasized “hyperlinked
annotations can be defined as the computer-delivered combination of a large range
of communications elements text and animation”. The theoretical foundations of
hyperlinked annotations and multimedia were significantly different because while

learning theories were fitted to multimedia in order to match the intact educational
philosophies, hyperlinked annotations was created by modeling the cognitive
learning theories. Highlighting of hyperlinked annotation technologies offered
numerous advantages for vocabulary learning.

2.3.3 The Effects of hyperlinked annotations in language learning
The effects of hyperlinked annotations on reading comprehension and
vocabulary learning connected the words with their meanings using base forms that
were the form one would find in a dictionary. The results of the two studies were
different Gettys et al. (2001) found that retention of lexical items were better aided
by reading the text with dictionary-form equivalents of the second language words,

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because it involved a deeper level of cognitive processing. However, Grace (1998)
discovered that learners with access to sentence-level translations demonstrated
significantly greater short-term and long-term memory of correct English word
meanings than learners without sentence-level translations.
The different results of the previous study, Grace (1998) were not mentioned
or discussed by the later researcher Gettys et al. (2001), so it was difficult to explain
why different results were obtained. Most of the empirical studies found vocabulary
annotations could foster English Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ reading
comprehension and vocabulary learning. The current study provided one more set of
evidence supporting the benefit of annotations.

2.3.4 The value of hyperlinked annotations in intentional learning
In discussing the validity of hyperlinked annotations, Davis (1989) noted that
annotation through reading text offers two features:
+ (a) annotations were not highlighted and therefore do not interrupt the

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reading process,

+ (b) readers could obtain as much or as little information as desired regarding
a particular concept or word mentioned in the text under study.
Jacobs (1994) also stated that computerized annotations were an effective
means that aids second language vocabulary learning. Learners could access
annotations of unknown vocabulary items.
The computerized annotation was appealing, as pointed out by Davis and
Lyman-Hager (1997), because the computer's capacity permitted us to store more
extensive annotations than a printed format does. Furthermore, a computerized
annotation does not interrupt the reading process because the annotated item is
highlighted until the reader clicks on the target word.
Martinez-Lage (1997) contended that the value of hyperlinked annotations was
attributable to different factors. First, hyperlinked annotations provided immediate
access to the available information in a program including textual and highlighted

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annotations. This access provided readers with the desired meaning immediately
and allowed them to continue reading without disturbing in the reading process, a
problem usually caused by stopping to look up words in a dictionary. Second,
hyperlinked annotations gave access to imaging. Highlighted information attached
to a word enables readers to "confirm or reject hypotheses made about the meaning
of a word". Finally, hyperlinked annotations provided an opportunity for readers to
interact with the text making them actively involved in the reading process.
2.4 Possible problems
2.4.1 Intentional vocabulary learning

Hulstijn (1993) put forward the ‘mental effort’ hypothesis, which claimed
that the greater the mental effort required by inferring, the better information recall
and retention could be achieved. Hulstijn (2001) claimed that few words were
acquired by an act of ‘intentional’ learning, as in the learning of a bilingual
vocabulary list.

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Groot (2000), on the other hand, expressed a view that lacking time for

exposure to new words led to less association and link with other words for solid
storage and efficient retrieval.
Hulstijn (1993) and Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) claimed that inferred
meanings were more likely to be remembered than meanings provided by
annotations. They also admitted, however, that in order to be able to infer word
meanings from context appropriately, learners must be familiar with 95 % of the
words in a given text.
2.4.2 Limitations of hyperlinked annotations in language learning environments
Some factors such as computer-literacy, vocabulary learning styles, and
strategies, were not investigated in this study.
To conclude, chapter two briefly reviewed the theoretical and experimental
aspects of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations, the concepts of students’

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intentional vocabulary learning, and the effects of highlighting of hyperlinked
annotations in previous studies.

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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHOD
The chapter comprises (1) the research questions, (2) the research design, (3) the
participants, (4) the research instruments, (5) the materials, and (6) the procedures.

3.1 Research questions
This study aims to answer two following questions:
1. To what extent does the highlighting of hyperlinked annotations improve
students’ intentional vocabulary learning?
2. What are students’ attitudes toward learning vocabulary through using the
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations?
3.2 Research design
The research design of the study was an experimental group with 30 students.

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According to Gay and Airasian (2000), an experimental research is aimed at
investigating the impact and the effectiveness of the treatment. In the experimental
research, the use of highlighting of hyperlinked annotations (HHA, small software)
was independent variable. Students’ motivation and attitude in vocabulary learning
was dependent variable. The aim of using the highlighting of hyperlinked
annotations was to enhance students’ intentional vocabulary learning. The study was
conducted in six weeks (36 periods) with six-period classes. Students were
computer-literate. In order to check if the students were really involved in
highlighting of hyperlinked annotations, the researcher highlighted fifteen words in
vocabulary tests using hyperlinked annotations and counted the times when students
consulted them.
3.3 Participants

Thirty non-English majors of accounting in Mekong University (7males and
23 females) participated in the study. They have learned general English for the first

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