STUDENT MOTIVATION, PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN’S ENGLISH LEARNING AT DUONG QUANG HAM SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

HuNG YeN department of education and training

duong quang ham senior high school
******************

Initiative and experience

STUDENT MOTIVATION, PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND
INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN’S ENGLISH LEARNING AT
DUONG QUANG HAM SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Teacher

: Ha Thi

Th¬m
Subject
English

i

:


Academic year

: 2012-2013

ii

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
I certify that the study entitled “Students’ motivation
and

Parental

Attitudes

and

Involvement

in

Children’s

English Learning at Duong Quang Ham Senior High School” is
the result of my work.

Signed:

Dated:

iii


iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ............................................... I
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................... II
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................... .IV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................... ......V
CHAPTER 1: REASON FOR CHOOSING THE TOPIC .............................. 1
1.1 REASONS FOR CHOOSING THE TOPIC ................................... 1
1.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY................................................... 4
1.3 SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
STUDY.....................................................................
..........................3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................... 6
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.4

MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING ............................................ 6
Definition ...................................................... 6
Types of Motivation ............................................. 7
Role of motivation in L2 learning .............................. 10
Studies into integrative and instrumental motivations ......... 12
PARENTS AS A FACTOR AFFECTING STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING ...... 15
STUDIES INTO PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN’S LANGUAGE LEARNING20
Parental attitudes in children’s language learning ............ 20

Parental involvement in children’s language learning .......... 24
SUMMARY .......................................................... 28

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................... 30
3.1 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS ......................................... 30
3.1.1 Questionnaires ................................................. 30
3.2 SUBJECTS ......................................................... 34
3.2.1 Student population ............................................. 34
3.2.2 Parents ........................................................ 35
3. 3 PROCEDURES ....................................................... 36
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS ..................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................... 39
4.1 STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN ENGLISH LEARNING ............................... 40
4.1.1 Integrative motivation in English learning ..................... 40
4.1.2 Instrumental motivation in English learning .................... 44
4.1.3 Parental attitudes and involvement as perceived by students .... 47
4.2 PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN’S ENGLISH LEARNING JUDGED BY PARENTS
................................................................... 52
4.3 PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN’S ENGLISH LEARNING PERCEIVED BY
STUDENTS AND PARENTS .................................................. 56
4.4 CORRELATION BETWEEN STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION AND PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND INVOLVEMENT IN
CHILDREN’S ENGLISH LEARNING .............................................. 57
4.5 SUMMARY .......................................................... 60
CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ............................ 61
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3

RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................... 61

Parents ........................................................ 61
Teachers ....................................................... 63
School ......................................................... 64

v


5.2 CONCLUSION

AND FURTHER RESEARCH ....................................... 67

REFERENCES ........................................................... 70
APPENDICES ........................................................... 75
APPENDIX A1:........................................................ 75
STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE ....................................................
APPENDIX A2:........................................................ 57
VIETNAMESE VERSION OF STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE .................................
APPENDIX B1:........................................................ 62
PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE ....................................................
APPENDIX B2:........................................................ 64
VIETNAMESE VERSION OF PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................

vi


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:
learning

Students’

Integrative

Motivation

in

English

Table 2:
learning

Students’

Instrumental

Motivation

in

English

Table 3: Motivation by Vietnamese and Chinese students
Table 4: Parental attitudes and involvement as perceived
by students
Table 5: Parental attitudes and involvement in children’s
English learning
Table 6: T-test value of mean scores of parental attitudes
and involvement in
children’s

English
learning
perceived by students and by their parents
Table 7: R-values of students’ motivation and parental
attitudes and involvement

vii


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A: agree
D: disagree
DQH: Duong Quang Ham
EFL: English as a foreign language
L2: second language
M: mean
Md: mode
N: neutral
n: number of respondents
No: numerical order
r: correlation coefficient
SD: standard deviation
SLA: second language acquisition
StrA: strongly agree
StrD: strongly disagree
TL: target language

viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This introductory chapter provides three parts: the reason
for choosing the topic, the aims of the study, the scope
and significance of the study.

1.1 Reasons for choosing the topic
The study of motivation in second language acquisition
(SLA)

has

become

an

important

research

topic

with

the

development of socio-educational model on second language
(L2) motivation (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1985;
Gardner

&

MacIntyre,

1993;

Tremblay

&

Gardner,

1995).

According to Gardner and Lambert (1972), motivation to
learn an L2 is grounded in positive attitudes toward the
L2 community and in a desire to communicate with valued
members of that community and become similar to them. This
desire is integrative orientation, which is a support for
language learning, while an instrumental orientation is
associated with the desire to learn L2 for pragmatic gains
such as getting a better job or higher salary (Dornyei,
2001; Gardner & Lambert, 1972).
L2 motivation is indeed a prerequisite condition for the
success of L2 learners like food for the brain. Successful
language learning can only take place if the learner has
goals and an inner drive to achieve these goals (Crookes &
Schmidt, 1991). L2 motivation can be seen as a desire to
study

the

foreign

language

to

understand

and

use

the

language that learners are learning and to serve their

1


purposes. For example, motivation in learning English as a
foreign

language

participate

in

(EFL)

the

involves

English

a

student’s

learning

desire

process

to

(Gardner,

1985). Without L2 motivation, learners would feel bored,
and then they just learn to pass the exams or please their
parents (Krashen, 1982). Gradually, they would be afraid
of studying L2.
Motivation

plays

a

significant

role

in

the

process

of

learning a language. Language teachers cannot effectively
teach

a

language

if

they

do

not

understand

the

relationship between motivation and its effect on language
acquisition as well as its affecting factors. The core of
motivation is what might be called passion, which relates
to

a

person's

learners

know

weaknesses,

intrinsic
their

and

goals

and

preferences,

effectively

desires.

their

utilize

Successful

strengths
strengths

and
and

compensate for weaknesses. Successful language learning is
linked to the learner’s passion (Karaoglu, 2008).
One of the factors affecting L2 motivation maintaining is
parents. Parents can be considered as the most important
in increasing and maintaining student motivation in L2
learning.

According

to

Wlodkowski

and

Jaynes

(1990),

parents can greatly influence and maintain their child’s
motivation

for

a

lifetime.

Parental

influences

are

an

integral part of students’ motivation. Indeed, the home
environment

and

family

influencing

the

school

support
student

2

may

be

major

(Walberg,

factors

Paschal,

&


Weinstein,

1985

as

cited

in

Hein

&

Wimer,

2007).

Fortunately, many modern parents nowadays are aware of the
fact that failure or success of their children depends
greatly on the parents themselves - “the first and long
life teacher” (Hein & Wimer, 2007). In order to succeed in
education

in

particular,

general
teachers

and

in

should

teaching

English

understand

the

in

factors

affecting student motivation. Once teachers can understand
the parental influence, they would probably find ways to
cooperate with parents to motivate students more so that
the students could be successful English learners.
Important

as

motivation

and

the

role

of

parents

in

maintaining and enhancing motivation are, it is a sad fact
that

in

motivation

rural

areas

in

Vietnam

for

English

is

low.

like

Unlike

Hungyen,

parents

the

in

big

cities such as Hanoi and Hochiminh city, many of whom are
so involved in their children’s English learning as shown
in the number of children taking extra courses and scoring
so high in English, parents in non-urban areas do not seem
to

have

given

Unfortunately,

no

due

attention

effort

so

far

to

this

has

been

subject.
spent

on

exploring this aspect of learning as well as the attitudes
of the parents towards their children’s English learning.
Obviously,

an

investigation

into

this

area

will

bring

about the information needed to gain an insight into how
students
toward

in
the

those
most

less

advantageous

important

3

areas

language

are
in

driven

today’s


globalization context, how their parents feel toward the
subject and how these two aspects are inter-related.

1.2 Aims of the Study
The

study

aimed

at

investigating

the

level

of

student

motivation and their parent’ attitudes and involvement in
their English learning at DQH Senior High School.

1.3 Scope and Significance of the Study
The

study

was

conducted

at

DQH

Senior

High

School

in

Vangiang district, Hung Yen province.
The study focused on examining student motivation in the
language

that

they

parents’

attitudes

are
and

learning:

English

involvement

in

and

their

their
English

learning. It is expected to provide deeper understanding
of how students in less advantageous areas in Vietnam feel
toward

the

language

and

what

kind

of

motivation

is

stronger. It is also intended to draw a picture, though
far from comprehensive, on how parents in those districts
are involved in their children language learning. From all
this implications on how to better motivate the students,
how

to

maximize

parents’

support,

how

to

initiate

and

sustain parents’ engagement could be drawn.
The

study

certainly

had

practical

value

for

teachers

teaching English in DQH Senior High School in particular,
and

for

any

researchers

who

4

would

like

to

improve


language teaching as well as learning in general. Knowing
the factors affecting student motivation would assist the
search for better teaching and learning process.

5


CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Motivation as a significant factor in language learning
has

attracted

literature

interest

is,

of

various

therefore,

very

researchers
rich.

and

This

the

chapter,

however, limits itself to issues that are most pertinent
to the research focus. They are types of motivation, roles
of motivation and parental attitudes and involvement in
children’s
studies

language

into

learning.

possible

roles

The

of

review

parents

also

in

covers

shaping

the

students’ motivation for the language.

2.1 Motivation in L2 learning
2.1.1 Definition
Research on motivation in L2 learning has been heavily
influenced by the work of Canadian psychologist Gardner
and

MacIntyre

highly

(1993).

motivated

According

individual

to

will

Gardner
want

to

(1985),
learn

a

the

language, enjoy learning it, and strive to learn it. The
Gardnerian theory of L2 learning motivation is based on

the definition of motivation as “the extent to which the
individual works or strives to learn the language because
of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in
this activity” (Gardner, 1985).
In

this

directed.

definition,
Gardner

motivation

(1985)

is

proposes

described

as

that

order

in

goalto

understand why learners are motivated, it is necessary to

6


understand

the

learner’s

ultimate

goal

or

purpose

for

learning the language. He refers to this as the learner’s
orientation (Gardner, 1985). Besides, he identifies two
distinct orientations for learning a language, which are
integrative and instrumental orientations.
2.1.2 Types of Motivation
2.1.2.1 Integrative Motivation

Integrative motivation or integrative orientation refers
to a learner’s desire to learn more about the cultural
community of the target language (TL) or to assimilate to
some

degree

in

the

target

community

(Gardner,

1985).

Moreover, integrative motivation refers to a desire to
increase

the

affiliation

with

the

target

community.

Integrative motivation is characterized by the learner's
positive attitudes towards the TL group and the desire to
integrate into the TL community (Gardner, 1982; Gardner,
1985).

In

this

sense,

the

student

with

integrative

motivation likes to learn the TL as he wants to know more
about its culture and people.
In addition, integrative motivation is a key component in
assisting the learner to develop some level of proficiency
in the language. When someone becomes a resident in a new
community

that

uses

the

TL

in

social

interactions,

it

becomes a necessity to operate socially in the community
and become one of its members. It is also theorized that

7


integrative motivation underlies successful acquisition of
a native like pronunciation (Finegan, 1999). It is thought
that students who are most successful in learning a TL are
those who like the people that speak the language, admire
the culture and have a desire to become familiar with or
even integrate into the society in which the language is
used (Falk, 1978).
In EFL setting such as Vietnam, especially in small, quiet

towns, where there are very few English speakers and the
exposure to English cultures is very low, it is important
to consider the actual meaning of the term "integrative."
As Benson (1991) suggests, a more appropriate approach to
the concept of integrative motivation in the EFL context
would be the idea that it represents the desire of the
individual to become bilingual, while at the same time
becoming bicultural. This occurs through the addition of
another language and culture to the learner's own cultural
identity.
society,
exchanges

As

Vietnam

is

opportunities

to

are

relatively

predominantly
use

the

TL

restricted,

in

a

monoculture
daily

especially

verbal
in

the

countryside where foreigners rarely appear. Hence, there
is

limited

potential

for

integrating

into

the

TL

community. It could be anticipated that the integrative
motivation under investigation would not be very strong.

8


2.1.2.2 Instrumental Motivation
Instrumental

motivation

or

Instrumental

orientation

underlies the goal to gain some social or economic reward
through

L2

achievement,

thus

referring

to

a

more

functional reason for language learning (Gardner, 1985).
Instrumental motivation is a more utilitarian orientation.
It refers to learner’s desires to learn the language in
order to accomplish some non-interpersonal purpose such as
to

pass

an

exam,

to

get

a

scholarship,

to

advance

a

career, to meet the requirements for school or university
graduation, to apply for a job, to achieve higher social
status, and so forth (Clement et al., 1994; Dornyei, 1990;
Hudson,

2000;

Verma,

2005).

This

is

generally

characterized by the desire to obtain something practical
or concrete from the language study .
In brief, it is clear that the latter refers to the need
to acquire a language as a means for attaining goals such
as career advancement or successful further study. The
former, however, refers to the desire to learn a language

in order to become closer to the culture and society of
the TL group. To gain a clear and deep understanding about
motivation

roles,

types,

the

supposed to be useful.

9

following

studies

are


2.1.3 Role of motivation in L2 learning
The study of motivation in SLA has become an important
research

topic

with

the

development

educational model on L2 motivation

of

the

socio-

(Gardner & Lambert,

1972; Gardner, 1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993; Tremblay &
Gardner, 1995). According to Gardner and Lambert (1972),
motivation
attitudes
communicate

to

learn

an

towards

the

with

valued

L2

L2

is

grounded

community

members

of

in

and

a

that

positive
desire

community

to
and

become similar to them. The latter desire is integrative
motivation,

which

is

a

better

support

for

language

learning, while instrumental motivation is associated with
a desire to learn L2 for pragmatic gains such as getting a
better job or a higher salary (Clement, Dornyei, & Noels,
1994; Dornyei, 2001; Gardner & Lambert, 1972).; Hudson,
2000; Verma, 2005).
Without

motivation,

success

will

be

hard

to

achieve

(Ushioda, 2000). Motivation provides the primary impetus
to begin learning a second/foreign language and to sustain
the long and difficult learning process (Brown, 2000; Ely,
1986; Gardner, 1985; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Nunan, 2000;
Nunan & Lamb, 1996; Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Scarcella &
Oxford,

1992;

orientation

Williams

can

help

&

Burden,

arouse

1997).

motivation

The

and

role

of

direct

it

towards a set of goals, with either a strong interpersonal
quality

(integrative

motivation)

or

a

strong

practical

quality (instrumental motivation) (Dornyei, 2001). Studies

10


in

the

psychology

motivation
1997).

little

of
can

Additionally,

learning
be

affirm

learned

numerous

that

(Williams

research

without

&

studies

Burden,
on

L2

motivation reveal that, in general, motivation enhances
SLA; learners ranking high on integrative motivation work
harder

and

learn

integrative

faster

motivation

than

those

(Clement

et

who

al.,

are

low

1994;

on

Gardner,

1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991; Tremblay & Gardner, 1995;
Liu, 2007, etc.). Therefore, integrative and instrumental

orientations

or

intrinsic

and

extrinsic

motivations

contribute to the learning of an L2. Nevertheless, as to
which

one

is

more

important

varies

from

context

to

context. Likewise, students in different contexts may be
motivated to learn an L2 by different orientations. This
is why the issue is still worth further exploration in
situations with different groups of learners.
It is worth noting that L2 motivation is recognized as one
of

the

prerequisites

for

successful

language

learning.

Motivation is “a very important, if not the most important
factor

in

language

learning”

(Van

Lier,

1996)

without

which even “gifted” individuals cannot accomplish longterm

goals,

whatever

the

curriculum

and

whoever

the

teacher. Instrumental motivation as a contributing factor
to learners’ effort and success in SLA: “the greater the
value that individuals attach to the accomplishment of or
involvement in the activity, the more highly motivated
they will be to engage in it initially, and later to put

11

sustained effort into succeeding in the activity” (Verma,
2005; Williams & Burden, 1997).
2.1.4

Studies

into

integrative

and

instrumental

motivations
It has been shown that both integrative and instrumental
motivations are important. A student might learn an L2
well with an integrative motivation or with instrumental
motivation, or indeed with both, for one does not rule out
the other or with other motivation. Both integrative and
instrumental motivations may lead to success, but lack of
either would cause problems (Gardner, 1985).
Firstly, integrative motivation has been found to sustain
long-term

success

when

learning

an

L2

(Ellis,

1997;

Taylor, Meynard & Rheault, 1977). In some of the early
research

conducted

integrative
importance

by

motivation
in

a

Gardner
is

and

viewed

formal

learning

Lambert

as

being

(1972),
of

more

environment

than

instrumental motivation (Ellis, 1997). In later studies,
integrative

motivation

has

continued

to

be

emphasized,

although now the importance of instrumental motivations is
also stressed. However, it is noteworthy that instrumental
motivation has only been acknowledged as a significant
factor in some research, whereas integrative motivation is
continually linked to successful SLA. It has been found
that generally students select instrumental reasons more
frequently

than

integrative

12

reasons

for

the

study

of

languages (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Liu, 2007; Ushioda,
2000; Wong, 2005). They are also good language learners.
Nevertheless,
support

an

it

should

integrative

be

repeated

approach

to

that

those

language

who

study

do
are

usually more highly motivated and overall more successful
in language learning.
Gardner and Lambert (1972) conducted an important study in
the Philippines. The researchers switched from the study
of French to the study of English, which is the most
prestigious language in the Philippines. The subjects in
this study were high school students who had approximately
six years of formal training in English. Additionally,
English has been the means of instruction since the third
grade. In the study, Gardner and Lambert (1972) concluded
that those students who were instrumentally motivated and
received

support

in

their

homes

succeeded

in

English

language development more than those students who were not
instrumentally oriented. Nevertheless, those students who
identified with the foreign language culture and language
seemed to be in a position of advantage in the language
acquisition process. Finally, and most important, Gardner
and Lambert (1972) concluded that in the foreign language
setting, teachers and administrators should try to help
students develop integrative motivation toward the foreign
language

and

fundamental

its

culture.

importance

to

In

L2

setting,

help

students

instrumental and instrumental motivations.

13

it

develop

is

of

both


Man-Fat’s (2004) study focused on the relationship between
integrative motivation and L2 achievement among Chinese L2
learners

in

Hong

Kong.

included

41

students

The

at

respondents

St.

Francis

of

the

Xavier's

study

College

(SFXC). SFXC is a boys' school in Hong Kong with Chinese
secondary students aged from 12 to 18. The data collection
instruments used in the study were a questionnaire adapted
from

Gardner's

(Gardner,
findings

Attitude/Motivation

1985)

and

revealed

a

that

Test

semi-structured
instrumental

Battery

(AMI)

interview.

goals,

The

especially

future career development and meeting more varied people
with

career-related

purposes

are

more

important

than

integrative goals such as appreciating British arts and
literature. In addition to high instrumental motivation,
the findings of the study showed that integrative was also
important to the respondents.
Liu (2007) conducted a research study on Chinese students’
motivation to learn English at the Tertiary Level. The
purpose of the study was to investigate Chinese students’
attitudes towards and motivation to learn English and the
correlations

of

the

said

variables

with

the

students’

English proficiency. The subjects included 202 third-year
non-English

majors

(51

females

and

151

males)

in

six

classes in a southern university in China. The instrument
used in the study consisted of a motivation questionnaire,
an open-ended question and an English proficiency test. A
modified

44-item

questionnaire

adapted

from

Gardner’s

(1985) and Clement et al.’s (1994) studies. The findings

14


revealed that the students had positive attitudes towards
learning English and were highly motivated to study it,
and that they were more instrumentally than integratively
motivated. Their attitudes and motivation were positively
correlated with their English proficiency. This means the
more positive attitudes students have, the more motivated
they are and as a result, the higher score they get in

English proficiency.

2.2 Parents as a factor affecting students’ motivation
in language learning
Parents

play

a

crucial

role

in

enhancing

children’s

motivation to learn an L2. Outside the school environment,
Wlodkowski and Jaynes (1990) present four major influences
on an individual’s motivation to learn, which are family,
school,

the

Williams
students'

child

(1994)

as

has

commitment

an

individual,

explained,
to

study

and

many
such

culture.

factors
as

As

affect

their

home

background, physical tiredness, events in their personal
life, health, previous educational experience, personality
and the onset of adolescence. Within the limited scope of
this study, the impact of parental factor, specifically
parents’

attitudes

and

involvement

on

students’

L2

motivation will be reviewed.
Parental attitudes and involvement are very important in
enhancing
Gardner

motivation
(1985)

to

finally

children’s
suggests

15

language
that

learning.

although

the


students’
directly

perception
related

willingness

to

to

substantially

of

their

their

learn

enhanced

parents’

performance
and

by

their

suitable

support
in

is

class,

not

their

motivation

are

encouragement

from

their parents. In fact, parental attitudes and involvement
tend

to

learning.

yield

highly

Gardner

effective

(1968)

thinks

results
it

is

in

language

meaningful

to

distinguish two roles of the parent which relevant to his
child’s success in a second-language program, i.e., active
role and passive role. Gardner (1968) explains the former
is the role whereby the parent actively and consciously
encourages

the

student

to

learn

the

language.

In

this

active role, the parent monitors the child’s languagelearning performance, and to the extent that he plays this
role to promote success. That is, the parent watches over
the child and makes sure he does his homework, encourages
him to do and in general reinforces his successes. Gardner
(1968) also believes it is safe to assume differences in
the extent to which parents vary in this encouragement
function

would

have

some

influence

on

the

child’s

performance in any learning situation. On the contrary,
the passive role is more subtle, and Gardner (1968) thinks
it is more important, primarily because the parent would
probably be unaware of it. By the subtle role, Gardner
(1968)

means

community
believes

the

whose
these

attitudes

of

the

parent

language

the

child

is

attitudes

are

important

learning.
because

influence the child’s attitudes and motivation.

16

toward

the
He
they


To contrast these roles, Gardner (1968) explains that if
an

English

speaking

parent

might

actively

encourage

a

child to learn French, he may stress the importance of
doing well in that course, and might see that the child
does his homework, and so forth. In this case, he might be
perceived

as

actually

helping

the

child.

This

is

the

active role. However, this same parent might hold positive
or negative attitudes toward the target community. To the
extent that he holds negative attitudes toward the target
community,

he

may

be

undermining

his

active

role

by

transferring to the child negative attitude towards the
target

community

whose

language

the

child

is

learning

(Gardner, 1968).
Therefore, like teachers, it is believed that parents can
have remarkable impact on students’ motivation to learn at
school and at home as well. Webb and Palinscar (1996)
emphasizes the critical role of parents like teachers that
can

influence

students’

motivation

and

engagement

in

class. Parents are considered to play a more critical role

in their child’ SLA (Gardner, 1960; Gardner & Lambert,
1972). Specifically, support from home is very important
for students’ motivation to learn a second language. If
parents

value

both

the

native

language

and

English,

communicate with their children in whichever language is
most comfortable, and show support for and interest in
their children’s progress, the children will definitely be
more

motivated

to

learn

the

1990).

17

L2

(Wlodkowski

&

Jaynes,