A book on writing Sam Mc Carter

I n t e l l iG e n e
F irst published by IntelliG ene 1997
R eprinted 1998
Second R eprint 2002

a .
book
on
writing

C opyright Sam M cC arter and The N uffield Self-access Language lYpjcci
for O verseas D octors at Southw ark C ollege, L ondon.

IS B N 0 9519582 1 6

Sam McCarter


t HnHHrirt
*s lu m s iiiu im

For Alison, Deborah and Johnathan

( ontcnls
P rcfiiee............................................................................................................. >
A cknow ledgem ents........................................................................................ ii

Section 1: Focus on coherence
1.
2.

I low to interpret essay title s ........................................................................ 4
Mow to link your introduction to your essay title .................................. 5

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Language sa lv a g e ........................................................................................ 6
Controlling your id e a s ................................................................................ 7
How to organise and control your essay ................................................. 8
Giving names to sen ten ces........................................................................ 9
Naming sentences in a paragraph...............................................................10
Awareness of coherence in a p a rag rap h ................................................... 12
Organising a paragraph by q u e stio n s........................................................14

10.
11.
12.

More questions for organising...................................................................... 16
Creating questions for organising a te x t..................................................... 17
The sequence of te n s e s...................................................................................18

13.
14.

Making c h o ic e s ............................................................................................... 19
A chaos m a z e ................................................................................................... 20
K e y .......................................................................................................... 86-106

Section 2: Focus on cohesion
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

Sentence relationships - knowledge check 1 .......................................... 26
Sentence relationships - knowledge check 2 .......................................... 27
Some areas of confusion ............................................................................. 28
Split te x ts .........................................................................................................30
Lost connecting words and p h rases............................................................31
Sentence relationships in a t e x t .................................................................. 32
Text with gaps ............................................................................................... 34
Text with no gaps .......................................................................................... 35

Reference with sy n o n y m s............................................................................36
More reference with synonym s...................................................................37
Words and phrases that are not exactly c o rre c t........................................38
The definite article as a connecting w o rd ..................................................39
The articles: fill the g a p s ..............................................................................40
Reference awareness and connections in a text .......................................41
Awareness of old/new information in a sentence: 1 ................................ 42

30.

Awareness of old/new information in a sentence: 2 ................................ 42

31.

C ontradictions................................................................................................ 44
K e y .........................................................................................................107-121


32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

Formal letter checklist Part 1 .......................................................................48
Formal letter checklist Part 2 .......................................................................49

Formal letter a n a ly s is.................................................................................... 50
Sequence of tenses in a te x t...........................................................................51
Reading for writing ........................................................................................52
Formal and informal aw aren e ss...................................................................54
Translation from informal to formal ...........................................................55
Dressing up an informal le tte r...................................................................... 56
Formal to informal translation..................................................................... 57

41.

A writing d r ill.................................................................................................58
K e y .........................................................................................................122-129

Section 4: Correcting written English
42.
43.
44.
45.

Recognising spelling m ista k e s.................................................................... 62
Recognising the correct word p ictu re....................................................... 63
Recognising words with a different appearance..................................... 64
Editing sentences with different m istak es............................................... 65

46.

Speed e d itin g ...................................................................................................66

47.
48.

49.
50.
51.
52.

A teacher’s rev e n g e !...................................................................................... 67
Correcting a te x t.............................................................................................68
Correcting and improving a te x t.................................................................. 70
Learning to see mistakes in a t e x t ............................................................. 72
Finding irrelevant in fo rm atio n .................................................................... 73
Another m a z e ..................................................................................................74
K e y .........................................................................................................130-136

Section 5: Punctuation
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.

Punctuation n am es..........................................................................................80
Questions about p u n ctu atio n ........................................................................ 81
Missing pun ctu atio n .......................................................................................82
Punctuation correction................................................................................... 83
Capital L etters.................................................................................................. 84
K ey.......................................................................................................... 137-139

l u m m u m i eh n o0si f

Section 3: Writing letters

Preface
T h is p u b licatio n is a self-stu d y b o o k on w ritin g . It is b a se d on th e a u th o r’s w o rk o v e r
m any years in E nglish as a S eco n d /F o reig n L an g u ag e an d E n g lish fo r S pecial P u rp o ses,
first in S ierra L eo n e, W est A frica, and th en in the U K .
The book is d esig n ed prim arily fo r E n g lish lan g u ag e stu d en ts at an a d v a n c e d lev el,
i.e. th e C a m b rid g e C e rtific a te in A d v a n c e d E n g lis h ,C a m b rid g e P ro fic ie n c y and th o se
stu d e n ts p re p arin g to a ch ie v e ap p ro x im a te ly b etw een 6.0 an d 7.5 in th e IE L T S ex am
m an ag e d and a d m in iste re d by the B ritish C o u n c il, the U n iv e rsity o f C a m b rid g e L ocal
I ix am in atio n s S y n d icate (U C L E S ) an d by IE L TS A u stralia. N ativ e sp eak ers o f E n g lish
m ay also find so m e asp e c ts o f th e b o o k o f use.
T h e book h as been w ritten from a c o g n itiv e , rath e r than a g ra m m a tic a l, p o in t o f view .
T h e g u id in g p rin c ip le th ro u g h o u t is to m im ic th e u n d e rly in g m ech a n ism s a n d th o u g h t
p ro c e sse s that m a k e u p the act o f w ritin g . T h e re fo re , it is h o p ed th at if y o u fin ish th is
b o o k you w ill re m e m b e r th e m e c h a n ism s ra th e r th a n th e la n g u ag e an d ad a p t th e m to
suit y o u r o w n n eed s.
T h e re arc five S e c tio n s, fo cu sin g on th e fo llo w in g areas: co h e re n c e in a te x t, co h esio n ,
letter w ritin g , c o rre c tin g a tex t and p u n ctu atio n . A ll th e e x ercises m ay b e u se d in
iso latio n , b ut you arc m ean t to read th em as fa r as p o ssib le in seq u en ce.
T h e e x e rc ise s a rc , in the m a in , d e sig n e d to m ak e you slow d o w n a n d th in k about
org an isatio n in w ritten texts. You m ay fin d , th erefo re, th at you hav e to rep eat an exercise
sev eral tim es. O n o c c a sio n , y o u m ay ev en feel th e n e e d to use th e K ey to h elp you
c o m p le te a p a rtic u la r ex ercise; d o not b e afra id to do th is. T h e im p o rtan t th in g is that
you are ab le to d o th e ex e rc ise s w ith ease a fte r so m e p ra ctice.
O n e w ay p erh ap s to a p p ro ach the ex e rc ise s is to th in k o f th e m as creatin g a m ech a n ism
fo r you to ab so rb the in fo rm atio n in the K ey. R e m e m b e r th a t you are a lso try in g to
a b so rb the m ental p ro cesses in v o lv ed in w ritin g . T h is is o b v io u sly m u ch m o re tim e
c o n su m in g , an d so m e tim e s m o re fru stra tin g , th an learn in g b are facts. Y ou sh o u ld not
th ere fo re e x p e c t to d o each e x e rc ise p erfectly , n o r a lw ay s at th e first a ttem p t.
l*'or e a ch e x e rc ise in this b o o k y o u sh o u ld read all th e in stru ctio n s v ery carefu lly .

A s you d o the ex e rc ise s try not to m ark the book so th at you can re p e a t th em .

Sam M cCarter
August 1997


Acknowledgements
I w ould like to th an k th e fo llo w in g c o lle a g u es a n d frie n d s fo r th e ir h e lp an d sup p ort
d u rin g th e w ritin g and p ro d u c tio n o f th is b o o k .
Ju d ith A sh , D o ris B a y b u tt, W e n d y B isik e r, J u lie E a s to n , H ila ry F in c h , C a ro lin e
H a m m o n d , P h il Ja k e s, R o g e r T o w n sen d , M ic k y S ilv e r a n d B e rn ie W all.
I w ould also like to th an k all th o se stu d en ts o v e r th e y e a rs w h o h a v e h elp e d in m any
w ays to d ev e lo p the id eas in th is b o o k . It is im p o ssib le to n a m e th em all, but I w ould
like to n am e th ree p eo p le in p articu lar: H iro K h o sh n a w , Z o ran M o m c ilo v ic and S hujaat
A1 N ath an i.
A sp ecial th a n k s is also d u e to th e m e m b e rs, p a st an d p re s e n t, o f th e C o m m itte e o f the
N u ffie ld S e lf -a c c e s s L a n g u a g e P ro je c t fo r O v e rs e a s D o c to rs , n a m e ly : A n a h ita
A m in o s se h e , J u d ith A s h , A le x a n d ra D a v ie s , S tu a rt E v a n s, T o n y H o o p e r, F arh a d
Ib r a h im , D o ro th y J o n e s , J o y P a r k in s o n , J u lie t R a y n e r, W e n d y R ile y , H c rn a n
R o sen k ran z, A z a r S h eib a n i, T oni S c o tt, R o b y n Y oung.

SECTION 1

T w o m em b ers o f the said C o m m itte e , w h o a re n o lo n g e r w ith u s, D r K a th e rin e E llio tt
and K en C rip w e ll, also d e se rv e a m e n tio n .
D rs G ill and B ru ce H a d d o c k d e serv e m o re th a n k s th a n I can say fo r th e ir lo n g p atien ce
a n d fo rb earan ce.
F in ally , I w o u ld like to say a v ery sp ecial th a n k y o u to M arg o B ly th m a n fo r h av in g
faith .

a book on w ritin g


Contents

Page

a book on writing

1.

H ow to in terp re t essay t i t l e s .............................................................................. 4

2.

H ow to link y o u r in tro d u c tio n to y o u r essay t i t l e .....................................5

3.

L a n g u a g e s a l v a g e .................................................................................................. 6

4.

C o n tro llin g y o u r i d e a s ..........................................................................................7

5.

H ow to o rg an ise and co n tro l y o u r e s s a y ........................................................ 8

6.

G iv in g n a m e s to s e n t e n c e s ................................................................................. 9

7.

N a m in g se n ten ces in a p a r a g r a p h ...................................................................10

8.

A w areness o f co h e re n c e in a p a r a g r a p h .................................................... 12

9.

O rg a n isin g a p a rag rap h by q u e s t i o n s ......................................................... 14

10.

M ore q u e stio n s fo r o r g a n is in g ....................................................................... 16

1 1.

C re atin g q u e stio n s fo r o rg a n isin g a t e x t ...................................................... 17

12.

T h e se q u e n c e o f t e n s e s .......................................................................................18

13.

M ak in g c h o ic e s .................................................................................................... 19

14.

A ch a o s m a z e ......................................................................................................... 20

a book on w ritin g

3


Exercise 1
How to interpret essay titles

Exercise 2
How to link your introduction to your essay title

The first step in writing any essay is to read and interpret the essay title correctly. Let us look al
the following example:

In the last exercise, you looked at interpreting essay titles and writing a suitable introduction.

1.

What steps do you think should he taken to reduce pollution?

In this essay question, the word steps is the organising word and the general subject is puliation.
You do not need to describe pollution itself; the title assumes that you already know what
pollution is. The title also indicates that pollution, at the mom ent, is bad. You could, therefore,
use this idea as part o f your introduction:

In other words, you were looking forward from the essay title to the introduction. As you write,
however, you also need to look back at what you have written, as well as forward.
In the introductions below, look for the organising words and decide what the general subject
is. Then write down a possible essay title for each one.

Example:
To many people boxing is a cruel sport, which ought to be banned. In my opinion,
however, it should not be stopped fo r many reasons.

Pollution is nowadays one o f the most serious threats to all living things on the planet
There are, however, many steps that can be taken to remedy this situation.
The first sentence is a general statement about the general subject. The second sentence is the
topic sentence: it gives the direction of the essay and tells you how to organise it.

It you look at the topic sentence first, you will see that there are several clues to the title. The
essay is about your opinion and the reasons. The general sentence shows you that the general
subject is boxing. Look at the following titles and you will see that the introduction expresses
(lie general subject and focus or topic o f the title:

Now study the essay titles below and:

- Boxing should be banned. What is your opinion o f this statement? Give your reasons.
- What is your opinion o f boxing? Give your reasons.

(a) find the word(s) in each question which will help you to organise your essay
(b)

decide what the general subject o f the essay is.
1. Capital punishment is an issue about which people fe e l very passionately. However,
there are many strong arguments against this issue.

2.

W h a t are th e m o st e ffe c tiv e w ay s to re d u c e u n e m p lo y m e n t in E u ro p e ?

2. Banning smoking in public places is an issue that gives rise to endless controversy.
There are, therefore, many arguments fo r and against.

3.

W h a t are th e d isa d v a n ta g e s o f u sin g c o m p u te rs in the w o rk p la c e ?

3.

Road deaths in Europe are still a major problem. This situation could, however, be
improved enormously by adopting a wide-ranging package o f measures.

4.

F o o d a d d itiv es sh o u ld b e b a n n e d . D isc u ss.

4.

5.

W h a t are the m ain b en efits o f in v e stin g m o n ey in sp ace re se a rc h ?

Over recent years, poverty has increased in many parts o f the world with disastrous
consequences.

6.

T h e m ain c a u se o f th e d e stru c tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t is th e b u rn in g o f

5.

The legalisation o f cannabis is a subject that has aroused considerable debate. There
are, however, a number o f benefits to be derived from making the drug legal.

6.

Recycling waste paper, glass and scrap metal is obviously a sound m ethod fo r
reducing pollution. Even so, a number o f equally important measures exist to tackle
the problem.

fo ssil fu els. D iscu ss.
7.

D is c u s s th e a d v a n ta g e s o f se x e d u c a tio n in th e s c h o o l c u rr ic u lu m at
seco n d ary level.

8.

T h e b est solution to u rb an traffic p ro b lem s is to b an all cars fro m city c e n tre s.
W h a t is y o u r o p in io n ?

9.

T o b acco a d v ertisin g in th e m e d ia sh o u ld b e b a n n e d . W h a t is y o u r o p in io n ?
G iv e y o u r reaso n s.

a book on writing

7. In some cases a little knowledge is a dangerous thing, but there are also certain
circumstances where it can be o f enormous help.
8.

Both public and private means o f transport have advantages and disadvantages.

9.

Corporal punishment, in one form or another, has been part o f the educational system
in many countriesfor a long time. As fa r as I am concerned, however, such punishment
is unacceptable.

10.

Now that oil resources are becoming rapidly depleted, more attention is being focused
on alternative form s o f energy.

a book on w ritin g

5


Exercise 3

Ex eicise 4
L ^ j rolling your ideas_______

Language salvage
Now it is time for you to try to write your own introductions, with some help. All the essay
questions below have the same general subject. The focus of each essay, however, is different.
In each case, decide first what the focus is. Then look below. You will see that you have a list of
introductions with another general subject. Find an introduction, or introductions, with a similar
focus and adapt the text to fit the titles.

___________ _

You h |vc |()0|hen you read an essay title, you may sometimes have lots of ideas, but y ° u may not know
w hleho fth c m are relevant.
Look at the following titles:

E xam ple:
1. Do you agree that euthanasia should be made legal? Give your reasons.

W hy do more and more people w ant to live in cities?
What are the disadvantages o f living in cities?

You can adapt a (and also e and h) as follows:
Making euthanasia legal is an issue which arouses enormous controversy. However, I
[largely] [disjagree with such a practice and fe e l that it should not be legalised
2.

Euthanasia should be made legal. What are the arguments fo r and against, and
what is your opinion o f this statement?

3.

Discuss the risks o f making euthanasia legal.

4.

How fa r do you agree with the statem ent that euthanasia should be made legal?

5.

Euthanasia should be made legal. Discuss.

6.

What are the benefits o f making euthanasia legal?

7.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages o f making euthanasia legal.

8.

What are the arguments against making euthanasia legal?

9.

What are the arguments fo r or against making euthanasia legal?

N(,w look al the map below. It shows the general subject, living in cities and the focus o f each
issay above: reasons and disadvantages. Around the map is a chaotic juinblc ° f ideas. Look at
j"'n b lc and decide which ideas can follow each direction.
List your answer on a piece of paper. D o not mark the bo°hgreater variety of jobs

noise

don’t know
your neighbours

better facilities
living in small towns is boring

b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

h.

6

Experimenting on animals is an issue which arouses enormous controversy. However,
I largely disagree with such experiments and feel that they should be banned.
Experimenting on animals is an issue which arouses enormous controversy. There
are, therefore, many arguments for and against.
Experimenting on animals for medical purposes is a controversial issue. However, in
my opinion, such experiments should definitely be banned for many reasons.
Experiments on animals have brought mankind not only many advantages, but also
some disadvantages.
Although many people are violently opposed to experiments on animals, they have
brought many benefits to mankind.
Experimenting on animals is a controversial issue. There are, however, many strong

arguments against such experiments.
Experimenting on animals is an issue which arouses enormous controversy. There
are, therefore, many arguments for and against, but, in my opinion, such experiments
on animals should definitely be banned.
Experimenting on animals is an issue which arouses enormous controversy among
the general public. As far as I am concerned, however, such experiments are necessary
for a number of reasons and should not be banned.

a book on writing

crime

entertajnm ent \
is accs85*'!5!6

pollution

\

more jobs/better prospects

Introductions:
a.

overcrowding

\

better health facilities

better services
living in cities (j h

isolation

greater variety of
leisure facilities

less friendly

better edicational
facilities
more exciting

cities can
be very ugly
hazards
greater variety o
entertainment
greater anonymity

a book on w ritin g


Exercise 5

3.

Euthanasia is immoral. Discuss.

How to organise and control your essay____________________

4.

Many people now try to keep fi t by jogging or working-out in a gym. What are the
dangers o f such exercise?

5.

Some people fe e l that all medical personnel should be tested fo r HIV. What would
the problems o f such a programme be? Give your own opinion.

6.

Animal organs should not be used fo r human transplants. What are the main
arguments against this statement?

7.

How can accidents in the home be prevented?

As you develop your essay, you also need to keep your ideas under control. Look at the essay
title and plan below:
What are the differenttfypeho f alternative energy?
As the world looks to a future without o il, more attention
is being focused on alternati vef§ource?i
of energy.

8.

War can never be justified. How fa r do you agree with this statement?

9.

Describe your pet hates.

The most commontfornftof alternative energy is
hydro power.
\
Another abundant^ffergy soiircftis the sun.
There is also, o f^ d u rse, wind power, of which the
best known(£xampIbis windmills.

— .....

As we have seen, there are many differentflandsi of
alternative energy.

If you examine the above plan carefully, you can see:
(i)

the focus word in the title is highlighted. This word shows the specific direction of
the essay.

(ii) the focus word in the introduction is highlighted to show the direction of the essay.
(iii) each paragraph begins with a topic sentence. In each o f these sentences, there is a
focus word which links the paragraph to the topic sentence in the introduction and
shows the direction o f the paragraph. The focus words are also highlighted.
(iv) the synonyms for the word types: sources, form , energy source, example and kinds.
These are interchangeable and help you to avoid repetition o f the word ty p elsl.

(v) the underlined phrases w hich introduce ideas in the paragraph. Students often
complain that they have ideas, but they do not know how to put them down on paper.
This inability to introduce ideas is a central problem in writing and, for the most part,
goes unrecognised. Compare this with the difficulties you have beginning essays, i.e.
writing introductions, and putting your ideas on paper.
(vi) you have a basic mechanism to help you control your writing.
Now, it is your turn to make essay plans. Below is a short list o f essay questions. Work out the
focus and the general subject o f each essay. Then write an introduction with no more than two
sentences and an essay frame for each one as above. Pay careful attention to the way you
introduce your ideas in the plan, and also to the synonyms you use. For the synonyms, you may
need to use a thesaurus.
1.
2.

Exercise 6
Hiving names to sentences___________________________________ _
This exercise focuses on the meaning of individual sentences and giving them names. You have,
in effect, been doing this already in this Section so far, perhaps w ithout realising.
Som etim es, people have difficulty w hen they are reading or w riting, because they do not
recognise the signs in a text w hich pinpoint m eaning. T he result is that there is too much
unknow n inform ation to process at one tim e. If you learn gradually to recognise text m arkers,
whether they are obvious or hidden, it will improve the amount of detail you are able to process,
and absorb. T his, in turn, will influence your w riting, as you learn to m anipulate the signposts
you need to m ark your own w riting.
Look at the sentences below. In som e cases, the sentences stand on their ow n and, in others,
they have been rem oved from a larger text. G ive a nam e to each sentence (e.g. a general
statem ent, a topic sentence, a fact, a suggestion) and give a reason fo r your answer. Some
sentences have m ore than one nam e.
Example:
Water boils at 1001C.

The sentence is a fact. Note the use of the Present Simple, boils, which is used to express a fact.
1.

The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.

2.

I f only you had come a little bit sooner!

3.

My main argument fo r the ban is that personal stereos are a nuisance to all
passengers.

4.

The main argument fo r the ban is that personal stereos are a nuisance to all
passengers.

5.

Such a policy could, I feel, take quite a fe w young people o ff the streets.

Discuss the measures to reduce obesity in rich countries.

6.

Such a policy would, I feel, take quite a fe w young people o ff the streets.

Euthanasia is immoral. Discuss your opinion.

7. Such a policy will. 1feel, take quite a fe w young people o ff the streets.
8. These properties could even be renovated by the homeless themselves.

a book on writing

a book on w ritin g

9


9. The most important advantage is the safety o f the fo o d .

u.

introducing the general subject of pollution

10. As a result, Antarctica w ill be saved fo r future generations.

b.

a topic sentence

11. The law might be difficult to enforce.

c.

a proposal

d.

an organising sentence

1.

12. He might have told you about the proposed changes.

u.

introducing the general subject of pollution

13. He might have told you about the proposed changes!

b.

a topic sentence

14. Shaniqua prom ised to come.

c.

a proposal

d.

an organising sentence

2.

15. For example, now it is possible to keep people alive on m achines fo r a considerable

time.

3.

Exercise 7
4.

Naming sentences in a paragraph
This exercise looks at the meaning o f sentences as they relate to each other in a continuous text.
In other words, you are going to look at coherence in writing a passage.

5.
Read the first two paragraphs o f the essay title below. As you read, think about the relationship
between the sentences. Then do the exercise which follows.

W hat measures do you think should be taken to reduce pollution?

6.

(1) The very survival o f all living things on our planet is now under threat from
pollution. (2) In my opinion, however, there are a number o f very effective measures
that can be taken to remedy the situation.
(3) The introduction of a carbon tax, i.e. a tax on coal and oil products, such as plastics,
petrol and fuel for domestic and industrial consum ption, is, I feel, the most important
measure. (4) Such a tax would have a number o f benefits. (5) First o f all, the reduction
in the consumption o f fuel would give us fresher air to breathe. (6) At the same time,
it could raise money far cleaning up the environment and make the general public more
conscious o f pollution. (7) H aving said th at, how ever, this tax w ould be rath er
unpopular among the general public, as it w ould reduce their spending power. (8)
Moreover, there would be a strong industrial lobby against it because of the extra costs

and, thirdly, the government would be against it, as it would result in increased inflation.
(9) So politicians w ould not support such a measure. (10) N evertheless, I strongly
believe that a carbon tax is an essential step in the fight against pollution.

7.

8.

9.

On the opposite page are ten multiple choice questions with four alternatives.
10.
Read the passage again and decide which alternatives best describe the purpose of each sentence
and why the others are not suitable. In same cases, more than one alternative may be correct.

10

a book on writing

a.

introducing the topic o f the paragraph

b.

a proposal

c.

a tentative proposal

d.

expanding the word measures in sentence 2

a.

a development of the previous sentence

b.

a conclusion

c.

a result

d.

a recommendation

a.
b.

a result
an explanation o f the organising word: benefits

c.

an expansion of the previous sentence

d.

a suggestion

a.

a result

b.

an explanation of the organising word: benefits

c.

an expansion o f the previous sentence

d.

a suggestion

a.

a reservation

b.

a suggestion

c.

a result

d.

a contrast

a.

a conclusion

b.

a recommendation

c.

a cause

d.

additional reservations and reasons

a.

a tentative result

b.

an example

c.

a generalisation

d.

a conclusion of sentences 7 and 8

a.

a contrast

b.

an opinion

c.

an example

d.

a conclusion for the whole paragraph

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li

i
function list

n

Exercise 8
Awareness of coherence in a paragraph

On the page opposite, there is a list o f words and phrases to describe the purpose or function o f
each sentence. Study the list and decide which purpose or function describes each sentence.
Note that a sentence may have more than one function.

Experiments on animals should be banned. What is your opinion?
(I) Experiments on animals may have contributed enormously to the
welfare of the human race. (2) Nevertheless, I personally feel that such
experiments are totally unacceptable for many reasons.

12

a book on writing

c. supplying background information
d. giving an example
e. an explanation
f. an argument against animal experiments
g. a topic sentence for the essay
h. an organising sentence
i. a concession

k. suggestions

1. an opinion
nt. an expansion of the word ‘reasons’
n. introducing the general subject of the essay
o. an argument for animal experiments

111 o u t u 11

(II) Another argument against is that animals also have rights.

b. an expansion of the previous sentence

j. alternative solutions

n

(3) By far the most important reason is the suffering that animals have
to endure during tests. (4) Every year, many thousands of innocent
creatures are used in laboratory experiments. (5) Cosmetics companies,
for instance, test many of their products on rabbits and dogs to make
sure they are safe for humans. (6) Such testing, however, means that
harmless animals have to endure appalling pain and torture for the
vanity of human beings. (7) Surely, the cosmetics industry should use
other techniques now available, like computer models; or, instead, they
could develop new methods. (8) The main counter argument is that a
human life is more important than that of an animal. (9) Furthermore,
the countless lives saved by animal experiments cannot be overlooked.
(10) Still, in my opinion, experiments on animals do not justify the
suffering caused to innocent creatures.

ii n 11

Below is the beginning o f an essay. Read the text carefully and, while you are doing so, keep in
mind what you learnt in the previous two exercises. Think specifically about the coherence in
the text.

a. a conclusion

p. a contrast
q. introducing the focus or topic of a paragraph
r. introducing a reason

Reminder
Write yctur answers on a separate sheet for all the exercises so that you can repeat
them.

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Exercise 9

a. There are, however, many arguments for and against banning
blood sports.

Organising a paragraph by questions
In this exercise, you are going to look at some o f the thought processes involved in writing a
text. Read the instructions below.
Instructions:
1.

Imagine that you have to write an essay on the following title:
All blood sports should be banned. Discuss the main arguments fo r this statement
and then give your own opinion.

2.

Imagine that you are writing the introduction and the first argument for the above
essay title.

3. Imagine that the questions below are your own.
4. Read the questions one at a time.

b. In this instance, an innocent animal is chased by men and women
on horses and by a pack of dogs. When the poor creature is trapped,
it is then inhumanely killed and may even be viciously torn to
pieces by the dogs.
c. Consequently, people’s tolerance of brutality is increased and
other violent activities, including crime, are encouraged.
d. As far as I am concerned, sports are quite civilised.
e. There are, however, many reasons why blood sports should be
made illegal.
f.

5. Match each question with an answer from the jum bled text on the opposite page.
6. Answer the questions in sequence.

Every year many thousands of helpless animals and birds are killed
in this country, not primarily for food, but for pleasure.

g. Finally, blood sports cannot really be considered as sport at all and
are a waste of time.

Three o f the sentences opposite do not match any o f the questions.

h . Fox-hunting is probably the best example of the sheer brutality of
such entertainment.

1. The first statement in the essay title above is written in such a way
that it will create a discussion, and is, therefore, controversial. As
a starting point, can I write a general statement about blood spoils
to include this idea?
2.

How many arguments are there supporting a ban on blood sports?

3.

What is the main reason for banning blood sports?

4.

Can I give some background information about thenumbers of
helpless creatures killed for pleasure each year?

5. What do people think about blood sports? Are they barbaric/
uncivilised?
6. There must surely be many examples to support this view. Can I
give one?

i.

For my part, after considering the arguments above, I feel there
can be no justification whatsoever for allowing blood sports to
continue.

j.

Few issues arouse more bitter controversy than attempts to ban
hunting animals for sport.

k. To many people, this practice is barbaric, because innocent
animals are tortured and killed for the amusement and gratification
of human beings.
1. The most obvious justification for the ban is that blood sports such
as fo x -h u n tin g , shooting birds and, in fact, any form of
game-hunting, are uncivilised.

7. Can I explain this example more fully?

14

8.

What does such cruelty do to people in general?

9.

Can I draw a personal conclusion from this?

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15


Exercise 10

Exercise 11
Creating questions for organising a text

More questions for organising
Look at the text below and the list of jum bled questions which follow. Mulch nu h qtu Hue
a sentence in the text.

The responsibility for reducing juvenile crime in the UK lies as much with paicnh and
teachers as with the government. Discuss.
(1) Crime committed by young people in the UK is an ever-increasing problem (2>
Although there is some suggestion that the governm ent should take the lead in reducing
juvenile crime by. say, introducing more severe forms o f punishm ent, parents and
teachers certainly have a greater role to play in this process.
(3) Statistics show that young offenders frequently come from unstable, uncaring ot
violent family backgrounds. (4) A comfortable family environment is, therefore, one
o f the most important factors in helping to reduce crime committed by the young. (5)
It is obviously the parents’ responsibility to teach and bring up their children to follow
the law and to behave as respected members o f our society. (6) O f course, not every
family can create the ideal surroundings for educating their children. (7) In that case,
teachers could share the burden of teaching young people how and why they should
obey rules. (8) The government, of course, also has a very important part to play. (9)

It is surely the state’s role to provide the environment necessary for a stable, caring
society.

Q uestions

16

a.

Is it possible fo r all fam ilies to create an appropriate environment fo r their children?

b.

Has the government any role to play? I f so, how great?

c.

What are the responsibilities o f parents?

d.

What is the governm ent’s role specifically?

e.

What is the rate o f juvenile crime in the United Kingdom at the moment?

f.

What do the statistics say about juvenile crime in the UK?

g.

I f this is so, what is the m ost important fa cto r in helping to reduce juvenile crime?

h.

Who else could share the burden i f parents cannot do it all themselves?

i.

Which o f the two groups, parents and teachers or the government, has the greater
role to play?

The text below is part o f an essay written by a student. Read through the passage quickly. Then
read it again, carefully, and decide what questions the writer asked him self to develop the essay.
Write your questions, in full, on a piece of paper.

What would you do to improve the lot of the elderly in this country?
The UK, like other countries in Europe, has an increasingly ageing
population, yet it is a pity that the elderly are not properly looked after
or cared for. There are many ways, however, in which the lot of elderly
people in this country can be improved.
The first step that needs to be taken is to improve the living conditions
of all old people. According to statistics, there are over one million
dwellings which have been declared unfit for habitation. Out of these,
at least half a million are occupied by the elderly. Special houses
should, therefore, be built, which are cheap, and designed in such a way
that they are easily accessible. By this I mean, they ought to have special
provision for those who have joint problems or difficulty in walking.

Moreover, all the basic amenities should be nearby, so that the old will
not have any trouble purchasing their food and other articles of daily
use. The provision of adequate heating is a further improvement that
could be made. These homes should be provided with proper heating
facilities, as the elderly are susceptible to cold. It is estimated that
hundreds of people who are old and frail die of hypothermia in their
homes each winter.
Another area which requires attention is food.

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Exercise 12

Exercise 13

The sequence of tenses

Making choices

Verbs also reflect and reinforce the relationships between sentences in a text.

Read the following essay title:
Drug addiction among young people in the UK is daily becoming more and more
serious. How, in your opinion, should the problem be tackled?

In the passage below, choose the correct verb form from the alternatives given to fit the
relationship between the sentences. Decide also why the other alternatives are not suitable.

Now read through the Maze below. At each number choose the correct sentence to develop the
first paragraph o f the above essay title. The sentences are in the correct order.

Relations between different countries are now better than they have
been for many years. Even so, there is a lot of tension in the world.
W hat do you think governments should do to relieve this tension?
In my opinion, the tension in the world [1 comes/is comingJ from
ignorance and the lack of contact between different people and com­
munities. To overcome this situation, there [2 is/are/would be J much
that the international community can do. First of all, I [3 am think­
ing/think| governments [4 should/would/might] encourage their peo­
ple, especially young people, to learn more languages. This [5 would
bring about/might bring about/brings about] closer contact between
different cultures and people. For example, at the moment many
countries [6 would give/will give/should give/give] scholarships to
enable people from other countries to study their languages. Most of
these scholarships are for adults, but they [7 would usefully be/could
usefully be/are usefully] extended to cover school children, or rather
groups of school children.
Second, there [8 could/would/might] be more informal sporting events.
F o r e x a m p le, sp o rts o rg a n isa tio n s in d iffe re n t c o u n tries
[9 could/would/might] organise regional and international events on an
amateur basis. Already, we [10 are having/have/do have] the Olympic
Games, but, worthy though they are, they [11 have become/would
become/could become] too political or too competitive. More informal
sports meetings, however, in the true spirit of the Olympic Games
[12 would go/go] some way to bringing people from all over the world

together.

Drug addiction among the young in the UK is. unfortunately, on the increase.
B
A
The problem, in my opinion, comes
2. The problem, however, is not
not just from the break-up of the
insurmountable, if it is approached
family, but from other sources as well.
realistically.
1.

3.

Peer group pressure is. I feel, one of the
most likely causes of addiction among
young people.

In my opinion, the most effective
method to combat drug addiction
among young people is through health
education.

4.

Such education can be divided roughly into
two broad categories, namely health
education in school and out of school.

What often happens here is that
youngsters start playing around with
drugs, because they see their friends
taking them.

5.

At school, children and teenagers can be
shown the dangers of drug addiction in
health education classes.

They do not want to be left out or, as is
frequently the case, taking drugs
becomes a kind of badge of acceptance
within a group.

6. Then, if someone does not do what the
others in the group are doing, they may
be ostracised or cut off by their friends.

The older pupils could do projects on
addiction; watch videos on the topic;
speak to ex-addicts, and so on.

7.

All one has to do is to look at the
prevalence of smoking among
youngsters to realise the extent o f the
danger from such pressure.

Education outside the school could take the
form o f advertising on television and the
radio, as well as in magazines aimed at
young people.

8. The advertisers could use well-known
figures that young people admire, and
are likely to listen to, like pop stars and
footballers.

Money is another cause of addiction.

9. Nowadays, the younger generation have
more pocket money and are able to earn
quite a bit from part-time jobs.

In this way, drug addiction would then
be prevented before it starts.

10. Thus, when something novel like drugs
comes their way, they can often afford to
try it out, at least once.

18

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A chaos maze

In Roger’s English class recently, he and his fellow students had a
lively discussion about whether intelligence is inherited or not.
During the debate, Roger supported the opinion that it is impossible
to separate the inheritance from the environmental factors when
discussing intelligence.
One student in the pro-inheritance group raised the point that there
are many examples of people who are very gifted and who rise to
the top no m atter what happens. This was an argument which
Roger’s group could not disagree with.
Roger, however, also raised the point that there are many talented
people, but, without the right environment and influences, they are
held back. He then observed that intelligent parents tend to encour­
age their children and provide an environment favourable to devel­
opment.
He went on to quote examples of families where the parents are not
considered generally to be ‘bright’, yet their children are top of the
class at school. Conversely, as he also mentioned, there are students
who are not very good academically, but whose parents are both in
intellectually demanding professions.
At the end of the lesson, the teacher asked the class to express their
views in an essay entitled:
Is intelligence inherited?

Bearing in mind the opinion of R oger's group, choose sentences opposite that would make up
the first paragraph o f his essay. You may use only eight o f the sentences to reflect the points

above. Text number 14 is the third sentence which Roger wrote.

20

a book on writing

I3yI5!5uIi5u5I5aya!Syuuu5

Exercise 14

I . All this leads me to conclude that the
interplay betw een environm ental and
hereditary factors is crucial in the
d evelopm ent o f hum an intelligence.

2. Intelligence is very difficult to
m easure, but, if we look at the issue
carefully, w e can identify certain
criteria for assessm ent.

3. In oth er w ords,intelligent parent m ean
intelligent children.

4. N evertheless, there are countless
others w ho are talented, but w ithout
the right environm ent and influences
they do not realise their full potential

5.

For exam ple, m ost professional fam ilies
produce children w ho are very
successful and follow a professional
career.

7. b o oking at the issue from another angle,
there arc m any intelligent children w ho
do not have intelligent parents, and vice
versa.
9. Som e people rightly feel that intelligence
depends solely on hereditary factors.

6. Further, surely parents w ho are
intelligent and are successful are
m ore likely to try to provide an
environm ent w hich nurtures the
developm ent o f their children.
8. T his gives rise to the statem ent that
doctors are born, not m ade.

10. I accept that there are som e people
w ho are very talented and they
succeed no m atter w hat happens.

11. 1low ever, I personally believe that
intelligence is based on a m ixture o f
both hereditary and environm ental
factors.

12. A n exam ple o f this is fam ilies where

the parents and children are doctors.

13. The debate about w hether intelligence is
inherited has been raging for quite som e
tim e.

14. In fact, these factors are so
inextricably interlinked that it is
im possible to separate them .

15. In other w ords, they believe that people
in certain professions, like m usicians,
teachers, doctors, etc., are born, not
m ade.

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SECTION 2

a b o o k on writing

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23


Contents

Page

a book on writing

15.

Sentence relationships - knowledge check 1 ................... 26

16.

Sentence relationships - knowledge check 2 ................... 27

17.

Some areas of co n fu sio n .................................................... 28

18.

Split tex ts...............................................................................30

19.

Lost connecting words and phrases................................... 31

20.

Sentence relationships in a te x t......................................... 32

2 1.

Text with g a p s ...................................................................... 34

22.

Text with no g a p s .................................................................35

23.

Reference with synonym s.................................................. 36

24.

More reference with synonym s..........................................37

25.

Words and phrases that are not exactly c o rrect............... 38

26.

The definite article as a connecting word ......................... 39

27.

The articles: fill the g a p s .................................................... 40

28.

Reference awareness and connections in a t e x t .............. 41

29.

Awareness of old/new information in a sentence: 1 .........42

30.

Awareness of old/new information in a sentence: 2 .........42

31.

C ontradictions...................................................................... 44

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25


Sentence relationships - knowledge check 1
As you are writing, it is worth bearing in mind that it helps your readers if they can see clearly
the relationship between your sentences. Quite often you can show this relationship with parliculm
joining words or phrases. Not only are you then guiding the reader through your thoughts in
written form, but you are also directing yourself.
In this exercise, you are going to test how much you know about some basic connecting devices,
or text markers.
Answer the questions below as far as you can. Do not expect to know all the answers. One aim
of this exercise is to help you check and then organise your knowledge.
Avoid writing in the book so that you can do the exercise several tim es, if necessary.

1. To connect sentences you can use basically two types o f connecting words or phrases:
adverbs and conjunctions. In the list below, which words are adverbs and which

conjunctions?
while, and, besides, consequently, moreover, although, if, where, when, but, however,
though, thus, what is more.
2. What is the difference between an adverb which links sentences and a conjunction?
3. W hich o f the two sentences below is correct?
(a) The steps that have been taken are admirable, but they m ay be too late to do
any good.
(b) The steps that have been taken are admirable, however they may be too late to
do any good.
4. Is the text below correct?
The steps that have been taken are admirable.
But they may be too late to do any good.
5. W hat is the difference between although and but?
6. W hat is the difference between y£t and but?
7. In the list below which word or phrase is the odd one out?
similarly, furtherm ore, on the other hand, moreover, in addition, what is more.
8. W hen can you use much as to link sentences together?
9. W hich is the odd one out:
such as, like, namely, fo r example?
10.

There is a problem in the text below. W hat is it?
Take rugby, fo r example, it is also a sport which can cause considerable injury.

26

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s B o n n m s n n t u m n n

Exercise 15

Exercise 16
Sentence relationships - knowledge check 2
This exercise is also a test of your knowledge of basic text markers, which help to lead both
you and the reader through your writing.
Answer the questions below as far as you can. Again, do not expect to know all the answers;
the exercise is to help you check and organise your knowledge.
Avoid writing in the book so that you can do the exercise several times, if necessary.

1.

I t ’s n o t e a sy to d e a l w ith a situ a tio n like th is. I t ’s a b it m u ch , th o u g h , to
p u t a ll th is p ressu re on y o u r fr ie n d s .
Is the w o rd th o u g h in th e seco n d sen ten ce an ad v erb o r a co n ju n c tio n ?

2.

E x p lain th e c o n n e c tio n b etw e e n the th ree se n ten ces b elo w . T h e th ird
se n ten ce is a lso u n fin ish e d ; fill the gap w ith o n e w ord.
A m a n a p p e a re d ro u n d the c o rn e r a n d w a lk e d b risk ly a lo n g the street.
T he m a n s lo p p e d su d d e n ly a n d w as a b o u t to e n te r a s h o p .
door
w a s o p en , a n d s o ........

3.

T h e te x t b elo w is not w ell c o n n ected . W h ere d o es th e p ro b le m lie an d
can you c o rre c t it?
A n o th e r rea so n w h y is th a t a lc o h o l a d v e rtise m e n ts are re sp o n sib le f o r a

la rg e n u m b e r o f h ea lth p ro b le m s . In fa c t, a lc o h o l a d v e rtise m e n ts ca u se
m illio n s o f d e a th s in a n y o n e year.

4.

U se th e te x ts b elo w to ex p lain th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n in the e n d an d
finally.
(a)

A t fir s t, sh e w as u seless a t d rivin g , but, in the end, sh e b e c a m e a
very g o o d driver.

(b)

F irst, he b o u g h t a ll th e d eco ra tin g eq u ip m e n t he n e e d e d . N e x t, he
w a s h e d d o w n th e w a lls a n d , th e n , h e p a in te d th e m . F in a lly , he
c le a r e d up the m ess.

(c)

F irst, re a d a ll the q u e stio n s v e ry ca refu lly. S eco n d , c h e c k h o w m a n y
q u e stio n s y o u h a v e to a n sw e r; a n d , fin a lly , w rite o n ly the n u m b e r
o f w ords required.

5.

W hat d o the fo llo w in g w o rd s and p h rases h a v e in co m m o n :
s o l th erefo re!a s a re su lt/a s a co n seq u en c e !a c c o rd in g ly /c o n se q u e n tly !
n o w /th e n /b e c a u se o f th is/th a t/th u s /h e n c e /fo r th is/th a t reason

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27


6 . L o o k at th e se n te n c e s below . In w h ic h se n te n c e is th e u se o f o th e rw ise
co rrect?
(a) T his m a tte r
p ro b le m s in
(b) T his m a tte r
p ro b le m s in

n e e d s to be e x a m in e d ca re fu lly ; o th e rw ise , th ere w ill be
th e fu tu r e .
n e e d s to b e e x a m in e d ca refu lly, o th e rw ise th ere w ill be
th e fu tu r e .

7 . W h a t is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n d e sp ite an d in sp ite o f an d a lth o u g h . Join
the tw o sen ten c e s b e lo w to sh o w th e d iffe re n ce .
H e p la y e d a m a jo r ro le in th e p e a c e p r o c e s s . H is a c h ie v e m e n t w e n t
u n reco g n ised .
8. There are a lo t o f m e a su re s ca n b e in tro d u c ed to re m ed y th e situ a tio n .
W h a t is w ro n g w ith th is sen te n ce ?

2a. T h e arg u m e n ts fo r re strictio n s
o n gun o w n e rsh ip a re , as w e
h a v e se e n , o v e rw h e lm in g .
T h e re fo re , th e law sh o u ld be

2 b. T h e arg u m en ts fo r restric tio n s on

gun o w n ersh ip are, as w e have
seen , o v e rw h e lm in g , th e re fo re ,
th e law sh o u ld be ch an g ed .

changed.
3a. A lth o u g h you have been
e x p re ssly fo rb id d e n to leav e

3b.

b e fo re 3 p m , yet you c o n tin u e

d o so.

to do so.
4 a . P lan tin g trees in cities w ill
m ak e the e n v iro n m e n t m o re
p leasan t to live in. B e sid e , it
w ill m ak e th e a ir c le a n e r as

A lth o u g h you h av e been
ex p ressly fo rb id d en to leav e
b efo re 3 p m , b u t you co n tin u e to

4b.

P la n tin g trees in citie s w ill m ak e
the e n v iro n m e n t m o re p le a sa n t to
liv e in. B e sid e s , it w ill m ak e the
a ir c le a n e r as w ell.

w ell.

9. W h a t is the d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n first an d at firs t?
10. In the e x tra c t b elo w , th e w o rd A n o th e r te lls y o u th a t th is is th e seco n d
su b ject u n d e r d isc u ssio n . W h ic h n o u n o r n o u n s c a n y o u p u t in th e sp ace
b elo w ?
A n o th e r d e lic a te ____________ n e e d s to b e c o n sid e re d h e re: a t w h a t a g e
ch ild ren sh o u ld b e g iv e n in fo rm a tio n a b o u t se x . To m a n y p e o p le , g ivin g
su ch in fo rm a tio n a t an ea rly a g e is m u ch to o d a n g e ro u s.

5 a. M an y im p ro v em en ts h av e

5b.

6 a. Ja n e an d D iv a got u p e arly so

M a n y im p ro v e m e n ts h a v e been
m ad e to the in fra stru c tu re , ev en
so m o re h as y et to be d o n e.

b een m ad e to the
in fra stru c tu re . E v en so , m ore
has yet to b e d o n e.

6 b. Jan e an d D iv a got up early , so
th ey w o u ld be ab le to c a tc h the

th e y w o u ld be able to catc h
th e first train .

first train .
B ec a u se the talk s on n u c le a r
d isa rm a m e n t w e re su c c e ssfu l, w e
can n o w lo o k fo rw a rd to a m ore

7b.

Exercise 17

7 a. A lth o u g h th e talk s on n u c le a r
d isa rm a m e n t w ere su c c e ssfu l,
w e can n o w lo o k fo rw a rd to a
m o re re la x e d w o rld .

Some areas of confusion

8 a. M u ch as I sy m p a th ise w ith

8b. E v e n I sy m p ath ise w ith th is

From the last two exercises, you have probably realised that you do, in fact, know most connecting
words and phrases. However, you may have discovered that there is often some vital information,
about even very common connecting devices, o f which you are not aware. So, when it comes to
putting these linking words into a text, you may find it difficult to use them correctly.
This exercise looks at a few areas where students are sometimes confused. In each pair o f
sentences below, one sentence is correct and the other is wrong. Decide which answer is correct
and why.

l a . T h e g o v e rn m e n t tig h te n e d the

law s on c e n so rsh ip , b e c a u se th e
m e d ia c o u ld be b ro u g h t u n d e r
stric te r co n tro l.

lb . S o th at th e m e d ia c o u ld be
b ro u g h t u n d e r stric te r c o n tro l,
th e g o v e rn m e n t tig h te n e d the
law s on c e n so rsh ip .

a book on writing

p o sitio n , I c an n o t ac c e p t that
e u th a n a sia is really the answ er.

th is p o sitio n , I c a n n o t ac c e p t
th at e u th a n a sia is really the
an sw er.
9 a. T h e re are fo u r m ain sk ills in
la n g u a g e le a rn in g , lik e,
sp e a k in g , liste n in g , re ad in g
and w ritin g .

9b.

T h e re are fo u r m ain sk ills in
la n g u ag e le a rn in g , n am ely :
sp e a k in g , liste n in g , re a d in g and
w ritin g .

lO a.S om e p e o p le , n am ely

A ris to tle , L e o n ard o da V inci
an d E in ste in , have
c o n trib u te d m uch to the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f m an k in d .

10b. S o m e p e o p le , lik e A risto tle ,
L e o n a rd o d a V inci and E in ste in ,
have c o n trib u te d m u ch to the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f m an k in d .

1la .H e h ad d riv en all n ig h t, so he

1 lb . H e h ad d riv en all n ig h t, th e refo re

w as tired .

28

re la x e d w o rld .

a book on w ritin g

he w as tired .

29


Exercise 18

Exercise 19

Lost connecting words and phrases

Split texts
Now you are going to look at connections in another way. M atch the text on the left with a
suitable clause or sentence on the right.
As you do the exercise, think about the relationship between the two parts o f the text.

1. D espite the fact that he arrived in

a.

this country as a penniless
refugee,

30

that thousands o f people fled
from the area.

2. T he outbreak o f the disease
caused such a panic,

b.

that he w on the N obel Prize for
Physics.

3. N ow that m ore and m ore people
have access to the Internet,

c.

N evertheless, I cannot b ear him
personally.

4. The roads w ere jam m ed ,

d.

he w as finally arrested and sent
to prison.

5.

e.

they will be able to find their
w ay here quite easily.

6. T here is no doubt th at the law
needs to be changed

f.

she is able to understand the
problem s that h er students face.

7. I adm ire him as a politician.

g-

so that people w ith physical
disabilities can have greater
access to all public buildings.

B eing a com petent linguist,

8. It w as such a brilliant
developm ent,

h.

the num ber o f injuries w ould
have been dram atically reduced.

9. O n account o f his violent
behaviour tow ards his w ife and
children,

i.

yet the am bulance m anaged to
reach the scene o f the accident.

10. H ad the w earing o f safety belts
been com pulsory on coaches as
well as in cars,

j-

11. In the end, he bought the
building,

k.

the am ount o f inform ation
m oving around the globe is
phenom enal.

12. Som ething needs to be done
about w ater conservation in
m any parts o f the w orld;

1.

o therw ise, there m ay well be
w ars in the near future.

13. Provided they follow the
instructions,

m.

even though it w as practically
falling dow n.

In the sentences below, the connecting words and phrases are missing. Read through the
exercise first and see if you can identify where you need to add an appropriate connector. The
punctuation will help you to decide what you need and where. Note that you can only use
connectors which the punctuation allows. Sometimes, you may be able to use more than one

item to connect the sentences.
Use only words and phrases from the list below the exercise. If, however, you feel confident
enough, try to do the exercise without using the list.
Example:
In sentence I , you have to put a connecting word at the beginning o f the sentence,
because he_ has a sm all letter. You can use W hen. Once or As soon as.

1. he had found the key, he was able to get out.
2. action had been taken sooner, this tragedy would not have occurred.
3. the exams are over, I can relax.
4. There are many things you can do to get exercise, walking, swimming, cycling, tennis
and so on.
5. a referee sees that a boxer is hurt, he should stop the fight.
6. television has had a detrimental effect on society, it has brought many benefits.
7. There are many steps can be taken to make public transport safer.
8. the law on gun ownership in the UK should be more strictly controlled is now being
seriously considered.
9. the leak is mended, the structure o f the house will be severely damaged.
10. They ate their meal quickly and left the restaurant the owner could close early.

he has m anaged to overcom e
all his difficulties.

11. Maureen teaches botany Violet teaches history.
12. the number o f car accidents is decreasing in the UK, in other countries, it is increasing.
13. The plane was delayed; the hotel was a mess and it rained most o f the time; the holiday
was a disaster.
14. the violence occurred rarely. Then over the years it became worse.

Item bank

a book on writing

if/unlcss/when/if only/like/so that/and/whether/that/at first/whereas/but/
although/howevcr/all in all/now that/since/which/as soon as/once

a book on w ritin g

31


Sentence relationships in a text_____________
This exercise will help you focus on marking the relationships between sentences in a text.
Obviously, highlighting such connections is much more complex than just joining a few sentences
or clauses together.
First of all, read the introduction and the first paragraph o f the essay below. As you are reading,
try to feel where there is a need for connecting devices to mark the sentence relationships in the
passage.
Then, use the guidelines which follow the text and write out the passage, connecting the sentences
where possible.
Avoid marking the book.

What are the arguments for and against private vehicles? What is your
opinion in this matter?
(1) Private vehicles play a key role in our lives. (2) They provide
independent transport, freedom and many jobs. (3) They cause pollu­
tion, traffic jams, noise and death.
(4) Private transport, especially the car, gives us freedom to move. (5)
We no longer need to organise our lives around bus or train timetables.
(6) Many people think that their cars are indispensable machines. (7)

They cannot live without them. (8) People who live in rural areas need
private vehicles to go to towns for shopping, socialising, taking children
to schools, etc. (9) Without a car their lives would be very difficult.
(10) They would be forced to rely on infrequent public transport, if it
existed at all. (11) Many families who live in the country have one or
more cats. (12) They would be cut off from the rest of the world. (13)
For many people a car is a necessity.

32

a book on writing

tiiimiBiuuimium

Exercise 20

(Guidelines for sentence relationships

Sentences 1 and 2. You can join these sentences together; the second
sentence stales the reasons why such vehicles play an important role.
Sentence 3 shows the opposite side of the picture, so insert an adverb
that brings out the contrast. Be careful with the punctuation! You will
find in the Key that the author has added another phrase, because he
finds that the contrast is not strong enough, and because there is a
problem with the rhythm of the sentence. Can you add something
yourself to the sentence?
Sentence 4 is the first argument of your essay. Add a word or phrase to
indicate this.
Sentence 5 is a consequence of Sentence 4. Use a conjunction to join
them together.

Sentence 6 is an extension of the previous one. It states another true fact
about private vehicles. Can you add a phrase to help show this?
Sentence 7 is a result of Sentence 6 .
Sentence 8 is an example of the previous sentence.
You can join Sentences 9 and 10 with a simple conjunction that
indicates the two are of the same value.
Sentence 11 is a consequence.
Can you think of an adverb to join Sentence 12 to the previous one?
Use a word that means or else. Be careful with the punctuation.
S e n ten ce 13 is a co n c lu sio n .

a book on w ritin g

33


Text with gaps
You are now going to connect the sentences in a text by inserting suitable words and phrases,
but, this tim e, you will have no help.
A.

Look at the items in the following list:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Further
and consequently AIDS
Take the threat of AIDS, for example
In my opinion
especially young girls
First of all, I believe
To me, however

8.
9.
10.
11.

To put it another way
Thirdly
Admittedly
whether sex education should
be introduced
12. Even so, I strongly believe that it needs
13. W hat is more

Now read the passage below and write the numbers o f the items from the list in the appropriate
blanks. You may use each item once only.

B.

W hat is the title of the essay?

The issue o f
(a)

for quite some ti m e .
curriculum at this level.

in all schools at secondary level has been an on-going debate
(b)
, such education is a necessary part o f the

(c)-------pupils need be given lessons on sex education, just like any other field
o f study
(d)-------- , they should not be protected from this subject, as it is one of
the most important matters in our everyday life
(e)
Sex education would
go a long way in preventing the spread o f the HIV v iru s,
(f)_____ , among the
younger generation.
(g)_____ , there may be some reticence, and even antago­
nism, among certain groups o f people, as to the way and the degree this subject is
presented
(h)
to be part of the curriculum.
(i)------- , we have to remember what other hazards ignorance about sex may
bring for pupils, at secondary sc h o o l,
(j)______
(k)_____ , it is better to
know everything about this ‘taboo’ subject than to seek knowledge when it is too late,
for example in the case o f unwanted pregnancies.

5 5 1 5 515 5 52 3 5 5 2 55 5 1

Exercise 21

As we can see, there are many aiguments to support giving lessons in sex education at
secondary school.

34

a book on writing

1 SIIU

(1)------- , we all know that young people are especially vulnerable to stress as
regards sex. Proper education would. I feel, help to prevent frustration in certain
circum stances
(m)_____ , it may also stop young people from seeking ‘nonscientific’ ways o f solving their problems, and halt the development o f superstition.

Exercise 22
Text with no gaps
f rom Iixerciscs 15 to 2 1, you have been concentrating on connecting words and phrases which
contribute to (he texture o f what you write. This exercise attempts to focus your attention more
on this quality to help you improve your writing. Below are the introduction and first two
paragraphs o f an essay on Knowledge is power. D iscuss. The text is grammatically correct, but
it is not well connected. Put the numbers which relate to the words and phrases below into the
most appropriate place in the text, as in the two examples. The punctuation will help you to
complete the exercise. If you are not able to put in all the words and phrases in the first few
attempts, use the Key to help you.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.

Work is another obvious area where
knowledge bestows power.
In a similar way,
For example.
In fact, in all areas of life,
Looking at the matter from another angle,
above
When the successful candidate finally
starts working,
, thus,

Few people would deny the validity o f th e
a considerable force.

6

9. so that
10. A very good example is the field of
politics.
11. At the interview itself.
12. , for instance,
13. are then more likely to
14. With this power.
15. This
16. such as

17. , among other things,

saying, the power of knowledge exerts

As som e politicians have access to m any sources o f inform ation, they possess a
formidable weapon: power, they are able to control the lives of the general public, when
politicians want public support for a particular cause, all they have to do is put forward
the positive aspects o f their proposals and hide the negative. The public, ignorant of the
whole picture, lend their support to the politicians’ cause, other politicians are also
controlled, the general public and other politicians, through lack of knowledge, are at the
mercy of the politician who possesses knowledge, and power.
When someone applies for a j o b
12 the success of the application depends on the
knowledge of the person who applies, knowledge involves skills, knowing how best to
complete the application form; using the correct language; or how to write the accom­
panying letter, the success o f the application will depend on the applicant’s display of
knowledge about the post applied for. success or failure will largely be dependent on
his/her accumulation of knowledge, he/she can deal effectively with others and not be
manipulated by them, too much.

Check your answers with the Key and correct any of the numbers. Then read the text to yourself
and try to put in the words and phrases above automatically. Repeat the exercise several times
so that you can learn to feel where there is a gap in the text.

a book on w ritin g

35


Exercise 23

Reference with synonyms

Exercise 24
More reference with synonyms

The use of synonyms to link sentences also improves the quality and texture of a passage.
W hen you are writing, synonyms help you summarise part of the previous text, and, thus, link
sentences together. Furthermore, they help you to avoid repetition and stop you from relying
over much on adverbs and conjunctions to make connections.

This exercise gives you further practice with synonyms. Read the sentences below and think of
a suitable word for each of the blanks. Note that in some cases it is possible to use more than
one word. Only this time, try to do the exercise without any help, if you can.

Below is a list o f such words that are often used to help link sentences. Put the words into the
appropriate spaces below. Note that in some cases it is possible to use more than one word. You
may also be able to think o f other words from outside the list.

As you read, try to predict which words will be translated into a synonym in the next part of the
text. Then as you choose each synonym think about the text which it looks back to. Let us take
an example from the previous exercise:
6.

solution/ entertainment/ problem/ proposal! policy/ group/ violence/ measure/ move/
idea/ situation/ ploy/ amenities/ recommendation/ fa c t/ suggestion/ crime/ damage
Try not to write the answers in your book. W hen you have compared your answers with the
Key, repeat the exercise over a period of time until the words come automatically.

a Scenes o f murder and physical assault are now commonplace on TV.
b Such entertainment/violence, unfortunately, has a negative effect on the minds

of young people.

In (a), the underlined text looks forward to both the synonyms in (b). The synonyms, in turn,
look back to the text underlined in (a).
If you cannot find a word which fits, then select one from the list on the next page.

1. Old people should be given a higher pension during winter months. This seems to be
the best possible__________to the problem.

1.

Animals are kept in appalling conditions during transport from one country to another.
S u rely ,
o f this kind cannot be tolerated in a civilised society.

2. Millions of people are dying each year because of a lack of basic medicine; a _________
that surely cannot be ignored.

2.

Violent attacks by young people are increasing alarmingly, but little is being done to
address th e
.

3. Many inner cities have been disfigured by insensitive office developments, but the
__________, I feel, is not irreparable.

3.

Poverty and ill-health are inextricably bound together, yet t h e

them does not appear to be recognised by those in power.

4. Safety belts should be made compulsory on all coaches. If t h i s __________ were
adopted, it would certainly help reduce injuries in road accidents.

4.

5. More swimming pools, leisure centres and sports clubs are being built all over the
country. Even so, there are still not e n o u g h __________ like this to satisfy demand.

In 1945, there were 100,000 vegetarians in the United Kingdom and now there are 3
million. With 2000 people changing to a meat-free diet each week, it is a _____
that is set to continue.

5.

6. Scenes o f m urder and physical a ssau lt are now com m onplace on TV. Such
__________, unfortunately, has a negative effect on the minds of young people.

Euthanasia may have to be considered as a possible solution to overpopulation in the
future; at the moment, fortunately, it is not a serio u s
.

6.

7. The Department o f Transport has decided to introduce a green tax on fuel. There are,
o f course, many people who would object to the introduction of th is __________.

One way to solve the problem would be to legalise the use of cannabis and other soft
drugs. T h is

could, o f course, prove to be rather risky.

7.

8. Making petty criminals wear electronic tags has been a failure in the United States.
Surprisingly, th e __________is being considered by the Home Office in the UK.

lie said that I should have taken up the job. If I had followed h i s
I would have been completely worn out by now.

8.

Through the media, people are now being encouraged to recycle different materials
like bottles, paper, plastic bags, etc. S u c h
doesn’t always work.

9.

The Project can only go ahead, if 75% of the funding is found from the private sector.
In the present climate such a
will be difficult to fulfil.

10.

If speed limits on motorways were reduced, the number o f car accidents would fall
dramatically. This is obviously a highly desirable
.

11.

The world is in imminent danger of being destroyed by the greenhouse e ffe c t. Yet

12.

With the rising costs o f medicine, the question of whether to allocate scarce resources
to the elderly or the young is a
many hospitals now face.

9. Young people nowadays have many forms of technology to amuse them. Teachers
often disapprove of su c h __________ , as it tends to make students lazy and unable to
think for themselves.
10. Society often fails to m eet the needs o f physically handicapped people. Yet they are
a __________that obviously deserves more help.
11.

36

The government introduced the new rule while everyone's attention wasengaged
elsewhere. It was quite a c lev e r__________.

a book on writing

little is b e in g done to counter t h i s

a book on w ritin g

between

, though,

.

37


Below is a list o f words you can use to help link the sentences on the previous page.
disaster, outcom e, dilem m a, craze, action, advice, issue, danger, relationship,
encouragem ent, problem , cruelty, threat, trend, link, step, condition, situation,
connection, p ra c tic e s, optio n , p o licy, p red ica m en t, treatm ent, catastrophe,
requirement.

Exercise 26
The definite article as a connecting word
You have looked at joining sentences together by various means. It is now time to focus on
another linking device, the definite article.
In the exercise below, explain the use o f the articles, the/a/an. and the lack o f articles, as far as
you can. Then read the Key carefully. You may need to do the exercise several times.

Exercise 25
Words and phrases that are not exactly correct

1.

W hen you are writing, it is difficult to think about the gram mar and spelling as well as the
different connecting devices, all at the same time. However, if you can learn to control the
reference and connections in your writing, it gives you greater freedom, and more time, to
concentrate on the content and the ideas.

A man was walking slowly along a dark street of low cottages. The
street was narrow and unwelcoming. As he glanced into the alleys

between some of the cottages, the man looked quite scared.

2.

The advice you gave me was unsound.

3.

The blind may benefit from new developments in technology.

4.

The walk to Studland along the beach from the ferry takes just over
an hour.

5.

I usually hear from him twice a year.

6.

We were sitting in an old cafe. The sun was shining in a blue sky,
but it was bitterly cold. The room was very cosy and the hot
chocolate was warm and rich.

7.

Islands are romantic places and the Seychelles are no exception.

8.

The most important bee in a hive is the queen.

In this exercise, you are going to look at a mixture o f connections. Some words or phrases are
almost correct; some are completely wrong; and yet others are repetitions. Read the text below
once and then read it again, replacing, where possible, the underlined words with suitable words/
phrases. Try not to mark the text so that you can repeat the exercise.

Why are people turning more and more to alternative medicine?
Alternative, or non-orthodox, medicine is now attracting an ever-increasing number of
people. There are, (11 however, many (21 causes behind this (31 custom .
The most important argument is the public’s increased awareness o f their (41 condition.
(51 The public are no longer willing to bear the mildest of pain, (6) as headaches, or
(71 bear even minor illnesses like flu. (81 On the other hand. (91 the public spare no
effort looking for help by any means available. As orthodox medicine often does not
work or needs time to work, (101 they do not hesitate to seek help from an acupuncturist
or osteopath in the hope o f better relief. ( I l l And in chronic situations, (121 namely
arthritis, headaches or backache, where (131 orthodox medicine can often do little,
some forms of (141 unorthodox medicine are favoured by an increasing number of
people.

9. In the following exercise fill the blanks with a suitable word.
10. I was set upon from behind. The attack lasted only about five
minutes, but, believe me, it seemed like a very long time.

(151 Other important reason is that (161 in contrary to orthodox medicine, non-orthodox
forms o f treatment do not usually involve much intervention. (17) They also fear being
admitted to hospital for any length of time, taking drugs or chemicals, which may do
harm . A bove all, they (18) fear operations o f any kind. (19) In ad d itio n , when
something simple promises relief, they naturally (20) switch to it.

a book on writing

a book on w ritin g

39


The articles: fill the gaps
Now you have a chance to use the information you learnt in the previous exercise to complete
a series of texts. For each blank in the texts below, decide whether you should add either a/an/thc.
or leave the space empty. Rem em ber to ask yourself the questions you learnt in the Key in
the previous exercise. Again try not to mark the text so that you can repeat the exercise.

1
advice is often difficult to accept fro m
2
friends, b u t
3
advice Samir
gave me was surprisingly helpful. The next time 1 n e e d
4
help I shall know where
to go.

7__ discipline; maybe it’s
5------ old people always think th a t_6______young la c k
b ecau se
8
young people are free fr o m

9
shackles that h in d ered
10
previous generations.

11
first time she saw him she was only thirteen. His curly auburn hair and sailor’s
uniform were what did it
12
year later she was out deliverin g ___ 13___ milk on
her bicycle, when she saw him fo r
14
second time. He was also o n
13
bike.
If you are going in
16
opposite directions,
17
bicycles are not very convenient
for starting
18
love affair!

19

whales are i n

20

danger of becoming extinct.

Sarah and Matty w e r e
24
great friends. W henever Sarah went out to see her at
25
big house, Matty would always make her tea i n
26
large kitchen. Then,
if Lady Margaret were not around, they would slide d o w n
27
banisters o n
28___
staircase i n
29
front entrance hall. How difficult it is, when you are young, to resist
30
banisters, especially if they look dangerous!

31

On

i

40

arrival a t

32

a irp o rt,

G iant’s Causeway is one o f

35

33

first thing he did was phone home.

most beautiful places in

36

Europe.

a book on writing

m utnm um m nut

Exercise 27

Exercise 28
Reference awareness and connections in a text
Below is part o f an article for a school magazine on: Life in 100 yea rs’ time; a personal view.
Read the texl through carefully; you will see that the passage is not very well connected.
Just as it would have been difficult to predict, a hundred years ago, life in this century, so
now it is not easy to say what life is going to be like in 100 years’ time.
First of all, I must say that I think life will be very different in many ways by the year 2096.

People will be living on other planets, perhaps even on planets outside the solar system.
Obviously, therefore, travelling will be incredibly sophisticated and people will be able to
travel vast distances in space; perhaps, even in a matter of seconds.
Secondly, communication is also bound to be so sophisticated, that people will be able to
communicate by telepathy. A nother possibility is that people may be able to communicate
visually with each other w herever they are. For example, people will be able to send
holographic messages to each other; these holographic messages will be able to be stored
for play back later, just as answering machines do today.
Thirdly, a planet is certain to be free from disease and, as a consequence, we will have a
longer lifespan. M any people may fear the introduction of euthanasia as the earth becomes
more crowded, but, if it is introduced, I believe that it will be only a temporary measure, as
more and more men and women will be needed to colonise other worlds.
Now try to improve the article by completing the following exercise:

1.

The writer has repeated certain words and phrases. Use the synonyms below, in the
order they occur in the list, to improve the text.
(a) the m ajor events that have taken place; (b) our lives; (c) worlds; (d) cover; (el
highly developed; (f) we; (g) everyone; (It) human beings; (i) one another; (j) images
For example, (c) worlds = planets in Paragraph 2.

2. Are the words and phrases below necessary in the text?
First o f all, in many ways, Secondly, Thirdly, For example, as a consequence,
3. The writer couldn’t decide whether to add .therefore, to the beginning of the second
sentence in the fourth paragraph. In your opinion, is it necessary?
4.

In one place in the fourth paragraph, the indefinite article a is used instead o f the?
Why is it wrong?

5.

Note also that the writer has repeated the structure will be able to four times. W hat
other alternatives can you use in the third paragraph?

6.

Which other two structures d o es the w rite r u se to a v o id th e re p e titio n o f th e

construction w ill b e ?

a book on w ritin g

41