A study on linguistic features of some varieties of english in asia

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

LÊ QUỲNH MAI

A STUDY ON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF SOME
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA
NGHIÊN CỨU ĐẶC ĐIỂM NGÔN NGỮ MỘT SỐ BIẾN THỂ
TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC NƯỚC CHÂU Á

M.A. THESIS
Field: English Language
Code: 60220201

Hanoi, 2015


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

LÊ QUỲNH MAI

A STUDY ON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF SOME
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA
NGHIÊN CỨU ĐẶC ĐIỂM NGÔN NGỮ MỘT SỐ BIẾN THỂ
TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC NƯỚC CHÂU Á
M.A. THESIS

Field: English Language
Code: 60220201

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phan Văn Quế

Hanoi, 2015


CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project
report entitled A STUDY ON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF SOME
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language. Except
where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used
without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis.
Hanoi, 2015

Lê Quỳnh Mai

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phan Văn Quế
Date: …………………

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my
supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phan Văn Quế for the useful comments, remarks
and engagement through the learning process of this master thesis.
Furthermore, I would like to thank him for introducing me to the topic as

well as for the support on the way.
Also, my sincere thanks go to the lecturers of Hanoi Open University,
lecturers of the Faculty of Post Graduate Studies of Hanoi Open University,
my colleagues and friends who help the study to be fulfilled and willingly
share their precious time during the process of conducting this thesis.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their
continuous support and encouragement throughout entire process, both by
keeping me harmonious and helping me putting pieces together. I will be
grateful forever for their support.

ii


ABSTRACT
Globalization has helped the spread and further entrenchment of
Standard British and American English in many obvious ways. English at
present maintains a significant role as a second or foreign language in the
region of Asia as well as globally. In a discussion of this topic, it is
important to explore a brief history of the expansion of English and its
origins in Asia. It is also essential to provide a background of Asian English
and its unique linguistic characteristics as well as its use in different
contexts of Asia.
This paper provides a description on the most notable linguistic
features of some varieties of English in Asia. That is: Indian English,
Malaysian English, and Singaporean English. For this to be possible,
English as a second language has to be discussed, and the development and
characteristics of English varieties in Asia generally and features of
vocabulary in some varieties of Asian English in particular will thus be
discussed.
The crucial element in this study is the various implications of the

role of English in Asia on English language practices. These implications
lead to suggesting some possible suggestions for effective approaches to
communicating English effectively in some Asian countries.

iii


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AmE: American English
AmE: British English
InE: Indian English
MaE: Malaysia English
SgE: Singapore English
StE: Standard English
ESL: English as a Second Language: learning English in an English
speaking country
EFL: English as a Foreign Language: learning English in a non-English
speaking country
WE: World of English

iv


LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1.1.1 - 10 most spoken languages in the world.................................. 1
Figure 2.2.1 - Three concentric Circles of English- Kachru (1997) ............ 13
Figure 4.2.2 - The three levels of the lectal continuum (Baskaran)............. 26
Figure 4.1.1 – India map ............................................................................ 36
Figure 4.2.1 – Malaysia map ...................................................................... 39

Figure 4.3.1 – Singapore map .................................................................... 42

v


TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ............................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................ii
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................. iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ............................................................ v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................ vi
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
1.1

Rationale for the study.................................................................... 1

1.2

Aims of the study ........................................................................... 4

1.3

Objectives of the study ................................................................... 5

1.4

Scope of the study .......................................................................... 5

1.5

Significance of the study ................................................................ 6

1.6

Structural organization of the study ................................................ 6

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 8
2.1.

Review of Previous study ............................................................... 8

2.2.

Review of theoretical background ................................................ 11

2.3

Summary ...................................................................................... 28

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 29
3.1

Research-governing orientations................................................... 29

3.2

Research methods ......................................................................... 32

3.3

Summary ...................................................................................... 35

Chapter 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .............................................. 36
vi


4.1 Features of vocabulary in Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English ............................................................................... 36
4.2 The differences between vocabulary in some varieties of English in
Asian and Standard English .................................................................... 43
4.3

Implications in using some varieties of Asian English .................. 56

4.4

Summary ...................................................................................... 58

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 60
5.1

Recapitulation............................................................................... 60

5.2

Concluding remarks...................................................................... 60

5.3

Limitations of the study ................................................................ 61

5.4

Suggestions for a further research ................................................. 61

REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 63
BILIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 66
APPENDICES ........................................................................................... 70
Appendix 1. Status of English, historical background and number of
speakers in Asian countries ..................................................................... 70
Appendix 2. List of Indian English vocabulary compared to Standard
English.................................................................................................... 72
Appendix 3. List of Malaysian English vocabulary compared to Standard
English.................................................................................................... 79
Appendix 4. List of Singaporean English vocabulary compared to
Standard English ..................................................................................... 82

vii


Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale for the study
The English language has spread many parts of the world. The
increase in the number of those learning it and using it has been the most
noticeable example of its expansion in this century. It has become the most
important international language and is the most commonly taught second
or foreign language in the world. Recent facts from the Internet show that

there are about 780 million users of English of whom about 380 million are
native speakers, about 300 million are second language speakers, and about
100 million are foreign language speakers.

Figure 1.1.1 - 10 most spoken languages in the world

1


The spread of the English language has not gone unnoticed in today’s
world. English has found its way to every continent and many of the
remotest areas in the world. The English language has not, however,
remained the same, in terms of grammar, pronunciation and lexis, in the
countries where it has spread. Each country or each linguistic area has
shaped the language to fit its own communicational needs. Therefore, the
English language is slightly different in each of the areas it has spread to,
though there are also similarities between the varieties.
It is important to be aware of these different English varieties spoken
and written around the world and therefore also realize that the original
varieties, namely British English and American English, are not the only
ones spoken nowadays. These varieties of English, which are spoken around
the world are also called New Englishes among researchers and the term is
generally used when referred to post-colonial varieties of English. It should
not be forgotten either that today there are actually more non-native English
in the world than native ones. This is due to the fact that the English
language has spread around the world and is nowadays used as a lingua
franca. These New Englishes are therefore not to be left unnoticed.
Despite the fact that varieties of English, which is considered a very
important branch of English language, is investigated and studied by many
of lexicologists. In addition, English varieties and New Englishes and even

Asian English have been studied fairly extensively in general. This study
was undertaken because studies on Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English are quite few in number. Also, I found that most of us
often care for vocabulary while communicating in English which there are
many problems for people as an international language. I found that one of
2


the most difficulties of people working abroad is problems in identifying
and understanding various varieties of English. Among them, the varieties
of English vocabulary cause a lot of troubles. Varieties of English include
many phenomena vocabulary such as words spelling, pronunciation,
meaning, etc. These are complicate phenomena for learners of English
usually get troubles with this, people are always confused in the case of
English in some Asian countries are somehow different from standard
English that they have learnt. So it is very necessary to work in depth with
this to help these peole have an overview and avoid confusing when facing
it.
The purpose of this present study is to find out what are the linguistic
features of some major varieties of English in Asia. The varieties in Asia
that my study focus on is getting an idea of what vocabularies are in Indian
English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English which are somehow
characteristic to this particular variety. In addition, these are items that are
different from the original varieties, British English and American English
or the English-speaking world at large. In other words, this study would
like to point out the differences in Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English and the original varieties in terms of vocabulary.
Moreover, as pointed out above, Indian English, Malaysian English
and Singaporean English have not been extensively studied and therefore
this study is of importance in shedding a little light on the features of Indian

English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in terms of their
vocabulary.
Besides, I have been very interested in different varieties of English
for some time and I am fascinated by the idea that a culture of a given
country can have an effect on a language which is not native to the country
3


and therefore also have an enormous influence on its vocabulary. My
interest in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in
particular is mainly due to my personal interest with the country’s culture,
nature and people. In terms of Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English, I am eager to learn more about the influence of
Standard English on Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean
English. Hence, as I conduct my study I will also gain more information
about Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English and learn
more about India, Malaysia and Singapore culture in general.
So, I hope that my study on Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English is able to show some features of the vocabulary in
these countries and therefore contribute to the knowledge of Indian English,
Malaysian English and Singaporean English and perhaps also to English
varieties in Asia in general. Also, I hope that the results of my study may
contribute to the study of Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English in terms of their vocabulary. As pointed out above, not
much research has been conducted in this aspect of Indian English,
Malaysian English and Singaporean English in Vietnam and therefore I
believe that my study will provide new information and can be useful for
Vietnamese people in understanding and using English varieties as working
in these Asian countries. With all these reasons, I made up my mind to
choose and to go further into the topic: ‘A study on linguistic features of

some varieties of English in Asia’.
1.2 Aims of the study
This research is conducted to aim at finding out linguistic features of
some major varieties of English in Asia such as Indian English, Malaysian
English and Singaporean English in terms of their vocabularies, thus
4


helping Vietnamese people to improve their English profiency when
working in such Asian countries.
1.3 Objectives of the study
To achieve the aims mentioned-above, the following objectives are
put forwards.
(1)

Describing the features of vocabulary of Indian English,
Malaysian English and Singaporean English;

(2)

Pointing out differences between the vocabulary of Indian English,
Malaysian English and Singaporean English and Standard English;

(3)

Suggesting some possible implications of Indian English,
Malaysian English and Singaporean English in terms of their
vocabularies for Vietnamese labour people working in Asian
countries.

1.4 Scope of the study
1.4.1

Academic scope
Varieties of English are a very attractive field for researchers and

there are many issues related to it, however, due to the required framework
of the thesis, limitation of time and knowledge, the study just focus on
linguistic features of some varieties of English in Asia, namely Indian
English, Malaysia English and Singapore English, in terms of their
vocabulary. All the rest relating to other linguistic aspects of English such
as grammar, phonology, etc. are to be left for the further researches. In this
study, I focus on the features of vocabulary in Indian English, Singaporean
English and Malaysian English. Illustrated examples in the study are
selected merely from literatures works, books and Internet.
1.4.2

Social scope
5


In the process of communicating in English, we recognize that people
sometimes have the difficulties in understanding or using different words of
different English varieties. So it is very necessary to work in depth with this
to help people who work in Asian countries be aware of differences in terms
of vocabulary between some varieties of English in Asia and avoid
confusing when facing it.
1.5 Significance of the study
1.5.1

Theoretical significance
The study is expected to help people to know some linguistic features

involved in English varieties in general and English varieties in Asia in
particular.
In addition, in this study, the writer wish to point out, describe and
analyze the features in terms of vocabulary of some major English varieties
in Asian countries.
1.5.2

Practical significance
With the purpose of making a study on the linguistic features of some

major varieties of English in Asia, the study will be able to provide
Vietnamese people who work in Asian countries the features of some major
varieties of English in Asia in terms of vocabulary. This study may help
them in facing with English varieties in Asia and may be a contribution to
the understanding and using English varieties to some extent.
1.6 Structural organization of the study
With the purpose of creating an easy-understanding research, this
paper is divided into five chapters:

6


Chapter 1 is Introduction of the thesis in which rationale of the
study, aims of the study, scope of the study, method of the study, design of
the study are introduced to give the background of the study.
Chapter 2 entitled Literature review refers to the overview of some
studies on English varieties of scholars worldwide, provides the basic

knowledge about the theory of Kachru on “Three circles of English” and
pointing out some features of English in some Asian countries.
Chapter 3 which is Methodology designed to provide the general
information about research methods, describe the methods and materials
used in carrying out the study, including data collection and data analysis
techniques.
Chapter 4 is Findings and Discussion which consists of three parts in
which describes linguistic features of English in some Asian countries. This
chapter focuses on presentation of features of vocabulary in Indian English,
Malaysian English and Singaporean English; pointing out differences
between the vocabulary in Indian English, Malaysian English and
Singaporean English and Standard English; and then supplies some possible
implications for Vietnamese people in understanding and using English
varieties as working in these countries.
Chapter 5 with the title of Conclusion is the last chapter which
reviews and emphasizes what have studied, points out the limitation of the
study and provide some suggestions which may pave the way for further
research.
References, Bibliography and Appendices come at the end of the
thesis.

7


Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Review of Previous study
It is universally acknowledged that English is globally accepted
language as being used first, second, third or a foreign language in most
countries. The reason behind this fact is related to colonialism in the 19th

century and the spread of technology in this century in which English is
used as the language of science worldwide for over a century.
In addition, English has become the focus of attention for many
scholars worldwide. The interest in the English language no longer
concentrates only on the original varieties, British English and American
English. More and more studies are being conducted on the new varieties,
especially the post-colonial varieties of English such as Nigerian English,
Singapore English, Indian English and Philippine English. Furthermore, the
comparative studies of different English varieties have become a major area
of academic research as well. The growing interest is partly due to the
pioneering work of scholars such as Manfred Görlach, Sidney Greenbaum
and Braj Kachru. In addition, numerous books and articles have been
written describing the different varieties of English spoken around the world
today. These include, for instance, books and collections by Platt, Weber
and Ho (1984), Kachru (1985), Cheshire (1991), McArthur (2003), and
Melchers and Shaw (2003).
Studies on varieties of English have been conducted in all areas of
language. As Melchers and Shaw (2003) observe, there is variation at all
levels of language in new varieties. In other words, they differ from each
other in terms of spelling, phonetics or phonology, morphology, syntax, the
lexicon and discourse. Therefore, varieties of English have been studied in
8


terms of their characteristic vocabulary, differences in pronunciation and
distinct features of grammar. Usually the distinctiveness or deviation in the
new varieties has been compared to the original varieties, often to British
English and American English. However, the deviances are not treated as
errors or mistakes, but instead they are recognized as characteristic features
of a particular variety. Therefore, by studying the distinct features of new

variety it has also been possible to determine them as varieties of English in
their own right.
One fairly popular way of approaching and learning about a variety is
to study their lexicon. Several studies, for instance, by Dubey (1991) and
Tent (2000), have investigated and analyzed the characteristic vocabulary of
a specific variety. The lexis of some varieties, for example, Indian English,
has been studied more extensively than others and even dictionaries have
been compiled of the findings.
The interest in lexis is justified because, as pointed out by Platt,
Weber and Ho (1984), a new variety of English inevitably creates a whole
range of new expressions in order to fulfill the communicative needs of the
speakers. Therefore, studying lexical items in a particular variety is likely to
be rewarding as well, at least in terms of finding those items in a variety.
A specific area of interest in the vocabulary studies are loanwords.
According to Yang (2005), borrowing in the studies of New Englishes has
been recognized as a valuable part of nativization and therefore it is also
widely studied. Moreover, as Görlach (1998) states, borrowings are the
most conspicuous features illustrating lexical innovation in a variety and
therefore widely studied. Preshous (2001) studied the lexical features of
Malaysian English by analyzing texts from several Malaysian newspapers
and other sources. He observed that Malay loanwords are frequently
9


incorporated in the text. Furthermore, Preshous (2001) presented words that
have acquired a distinct meaning in Malaysian English compared to other
Englishes.
In his study, Tent (2000), catalogued and analyzed the corpus of Fiji
English lexemes and expressions. Tent’s material for the corpus was
collected from numerous different sources, for instance, stories, articles,

letters, advertisements in the local print media, hand-written and printed
notices and signs, conversations and television and radio news broadcasts,
to name a few.
Bautista (1997), as quoted in Bolton and Butler (2004) conducted a
detailed study on Philippine English lexis, concentrating on the vocabulary
items used by educated Filipinos. Bautista divided the localized lexical
items into four categories, such as normal expansion, preservation of items,
coinages and neologisms and borrowings.
A study conducted by Bakshi (1991) revealed some similarities in the
lexis of Indian English. He analyzed characteristic features of Standard
Indian English, as used by bilingual speakers, based on letter columns
collected from three Indian newspapers. He categorized these words into
loanwords and neologisms, and partly in different categories, such as lexis
and initials.
Dubey (1991) studied the lexical style of Indian newspaper English
mostly concentrating on matrimonial advertisements where a lot of
loanwords and culture-related features can be found. Dubey used the term
‘native item’ to refer to loan lexical items and culture related items
characteristic of the native languages spoken in India.

10


In sum, Englishes have used very similar strategies when forming the
lexis of the new variety and a significant number of new words have been
incorporated into the lexis of new varieties. This suggests that the
vocabulary of the original varieties, British English and American English,
has not been adequate for the people to express themselves in their new
socio-cultural environments.
2.2. Review of theoretical background

2.2.1

Theoretical framework
Many models on World Englishes have been posited by scholars in

the past twenty years (e.g. Kachru, 1992; McArthur,1998; Schneider, 2003
& 2007). The most influential model of the spread of English is Kachru’s
model of World Englishes. The theory of Kachru “Three circles of
English” is chosen for theoretical framework of this thesis. In this model
the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three Concentric Circles of
the language: The Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.
Kachru’s (1985) pioneering model for world English spread and
usage has been widely used as a framework for the study of World
Englishes. His idea was that the spread of English could “be viewed in
terms of three concentric circles representing the types of spread, the
patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used
across cultures and languages”.
Kachru’s Model of World Englishes (1997) argued that new models
for the teaching of English relevant to linguistic input, methodology, norms
and identity have been proposed to explain and imply the spread and
diffusion of English as a global language diversified in several nativized
dialects known as world Englishes.

11


According to this model, firstly, the Inner Circle refers to the
traditional bases of English as the primary language; The Inner Circle refers
to native-English-speaking countries such as the UK, North America, New
Zealand and Australia, who use English as their primary language. These

are norm providing, or in other words, endocentric.
Secondly, the Outer Circle represents the spread of English in nonnative contexts, where it has been institutionalized as an additional
language. The Outer Circle is made up of post-colonial countries in which
English, though not the mother tongue, has for a significant period of time
played an important role in education, governance, and popular culture. The
Outer Circle includes those countries where English was spread as a second
language through colonization, e.g. India, Nigeria, Singapore, Malaysia and
the Philippines. Here English has official status and functions. It has already
undergone some acculturation and nativization, and there is a creative
literature written in the local variety of English, hence these are termed
norm-developing countries.
Thirdly, the Expanding Circle, with a steady increase in the number
of speakers and functional domains, includes nations where English is used
primarily as a foreign language. The Expanding Circle refers to those
nations where English has the status of a foreign language, such as China,
Japan, Thailand, Taiwan, Egypt and Korea. These are norm-dependent, or
exocentric, generally looking to “StE” for their norms. The use of English in
these societies is generally restricted to limited domains such as science and
education.
Consequently, Kachru’s three concentric circles model of English
have been accepted as a standard ontology for defining and categorizing
world Englishes into Inner Circle (native), Outer Circle (ESL) and
12


Expanding Circle (EFL) varieties. The diffusion of English and the resultant
varieties induce cross cultural and cross linguistic universalization of the
English language in a cause and effect cycle. Kachru (1997) argued that
new models for the teaching of English relevant to linguistic input,
methodology, norms and identity have been proposed to explain and imply

the spread and diffusion of English as a global language diversified in
several nativized dialects known as world Englishes.
The Figure represents the issue.

Figure 2.2.1 - Three concentric Circles of English- Kachru (1997)

In replacing the original English as a native language (ENL), English
as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL)
terminology with the concepts in his model, Kachru emphasizes that
English belongs to all who use it; that “norms and standards should no
longer be determined [solely] by Inner Circle/ENL contexts” (Schneider,
13


2003). It acknowledges a growing pluricentrality (Foley, 1988), hence
coinage of the new plural term ‘Englishes’.
Recently there has been some criticism of Kachru’s model, as it
cannot be used as a precise tool for classification. For instance, some areas
have both Inner Circle and Outer Circle populations, such as South Africa,
while the line between Outer and Expanding Circles is not always clear.
2.2.2

Theoretical background

2.2.2.1 Terms of varieties of English
The terminology within the literature is highly controversial. Some
authors prefer the term dialect; others prefer the term variety or variation.
In this paper the term variety and varieties in the plural is used, because it is
less stigmatized. As the terminology is so controversial, it is very difficult to
find an appropriate definition for the term variety, and impossible to find a

universal one. Bauer (2002) defines variety as an academic term used for
any kind of language production, whether we are viewing it as being
determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our own
inimitable individual characteristics.
Varieties of English are the different kinds of English used around the
world. Often these are geographically based. The varieties are more or less
similar and while most English speakers can understand each other, there
are occasional problems.
A standard variety exists from which other varieties are distinguished.
British English originating in south-east England is what is regarded as the
StE which is promoted in schools and is expected to be used by broadcasters
and officials. The status of being the standard arises not from linguistic
perfection, but from the social, economic and political context in which it is
14


used. This variety is codified in dictionaries, style books and grammars and
hence, people think this variety should be used in formal settings. This leads
to the fact that the standard variety is associated with education, higher
social and income groups and the greatest prestige (Burridge & Mulder,
1998).
StE is one variety of modern English, alongside a wide range of nonstandard varieties. StE may be distinguished from non-standard varieties
according to a relatively small number of linguistic features, exemplified in
the following incomplete list:
Standard

Non-standard

I was, we were

I/we was or I/we were

Those books

Them books

The house that Jack built

The house what/as Jack built

He did it.

He done it.

He came yesterday.

He come yesterday. (and likewise for thirty
or so other irregular verbs)

Nobody said anything.

Nobody said nothing.

He ran really quickly.

He ran real quick.

I didn't break it.

I never broke it.

He hasn't finished.

He ain't finished.

Almost all these differences consist of alternative ways of expressing
the same meaning, and in almost every case the differences are linguistically
trivial and show no communicative advantage either for standard or for nonstandard. For example, the sentences “He ain't done nothing” and “He
hasn't done anything” are different ways of expressing the same meaning,
each of which follows a clear set of grammatical principles. It is not the case
15


that non-standard shows worse logic or less care in speaking, any more than
this would be true of French. English and French are very different
linguistic systems, and similarly, standard and non-standard varieties of
English are slightly different linguistic systems.
In discussing language variation, it is conventional to distinguish
between dialects (varieties that differ in terms of pronunciation, grammar,
lexis, semantics) and accents (varieties that differ just in terms of
pronunciation). According to this distinction, StE is a dialect that may be
spoken in a range of accents, including Received Pronunciation (RP) and
regional accents. A distinction may also be made between standard or
nonstandard varieties which based on the social and regional background of
speakers and registers, associated with particular contexts of use, for
example, the language of law, education and casual chat between friends.
There is however a relationship between these different dimensions of
variation, in that StE is commonly associated with more formal registers
such as those of law and education though it also has a range of casual
registers like any other dialect.

While it is possible to identify some linguistic characteristics of
standard and non-standard varieties of English, as in the list above, the
relationship between these varieties is more complex than the list suggests:
• While some non-standard features are widespread, for example,
“Nobody said nothing”, or “He ran real quick”, many are local so
they vary from place to place, for example, “We had us tea”- us for
standard our, this found in Yorkshire, Central and East Lancashire
and parts of the East Midlands
• Equally important is the regional variation in StE, with small but
recognizable differences even between England/Wales and Scotland
16