Zone of proximal development

Zone of proximal development
This article explores the history and theory of the concept of the zone of proximal development and
discusses its application in the classroom.
By Heather Coffey
The zone of proximal development is the gap between what a learner has already mastered
(the actual level of development) and what he or she can achieve when provided with educational
support (potential development).
History of the concept
Originally developed by social cognitive theorist and psychologist Lev Vygotsky, the concept
of the zone of proximal development opposes the use of standardized tests as a means to measure
student intelligence.1 Vygotsky suggests that instead of assessing what a student knows to
determine intelligence, it is more helpful to compare their ability to independently solve problems
with their ability to solve problems with the assistance of someone who has mastered the concepts
being learned. Vygotsky began this research because he wanted to understand how children’s
functions (like attention, memory, and perception) develop and are individual to the learner.2
Vygotsky contends that children “develop deliberate control over everyday concepts through contact
with scientific concepts.” Within the Vygotskian concept of zone of proximal development, social
interaction is the basis for cognitive growth. Accordingly, the communication that transpires in a
social setting with more knowledgeable or proficient people (parents, teachers, peers, others) assists
children in building an understanding of the concept.3
American psychologist Jerome Bruner (1982) describes the zone of proximal development as “the
child’s ability to recognize the value of hinges and props even before he is conscious of their full
significance.”4
Zone of proximal development in the classroom
In a classroom setting, the teacher is responsible for structuring interactions and developing
instruction in small steps based on tasks the learner is already capable of performing independently
— an instructional strategy known as scaffolding. The instructor is also charged with providing
support until the learner can move through all tasks independently.
In order for teachers to guide learners through the tasks associated with learning a concept, they
must “understand how cognitive tasks fit into the child’s cultural activities.”5 These tasks are called
“scaffolds,” which are tasks or levels on which the teacher builds to develop learners’ zones of

proximal development. According to John Zeuli, “Instruction should emphasize connections to what
the learner already knows in other familiar, everyday contexts.”6
Vygotsky (1962) suggests that these connections do not have to take place immediately, but that “in
the course of further schoolwork and reading,” learners can make the association between concepts
and experience.7 Vygotsky describes the teacher’s role as assisting students in the recognition of
decontextualized, systematic concepts. Vygotsky contends, “instruction cannot be identified as
development, but properly organized instruction will result in the child’s intellectual development,
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will bring into being an entire series of such developmental processes, which were not at all possible
without instruction.”8 Accordingly, the teaching methodology that aligns with the zone of proximal
development “integrates several approaches to form a comprehensive agenda for research of the
genesis, development, function, and structure of the human psyche.”9
Within the classroom, the person who is more knowledgeable is not always the teacher; students
can also be placed in collaborative groups with others who have demonstrated mastery of tasks and
concepts.
Locating the zone of proximal development
Teachers, parents, and mentors attuned to a learner can recognize where he or she is within
the zone of proximal development by asking questions and recognizing the learner’s individual
learning style.10 Thus, the zone of proximal development enables educators and parents to define
the learner’s immediate needs and the shifting developmental status, which allows for what has
already been achieved developmentally, and for what the learner will be able to master in the
future.11
Notes
1.Berk, L & Winsler, A. (1995) "Vygotsky: His Life and Works" and "Vygotsky's Approach to
Development." In Scaffolding Children's Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Learning. National
Assoc. for Education Of Young Children.
2.Zeuli, J. (1986). "The Use of the Zone of Proximal Development in Everyday and School Contexts: A
Vygotskian Critique.” Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research

Association. San Francisco, CA. p. 7.
3.Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience &
school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
4.Bruner, J. (1982). "The Language of Education." Social Research. 49, p. 852.
5.Zeuli, J. (1986), p. 3
6.Zeuli, J. (1986), p. 7.
7.Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p. 108. [return]
8.Vygotsky, L. (1962), p. 121.
9.Hedegaard, M. (1996). “The ZPD as Basis for Instruction.” In Harry Daniels (Ed.) An Introduction to
Vygotsky. London: Routledge. p. 229.
10.Berger, K.S. (2009) The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence. New York: Worth
Publishers.
11.Vygotsky, L. (1978). "Interaction between learning and development." (pp. 79-91). In Mind in
Society. (Trans. M. Cole). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Scaffolding
This reference article explains the theory and practice of scaffolding, and surveys relevant literature
related to this instructional technique.
By Heather Coffey
Scaffolding is an instructional technique, associated with the zone of proximal development,
in which a teacher provides individualized support by incrementally improving a learner’s ability to
build on prior knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in a variety of content areas and across age and
grade levels.
Scaffolding in the classroom
When using scaffolding as an instructional technique, the teacher provides tasks that enable
the learner to build on prior knowledge and internalize new concepts. According to Judy Olson and
Jennifer Platt, the teacher must provide assisted activities that are just one level beyond that of what

the learner can do in order to assist the learner through the zone of proximal development.1 Once
learners demonstrate task mastery, the support is decreased and learners gain responsibility for their
own growth.
In order to provide young learners with an understanding of how to link old information or
familiar situations with new knowledge, the instructor must guide learners through verbal and
nonverbal communication and model behaviors. Research on the practice of using scaffolding in early
childhood development shows that parents and teachers can facilitate this advancement through the
zone of proximal development by providing activities and tasks that:
a. Motivate or enlist the child’s interest related to the task.
b. Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child.
c. Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal.
d. Clearly indicate differences between the child’s work and the standard or desired solution.
e. Reduce frustration and risk.
f. Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed.2
In the educational setting, scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions,
think-aloud modeling, and direct instruction.
Eight characteristics of scaffolding
Jamie McKenzie suggests that there are eight characteristics of scaffolding instruction. In
order to engage in scaffolding effectively, teachers:
a. Provide clear direction and reduce students’ confusion. Prior to assigning instruction that involves
scaffolding, a teacher must try to anticipate any problems that might arise and write step-by-step b.
instructions for how learners must complete tasks.
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c. Clarify purpose. Scaffolding does not leave the learner wondering why they are engaging in
activities. The teacher explains the purpose of the lesson and why this is important. This type of
guided instruction allows learners to understand how they are building on prior knowledge.
d. Keep students on task. Students are aware of the direction in which the lesson is heading, and
they can make choices about how to proceed with the learning process.

e. Offer assessment to clarify expectations. Teachers who create scaffolded lessons set forth clear
expectations from the beginning of the activity using exemplars, rubrics.
f. Point students to worthy sources. Teachers supply resources for research and learning to decrease
confusion, frustration, and wasted time.
g. Reduce uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment. A well-prepared activity or lesson is tested or
evaluated completely before implementation to reduce problems and maximize learning potential.
i. Deliver efficiency. Little time is wasted in the scaffolded lesson, and all learning goals are achieved
efficiently.
j. Create momentum. The goal of scaffolding is to inspire learners to want to learn more and increase
their knowledge and understanding.3

Martha Larkin suggests that there are eight guidelines that teachers most commonly follow when
developing scaffolded lessons.4 According to research in the area of scaffolding, teachers often:
a. Focus on curriculum goals to develop appropriate tasks.
b. Define a shared goal for all students to achieve through engagement in specific tasks.
c. Identify individual student needs and monitor growth based on those abilities.
D Provide instruction that is modified or adapted to each student’s ability.
e. Encourage students to remain focused throughout the tasks and activities.
f. Provide clear feedback in order for students to monitor their own progress.
g. Create an environment where students feel safe taking risks.
h. Promote responsibility for independent learning.
Advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding
This type of instruction has been praised for its ability to engage most learners because they
are constantly building on prior knowledge and forming associations between new information and
concepts. Additionally, scaffolding presents opportunities for students to be successful before
moving into unfamiliar territory. This type of instruction minimizes failure, which decreases
frustration, especially for students with special learning needs.5

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Although scaffolding can be modified to meet the learning needs of all students, this is also
disadvantageous because this technique, when used correctly, is incredibly time-consuming for
teachers. Scaffolding also necessitates that the teacher give up some control in the classroom in
order for learners to move at their own pace. Teachers who engage in scaffolding as a teaching
strategy must be well-trained in order to create effective activities and tasks for all students.6

Notes
1.Olson, J. and Platt, J. (2000). “The Instructional Cycle.” Teaching Children and Adolescents with
Special Needs (pp. 170-197). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
2.Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience &
School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
3.McKenzie, J. (2000). “Scaffolding for Success.” [Electronic version] Beyond Technology, Questioning,
Research and the Information Literate School Community. Date accessed: 21 February, 2009 from
/>4.Larkin, M. (2002). “Using Scaffolded Instruction to Optimize Learning.” ERIC Clearinghouse. ED 474
301.
5.Van Der Stuyf, R. (2002). "Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy." Date accessed: 21 February, 2009.
/>6.Van Der Stuyf, R. (2002). [

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1. Preparing English language learners for reading
comprehension
Building reading comprehension starts before students pick up a book, with strategies like these.
So, Mr. or Ms. Content Area Teacher (and Mr. or Ms. Classroom Teacher, you too!). You’re
sitting there in a faculty meeting listening to the dire results of your school’s latest reading tests,
especially for your English Language Learners (ELLs). You’re thinking, "I don’t have anything to do
with bringing up those scores—I’m not the reading teacher or the ESL teacher!" Well, think again!
Answer these questions:

•Do you require students to learn vocabulary specific to a content area?
•Do you assign textbook passages or articles for students to read?
•Do you test students on their comprehension of those passages?
•Do you have ELLs in your classroom?
If you answer "yes" to even one of these questions, guess what? You are a reading teacher! And an
ESL teacher!
In these days of increasing pressure to raise test scores while meeting the needs of widely
diverse students, teachers have less and less time to accomplish more and more. With growing
numbers of ELLs in the classroom, you have to help students master not only content area curriculum
but also English and reading skills. But rather than panic, you can rest assured that folding reading
instruction into content area instruction is within their abilities, even if you don’t think of yourself as
a reading or ESL teacher. What follows are a few tried and true strategies for teaching reading within
content areas that work particularly well with ELLs.
Before reading: building background and making connections
First, find the "hook" to pull students in to reading the assigned material. The right hook will
engage what students already know about the subject — which is sometimes substantially different
from what teachers expect — and encourage them to expand that knowledge, so that they can tackle
the subject more easily.
KWL charts
The easiest way to find out what students know is simply to ask them. Do this with a KWL chart.
Divide a sheet of chart paper into three sections. Label the parts Know, Want to Know, and Learned,
or simply, K, W, and L.
For example, when beginning a unit on the American Revolution, ask students what they know about
it. As they mention items, jot them down under the K column. These might be items such as
"Americans fought the British," "George Washington was the leader," or "the soldiers wore red
coats." To learn how to prod students’ memories, try searching the curriculum standards to see what
students might have learned in previous years. After students have exhausted their knowledge, lead
them into thinking about what they want to know. They might ask questions such as "Why were they
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fighting?" or "How long did it take?" Write these questions under the "W" column as students
mention them. Then orally review or summarize the two lists.
Know
•Americans fought the British
•George Washington was the
leader
• Soldiers wore red coats

Want to know
•Why were they fighting?
•How long did the war take?

Learned

Students should now realize that they know something about the topic and, more importantly, that
there is more that they can learn. Once they have read their textbook or trade book on the subject,
revisit the chart and ask students what they have learned from the reading. Add these items to the
"L" column. This strategy works well for readings in science or social studies, as it helps students see
that they can control even complex subject matter. For a variation on this activity, students can work
on KWL charts in pairs or small groups, then share them with the class.
Circle maps and brainstorming webs
Another variation is to use a graphic organizer such as a circle map or a brainstorming web
to visually collect everything students know about a topic. Start with a circle with the topic or central
theme in the center — for example, "habitat." For a circle map, draw a larger concentric circle
outside that one, and in the space in between the two circles, write down what students associate
with the term — for example, "place to live," "desert," "rainforest" etc. For a web, write these new
ideas in their own circles, and then draw lines to connect the ideas as appropriate.

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These organizers help students verbalize their ideas and free-associate about them. They are
great for ELLs because students can concretely see what they already know about a topic.
Brainstorming with their peers also lets them support and expand one another’s learning using their
speaking and listening skills, which usually develop sooner than their reading and writing skills.
Concept sorts
Another way to introduce a topic and prepare students for reading about it is to introduce
the vocabulary for the topic via concept sorts. Based on the research of Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton,
Johnston and others, word sorts are a constructivist way of letting students discern spelling and
meaning patterns and formulate their own theories about spelling (see Words Their Way, New
Jersey: 2003, Prentice-Hall, for more). Concept sorts are a spin on word sorts in which the teacher
gives students a list of important concepts from a subject and lets them figure out how they relate to
one another. This technique is a good one to use when there is a lot of specialized vocabulary to
introduce.
For example, to introduce a book about habitats, take the following terms related to the theme:
•forests
•grasslands
•mountains
•deserts
•water
•freshwater
•adapted
•camouflaged

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•coniferous
•deciduous

•grazing
•oasis
•rainforest
•canopy

Write the terms on index cards, one term to a card, and make serveral sets. Have small groups of
students sort them. They can sort the cards in whatever way they want to, but they should be able to
explain why they grouped the terms as they did. As you monitor the small group work, you will get a
sense of how much the students already know about the topic and can tailor instruction accordingly.

Before beginning, you can demonstrate and explain your own sort:
"I’m making columns with each of these words: forests, grasslands, mountains, deserts,
water. Then under each word I’m going to put the other words. These are things that you might find
in each of these places.

Forests
•rainforest
• canopy
• deciduous
•coniferous

Grasslands
grazing

Mountains

Desert
•oasis

Water

•freshwater

"I’m not sure how "adapted" and "camouflaged" fit in with these words, but I guess we’ll see."

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A more structured way to use concept sorts is to create categories and have students guess
where certain terms go. For example, before reading the story Baseball Saved Us by Ken Mochizuki
(New York: 1995, Lee and Low Books), give students words that come from the story:
•tower
•Jap
•camp
•bat
•desert
•fence
Ask students to guess where they should put them under these headings:
•character
•setting
•problem
•solution
•character
•Jap

•setting
camp •desert

•problem
•tower
•bat

•fence

•solution

Then, based on the chart they come up with, ask students to write a short prediction of what the
story will be about. (The idea for this strategy came from a lesson plan called "Probably Passage" by
Jamie Rettke.)

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