Enforcing European Union Environmental Law

ENFORCEMENT OF EUROPEAN
UNION ENVIRONMENTAL LAW:
LEGAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Without their proper enforcement, governmental commitments to improving
the state of the environment are prone to remain but ‘greenspeak’. The
European Union has adopted a raft of legislative instruments intended to
enhance standards to protect the environment, but to what extent has it
developed suitable mechanisms to ensure that the EU Member States adhere
to its environmental protection legislation? This book examines the subject of
EU environmental law enforcement by providing a detailed account of the
various legal and administrative arrangements at EU level that may be used
for the purpose of upholding EU environmental norms, and assesses the
practical impact of those arrangements.
Spanning three parts, the book focuses on the principal sources of EU
environmental law enforcement: namely, the role of the European Commission, the possibilities for private law enforcement and the responsibilities of
Member State national authorities. In seeking to provide a comprehensive
account of the current state of and developments affecting EU environmental
law enforcement, it aims to provide environmental legal scholars and practitioners with a useful reference tool as well as a contribution to legal and
political debates on the subject.
Martin Hedemann-Robinson has been a Lecturer in Law at Brunel University
in London since 1993. During his tenure at Brunel, he has also worked as an
administrator in the Environment Directorate-General of the European
Commission between 2001–2003 dealing with legal issues concerning waste
management.



ENFORCEMENT OF
EUROPEAN UNION

ENVIRONMENTAL LAW:
LEGAL ISSUES AND
CHALLENGES

Martin Hedemann-Robinson


First published 2007
by Routledge-Cavendish
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge-Cavendish
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Routledge-Cavendish is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an Informa business
© 2007 Martin Hedemann-Robinson
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
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invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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ISBN 0–203–94547–6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 1–85941–917–8 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–1–85941–917–5 (pbk)


For Sam, Freya and Jocelyn,
and in memory of my late grandfather,
Walter Hedemann.



PREFACE

Without their proper enforcement, governmental commitments to improving
the state of the environment are prone to remain but ‘greenspeak’. Over the
last 30 years and more, the European Union has developed a raft of legislation intended to enhance standards to protect the environment. The main
purpose of this book is to provide an overview of the current legal principles
of the European Union on how EU environmental law may be enforced. It
aims to examine the subject of EU environmental law enforcement by providing a detailed account of the various legal arrangements that may be used
for the purpose of upholding EU environmental norms as well as by providing a critical appraisal of the practical impact of those arrangements, considering, in particular, issues of efficacy and accountability. Spanning three
parts, the book focuses on the principal modes of EU environmental law
enforcement: namely, the role of the European Commission, possibilities
for private law enforcement and the role of national authorities.
In Part One, in addition to detailing the key legal considerations that
affect the European Commission’s prosecution of infringement proceedings
against Member States acting in violation of EU environmental law, the
author draws from his own professional experience within the Commission’s
Environment Directorate General of the practical and systemic limitations
faced by this EU institution with regard to law enforcement. In Part Two, the

author seeks to appraise the possibilities available under EU law for private
individuals to enforce EU environmental law, taking account of recent
legal developments emanating from the European Court of Justice, recent
European Community directives such as those on environmental damage
and access to environmental information as well as new initiatives on human
rights protection. In Part Three, the book examines the requirements and
structures in place at EU level which may serve to assist national authorities
involved in environmental protection to make use of EU environmental law.
This is the first time to my knowledge that a publication of this sort has
examined EU environmental law enforcement in such a broad manner. It is
hoped that it will provide a useful reference point of key information as well
as a trigger for legal and political debate at academic and legal professional
vii


P R E FA C E

levels. Too little light is being shone into the nooks and crevices of this
important evolving legal area. There are many heartening as well as disturbing aspects concerning the legal arrangements relating to EU environmental
law enforcement. The heartening aspects relate mostly to the recent opening
up of possibilities for civil society to play a more active and serious legal role
in supervision of EU environmental law, in large part due to the Union’s
commitment to implementing the UNECE 1998 Århus Convention. In addition, recent EC legislative initiatives have sought to crystallize EU Member
State authorities’ enforcement role and responsibilities more effectively. The
disturbing aspects concern the continued undue reliance of the EU on the
European Commission to act as its environmental watchdog, an expectation
that has always been over-ambitious and has brought with it special problems of its own. Whether the recent legislative changes introduced and being
introduced at EC level to the area of environmental law enforcement are
adequate to meet the challenges of substantial enlargement of the Union’s
membership is an open question. I have intended the book to be up to date

as at the end of 2005.
Martin Hedemann-Robinson
London, January 2006

viii


CONTENTS

vii
xix
xxv
xxxiii

Preface
Table of cases
Table of statutes
Abbreviations and acronyms
1

Introduction

1

1.1 Aims and objectives 1
1.2 Legal architecture and terminology of the EU: a
brief overview 9
1.2.1 EU environmental law: some definitions
and clarifications 10
1.2.1.1 Historical developments: from EEC to EU 11

1.2.1.2 The EU’s institutions 12
1.2.1.3 The three pillar framework of the EU 13
1.2.1.4 EU environmental policy and law 15
1.2.1.5 Legal bases for EU environmental measures 16
1.2.1.6 Types of EC environmental measures 19
1.2.2 The 2004 European Union Constitution 21
PART 1

The role of the European Commission in enforcing EU
Environmental Law
2

EU institutional enforcement of EU environmental law:
the general legal framework

2.1 The role of the European Commission as primary
law enforcer 29
2.2 Enforcement proceedings brought by the European
Commission: Arts 226 and 228(2) EC 31
ix

25

27


CONTENTS

2.2.1 Structure and format of Art 226 EC proceedings 32
2.2.2 Structure and format of Art 228(2) EC ‘second round’

proceedings 35
2.3 Enforcement proceedings brought by a Member State:
Art 227 EC 37
2.4 Types of breaches of EU environmental law 40
3

Enforcement proceedings brought by the European
Commission (1): Art 226 EC and ‘first round’ proceedings

3.1 Detection of breaches of law 46
3.2 Overview of core elements of Commission
enforcement actions 47
3.3 The pre-litigation phase 51
3.3.1 Evidence and onus of proof 52
3.3.2 Investigations and the role of Art 10 EC: duty of
co-operation 57
3.3.3 Commission discretion in deciding to take legal action 59
3.3.3.1 Legal justification needed for bringing an action
before the ECJ 60
3.3.3.2 Temporal aspects: delays in taking legal action and
historical breaches 61
3.3.3.3 Collegiality and Commission decision making 65
3.3.3.4 Commission immunity from judicial review
proceedings 68
3.3.4 Letter of formal notice (LFN): the first written warning 69
3.3.4.1 Purpose and degree of precision of LFN 70
3.3.4.2 Defendant’s observations regarding the LFN 74
3.3.5 Reasoned opinion (RO): the second written warning 75
3.3.5.1 General requirements and effects of the RO 76
3.3.5.2 Defendant’s observations regarding the RO 80

3.4 The litigation phase: application to the Court of Justice 85
3.4.1 Contents of the Court application 85
3.4.2 Temporal aspects of the litigation phase 88
3.5 Common defence submissions in environmental proceedings
against Member States 89
3.5.1 Internal problems facing a Member State 92
3.5.2 The element of fault on the part of the defendant
Member State 93
3.5.3 Breach by another Member State 93
3.5.4 De minimis-type arguments 94
3.5.5 Adequacy of implementation of EU environmental law 96
3.5.6 Temporal arguments 103
3.6 Interim relief and Art 226 proceedings 104
x

45


CONTENTS

4

Enforcement proceedings brought by the European
Commission (2): Art 228 and ‘second round’ proceedings

112

4.1 General legal framework of Art 228 EC 113
4.1.1 Art 228(1) EC 115
4.1.2 Art 228(2) EC 117

4.2 Commission guidance on financial penalties under
Art 228(2) EC 117
4.3 Case law of the ECJ on Art 228(2) EC 124
4.3.1 Kouroupitos (2) (Case C–387/97) 125
4.3.1.1 Procedural and substantive issues 127
4.3.1.2 Determination of the penalty payment 132
4.3.2 Spanish Bathing Waters (2) (Case C–278/01) 137
4.3.2.1 Procedural and substantive issues 139
4.3.2.2 Determination of the penalty payment 144
4.3.3 French Fishing Controls (2) (Case C–304/02) 151
4.3.3.1 Procedural and substantive issues 151
4.3.3.2 Determination of the penalty payment and
lump sum 152
4.4 Summary of established legal principles in respect of
Art 228(2) EC proceedings 155
5

Enforcement proceedings brought by the European
Commission against Member States (3): Some critical reflections

5.1 Investigation and detection of infringements 161
5.1.1 Investigatory and inspection tools 161
5.1.2 Resources issues 164
5.1.3 Complainants as sources of information on
environmental law enforcement 165
5.2 Limitations of legal structures underpinning Arts 226/228 EC 167
5.2.1 Temporal aspects 167
5.2.1.1 Length of infringement proceedings 168
5.2.1.2 Interim measures 172
5.2.2 Legal sanctions 173

5.2.2.1 Sanctions and Art 226 EC 174
5.2.2.2 Sanctions and Art 228(2) EC 175
5.3 The European Commission and conflicts of interest 178
5.3.1 College of Commissioners 179
5.3.2 The level of Directorate-General 181
5.4 Prioritisation of cases and reform of the monitoring process 185
5.4.1 Commission responses to the issue of prioritisation 189
5.4.1.1 Recognition of the limits to Arts 226/228 EC
and decentralisation of enforcement 189

xi

159


CONTENTS

5.4.1.2

Prioritising and improving handling of
infringement casework 192
5.5 Transparency and accountability 196
5.5.1 Transparency of decision making 196
5.5.2 Accountability to complainants 199
5.6 Statistical information on EU environmental
infringement cases 202
5.6.1 Statistical tables 203
5.6.2 Complaints 205
PART 2

The role of private persons in enforcing EU environmental law
Section 1: Taking action at national level
6

Enforcement of EU environmental law at national level by
private persons: general legal principles

6.1 Direct effect and EU environmental law 213
6.1.1 General introduction 213
6.1.2 Criteria for direct effect and EU environmental
directives 218
6.1.2.1 Sufficient precision 221
6.1.2.2 Unconditionality 223
6.1.2.3 Sufficient precision and unconditionality
applied to environmental cases 225
6.1.2.4 Transposition deadline and direct effect 229
6.1.2.5 Subjective individual rights and direct effect 230
6.1.3 Applying direct effect of directives against public
authorities 234
6.1.3.1 General points 234
6.1.3.2 Vertical effects 235
6.1.3.3 Limited Member State discretion and
‘vertical’ effects of directives 238
6.1.4 Reliance on directives against private persons 247
6.1.4.1 Inverse vertical effects of directives 248
6.1.4.2 Horizontal direct effect and directives 250
6.1.4.3 ‘Triangular’ situations: indirect inverse effects 252
6.1.4.4 Incidental horizontal effects 255
6.2 Indirect effect and EU environmental law 261
6.2.1 General points 262

6.2.2 Indirect effect and criminal liability 264
6.3 Concluding remarks 266

xii

207
207

209


CONTENTS

7

Access to justice at national level for breaches of EU
environmental law (1): the role of the European Court
of Justice

268

7.1 General principles of procedural autonomy under EC law 269
7.2 Remedies at national level: general principles developed by
the ECJ 271
7.2.1 Duties on national courts to provide remedies 271
7.2.2 Duties of non-judicial Member State authorities
to provide adequate remedies 275
7.3 State liability for breaches of EC environmental law 278
7.3.1 General legal criteria for proving state liability 279
7.3.1.1 Rule of EC law must be intended to confer

rights on individuals 282
7.3.1.2 Sufficiently serious breach of EC law 282
7.3.1.3 Attribution of liability 285
7.3.1.4 Loss and damage 285
7.3.1.5 Causation 286
7.3.2 State liability and EC environmental law 288
7.3.2.1 Rights intended to be created for individuals 288
7.3.2.2 Criterion of a ‘sufficiently serious’ breach 293
7.3.2.3 Direct causal link 295
7.3.2.4 Loss, damage and reparation 297
7.4 Concluding remarks 301
8

Access to justice at national level for breaches of EU
environmental law (2): EC legislation on access to national
courts and environmental information

8.1 Access to Justice in environmental matters and the EU 307
8.2 Proposed EC directive on access to justice in
environmental matters 310
8.2.1 ‘Qualified entities’ 311
8.2.2 The right to take environmental proceedings 313
8.2.3 Right to request an internal review 317
8.2.4 The role of direct effect and the Draft AJEM Directive 319
8.3 Other access to justice instruments in environmental matters
at EU level 321
8.3.1 Access to justice in relation to environmental information
and environmental decision making 322
8.3.2 Access to justice under Directive 2004/35 on environmental
liability (EL Directive) 323

8.3.2.1 Rights of private entities to request action under
the EL Directive 324

xiii

304


CONTENTS

8.3.2.2

Right to subject competent authority’s conduct
to legal review under the EL Directive 327
8.3.2.3 Impact of EL Directive on access to
environmental justice 328
8.4 Access to environmental information held by Member State
authorities 330
8.4.1 Directive 2003/4 on public access to environmental
information (AEI Directive) 330
8.4.1.1 Right of access to environmental information under
the AEI Directive 331
8.4.1.2 Public dissemination of environmental information
under the AEI Directive 336
8.4.1.3 Impact of AEI Directive on EU environmental
law enforcement 341
8.5 Concluding remarks 344

Section 2: Taking action at EU level
9

Private enforcement of EU environmental law at EU
institutional level (1): access to justice and information

9.1 Access to environmental justice at EU level 350
9.1.1 Access to justice under the current EC Treaty
system (pre-Århus Convention) 351
9.1.1.1 Art 232 EC—legal proceedings in respect of a
failure to act 353
9.1.1.2 Art 230 EC—annulment proceedings 356
9.1.1.3 Arts 235 and 288(2)—non-contractual liability
of the Community institutions 365
9.1.1.4 Art 234 EC—the preliminary ruling
procedure 368
9.1.2 The Draft Århus Regulation and access to
environmental justice at EU level 370
9.1.2.1 Material and personal scope of the
Draft Århus Regulation’s access to justice
provisions 371
9.1.2.2 Review procedures under the Draft Århus
Regulation’s access to justice provisions 375
9.2 Access to environmental information held by EU institutions 377
9.2.1 Regulation 1049 on public access to information 379
9.2.1.1 Scope and definitions 380
9.2.1.2 Key procedural aspects 382
9.2.1.3 Exceptions 385
xiv

347

349


CONTENTS

9.3

10

9.2.2 Court of First Instance (CFI) rulings on access to
information 388
9.2.3 The European Ombudsman (EO) and access to
information 395
9.2.4 Access to information relating to infringement proceedings:
practice of the Commission 399
9.2.5 The Draft Århus Regulation and access to environmental
information 401
Impact of the EU’s access to environmental justice and
information framework in relation to EU Institutions:
some reflections 403
9.3.1 Access to environmental justice at EU level: prospects 404
9.3.2 Access to environmental information at EU level:
prospects 405
Private enforcement of EU environmental law at EU
institutional level (2): administrative complaints procedures
and other possibilities

10.1 The European Ombudsman (EO) 408
10.1.1 General remit and powers of the EO 411
10.1.1.1 The concept of maladministration 412

10.1.1.2 Legal powers of the EO 416
10.1.1.3 Exclusion of EO from legal
proceedings 419
10.1.2 The EO’s complaints procedure: key aspects 420
10.1.3 Complaints to the EO against the Commission in
environmental cases 423
10.1.3.1 The EO’s substantive analysis of EC
environmental law 425
10.1.3.2 The EO’s scrutiny of the European
Commission’s procedures in handling
complaints about non-compliance with EC
environmental law 426
10.2 The European Parliament (EP) 430
10.2.1 Right of petition 431
10.2.2 Parliamentary questions 434
10.2.3 EP temporary Committees of Inquiry 435
10.2.4 The EP and Art 226/228 EC infringement
proceedings 436
10.3 The European Environment Agency (EEA) 436
10.4 The Council of the EU and individual Member States 438
10.5 Concluding remarks 439

xv

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CONTENTS

PART 3

The role of Member States in enforcing EU environmental law
11

11.1

11.2

11.3

11.4

12

443

Enforcement of EU environmental law by national
authorities (1): general principles and environmental
inspection responsibilities
445
General implementation duties of national authorities under EC
law 447
11.1.1 Positive legal responsibilities of national authorities under
Art 10 EC 447
11.1.2 Passive legal responsibilities of national authorities under
EC law 450
11.1.3 The principle of subsidiarity 453
The IMPEL Network 454
11.2.1 Overview of IMPEL’s organisation and activities 455
11.2.2 Origins and development of IMPEL 459

11.2.3 Brief appraisal of IMPEL’s impact 462
Recommendation 2001/331 on environmental inspections (EI
Recommendation) 465
11.3.1 General aspects: implementation and scope of the EI
Recommendation 466
11.3.2 The EI Recommendation’s minimum criteria for
inspections 469
11.3.2.1 Planning 469
11.3.2.2 Site visits 470
11.3.2.3 Reporting 472
11.3.2.4 Investigations of serious cases of
non-compliance 473
Environmental inspections and EC environmental legislation:
concluding remarks 474
Enforcement of EU environmental law by national
authorities (2): environmental civil liability

12.1 The Council of Europe’s 1993 Lugano Convention 481
12.2 Developments of EC environmental policy on environmental
civil liability 485
12.3 Directive 2004/35 on environmental liability (EL Directive) 489
12.3.1 Scope of liability under the EL Directive 492
12.3.1.1 Operators of occupational activities 493
12.3.1.2 Environmental damage 496
12.3.1.3 Causation issues 497
12.3.1.4 Fault and negligence 499
12.3.1.5 Temporal scope of liability 501
xvi

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CONTENTS

12.3.2
12.3.3

Exceptions to liability 501
Extent of liability: an operator’s specific obligations 502
12.3.3.1 Preventive action 503
12.3.3.2 Remedial action 504
12.3.3.3 Operator’s financial liability for preventive and
remedial action 507
12.3.4 Competent authorities: principal enforcers 508
12.3.5 Cross-border liability scenarios 511
12.3.6 Legal effects of the EL Directive 512
12.4 Environmental civil liability and the EU: concluding remarks 513
13

Enforcement of EU environmental law by national
authorities (3): environmental criminal liability

516

13.1 1998 Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of the
Environment through Criminal Law (PECL Convention) 1998 516
13.2 EU policy developments on environmental crime: the political and
constitutional backdrop 520
13.3 The EU’s third pillar legislative: the 2003 Framework Decision 525
13.4 Draft EC Directive on the Protection of the Environment through

Criminal Law (Draft PECL Directive) 527
13.4.1 Environmental offences under the Draft PECL Directive 529
13.4.2 Sanctions under the Draft PECL Directive 532
13.4.3 Degree of proposed harmonisation under the Draft PECL
Directive 532
13.5 The ECJ’s ruling in Case C–176/03 Commission v Council 534
13.5.1 Appraisal of the ECJ’s ruling in Case C–176/03
Commission v Council 000
13.6 Prospects for EU environmental criminal law? 546
14

EU environmental law enforcement: reflections

549

Bibliography
Index

559
565

xvii



TABLE OF CASES

ACAV (Case T-138/98) ......................................................................................... 360
AF Con Management (Case T-160/03) ................................................................. 365
Allue (Case C-332/91) ........................................................................................... 392

Amsterdam Bulb BV (Case 50/76) ................................................................... 20, 218
An Taisce (Case T-461/93) ......................................................................... 358–9, 389
Antillean Rice Mills (Cases T-480 & 483/93) ........................................................ 376
Arcaro (Case C-168/95) ............................................ 100, 249, 264, 265, 449, 513, 531
Arnaud (Case C-131/92) ....................................................................................... 360
Asia Motor France (Case T-387/94) ..................................................................... 376
Associazione Agricoltori della Privincia di Rovigo (Case T-117/94) ..................... 360
Atlanta (Case C-465/93) ....................................................................................... 369
Aubertin (Case C-29/94) ....................................................................................... 101
Bavarian Lager Company (Case T-309/97) .................................................... 389, 391
Becker (Case 8/81) ...................................................................... 220, 223–4, 226, 235
Bergaderm (Case C-352/98P) ................................................................................ 365
Bernaldez (Case C-129/94) ......................................................................... 258–9, 261
Bernardi (Cases T-479 & T-559/93) ........................................................ 353, 358, 367
Bettati (Case C-341/95) ......................................................................................... 369
Brasserie du Pecheur (Case C-46/93) ............................ 280, 281, 282–3, 283, 286, 365
Brinkmann (Case C-319/96) ......................................... 279, 282, 284, 285, 286–7, 295
Brunner v European Union Treaty [1994] 1 CMLR 57 ..................................... 536–7
BT (Case C-392/93) ............................................................................................... 284
Buralux SA (Cases T-475/93 and C-209/94P) ........................................................ 360
Casati (Case 203/80) ............................................................................................. 523
Centrosteel (Case C-456/98) .................................................................................. 266
CIA Security (Case C-194/94) ............................................. 220, 228, 256–7, 258, 259
COFAZ (Case 169/84) .......................................................................................... 358
Commission v Austria (Case C-328/96) ............................................................. 77, 82
Commission v Belgium (Case 77/69) ....................................................................... 92
Commission v Belgium (Case 293/85) .......................................................... 74, 81, 84
Commission v Belgium (Case 301/81) ..................................................................... 76
Commission v Belgium (Case 342/82) ..................................................................... 62
Commission v Belgium (Case C-42/89) ........................................................... 71, 111

Commission v Belgium (Case C-301/81) ................................................................. 98
Commission v Belgium (Case C-347/97) ................................................................. 93
Commission v Belgium (Cases 227–230/85) .......................................................... 117

xix


TA B L E O F C A S E S

Commission v CEVA (Case C-198/03P) ................................................................ 365
Commission v Council (Case 22/70) ....................................................................... 20
Commission v Council (Case C-155/91) .................................................................. 16
Commission v Council (Case C-176/03) ......................... 17, 28, 520, 523, 534–45, 547
Commission v Denmark (Case 211/81) ............................................ 70, 71, 79, 86, 90
Commission v France (Case 7/71) ......................................................................... 104
Commission v France (Case 232/78) ............................................................ 91, 92, 94
Commission v France (Case C-1/00) ....................................................................... 39
Commission v France (Case C-333/99) ............................................................... 61–2
Commission v Germany (Case C-43/90) ................................................................. 86
Commission v Germany (Case C-57/89 and C-57/89R)
(Leybucht litigation) ......................................................................... 109–11, 172
Commission v Germany (Case C-59/89) ............................................................... 222
Commission v Germany (Case C-131/88) ...................................................... 221, 366
Commission v Germany (Case C-191/95) .................................................. 67, 73, 391
Commission v Germany (Case C-198/97) ............................................ 65, 67, 95, 181
Commission v Germany (Case C-217/97) .................................................... 52–3, 101
Commission v Germany (Case C-262/95) ............................................................... 97
Commission v Germany (Case C-272/97) ............................................................... 67
Commission v Germany (Case C-361/88) .......................................................... 221–2
Commission v Germany (Case C-431/92) ............................................................... 98

Commission v Greece (Case 66/88) ......................................... 58–9, 99, 297, 448, 523
Commission v Greece (Case 123/99) ....................................................................... 92
Commission v Greece (Case 200/88) ................................................................. 77, 92
Commission v Greece (Case 240/86) ....................................................................... 77
Commission v Greece (Case 272/86) ....................................................................... 54
Commission v Greece (Case C-200/88) ................................................................... 63
Commission v Ireland (Case 74/82) ......................................................... 52, 77, 82–3
Commission v Ireland (Case C-13/00) ............................................................... 88, 92
Commission v Ireland (Case C-145/01) ................................................................... 70
Commission v Ireland (Case C-354/99) ........................................ 59, 92, 99, 448, 523
Commission v Ireland (Case C-362/01) ................................................................... 75
Commission v Ireland (Case C-392/96) ............................................ 53, 63, 72, 88, 91
Commission v Italy (Case 7/61) ......................................................................... 77, 92
Commission v Italy (Case 7/68) .............................................................................. 92
Commission v Italy (Case 39/72) ..................................................................... 217–18
Commission v Italy (Case 193/80) ........................................................................... 71
Commission v Italy (Case C-145/01) ....................................................................... 73
Commission v Italy (Case C-279/94) ....................................................................... 91
Commission v Luxembourg (Case C-473/93) ............................................... 81–2, 116
Commission v Netherlands (Case 96/81) ................................................. 52, 57–8, 97
Commission v Netherlands (Case 96/89) ......................................................... 63, 104
Commission v Netherlands (Case 160/82) ............................................................... 92
Commission v Netherlands (Case C-3/96) ................................. 52, 84–5, 86, 87, 90–1
Commission v Netherlands (Case C-75/91) ........................................................... 117
Commission v Portugal (Case C-247/89) ..................................................... 77, 81, 91
Commission v Portugal (Case C-392/99) ..................................................... 63–4, 101
Commission v Spain (Case C-71/97) ....................................................................... 93
Commission v Spain (Case C-266/94) ............................................................ 78–9, 85
Commission v Spain (Case C-278/01) ..................................................................... 36
Commission v Spain (Case C-414/97) ..................................................................... 90

Commission v UK (Case 124/81) ............................................................................ 79

xx


TA B L E O F C A S E S

Commission v UK (Case 146/89) ............................................................................ 61
Commission v UK (Case 416/85) ............................................................................ 60
Commission v UK (Case C-56/90) ............................................................... 93, 103–4
Commission v UK (Case C-85/01) ........................................................................ 140
Commission v UK (Case C-146/89) ........................................................................ 94
Commission v UK (Case C-300/95) ........................................................................ 52
Commission v UK (Case C-337/89) ........................................................... 71, 92, 102
Consten and Grundig (Cases 56 & 56/64) ............................................................. 134
Costa v ENEL (Case 6/64) ....................................................................... 14, 215, 216
Costanzo (Case 103/88) ................................................................................. 236, 451
Daihatsu (Case C-97/96) ............................................................................... 250, 253
Danielsson (Case T-219/95R) ........................................................................ 360, 361
Difesa della Cava (Case C-236/92) ....................................... 220, 221, 223, 225–7, 244
Dillenkofer (Case C-178/94) ........................................................... 280, 281, 282, 283
Dori (Case C-91/92) ................................................................ 235, 250, 251, 263, 273
Dorsch Consult (C-54/96) ..................................................................................... 263
Draehmpahl (Case C-180/95) ................................................................................ 272
Duke v GCE Reliance [1987] ................................................................................ 263
El Corte Ingles (Case C-192/94) .................................................................... 250, 260
Emrich (Case C-371/89) ........................................................................................ 353
Enichem Base (Case 380/87) ..................................... 225, 227–8, 233–4, 257, 258, 260
European Environmental Bureau (EEB) (Case T-94/04) ............. 358, 360–1, 370, 404
European Parliament v Council (Case C-70/88) ....................................... 17, 158, 545

European Parliament v Council (Case C-217/94) .................................................... 17
European Parliament v Council (Joined Cases C-164 and 195/97) .......................... 16
Factortame (1) (Case C-213/89) ............................................................................ 272
Factortame (3) (Case C-48/93) .............................................................................. 282
Fornasar (Case C-318/98) .............................................................................. 247, 275
Foster (Case C-188/89) .................................................................................. 236, 512
Foto Frost (Case 314/85) ....................................................................................... 369
Francovich (Cases C-6 & 9/90) ......................................... 224, 279–81, 282, 283, 285,
288, 298, 301, 329, 452, 512
French Fishing Controls (2) (Case C-304/02) ........................... 36, 113, 119, 120, 121,
122, 124, 151–5, 156, 157, 176, 551
French Product Liability (2) .................................................................................. 122
Grad (Case 9/70) ................................................................................................... 217
Gravier (Case 293/83) ............................................................................................. 84
Grosskrotzenberg (Case C-431/92) ........................................ 86, 232–3, 234, 237, 555
Haim (2) (Case C-424/97) ...................................................................... 284, 285, 452
Hauer (Case 44/79) ............................................................................................... 312
Hedley Lomas (Case C-5/94) ............................................................................. 283–4
Humblet (Case 6/60) ............................................................................................. 270
IFAW Internationaler Tierschutz-Fonds GmbH (Case T-168/02) ......................... 386
InterEnvironment Wallonie (Case C-129/96) ................................................... 229–30
International Chemical Corporation (Case 66/80) ................................................ 369
International Tierschutzfonds (Case T-168/02) ..................................................... 394

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Interporc II (Case T-92/98) ........................................................................... 389, 393

Jégo-Quéré (Case C-263/02P) ......................................................... 360, 361, 363, 364
Johnston (Case 222/84) .................................................................................. 236, 361
Köbler (Case C-224/01) ........................................................................................ 285
Kolpinghuis (Case 80/86) ................................................................ 100, 234, 264, 448
Kouroupitos (1) (Case C-365/97) ................................................................... 102, 140
Kouroupitos (2) (Case C-387/97) .......... 36, 102, 113, 117, 118, 119, 122, 124, 125–37,
139, 145, 147, 150, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 162, 163, 176, 226, 244, 295
Kraaijeveld (Case C-72/95) ................................ 234, 237, 238–42, 243, 244, 245, 246,
247, 268, 273, 274, 275, 277, 290, 312, 341, 451, 553
Kruger (Case C-334/95) ........................................................................................ 369
Landelijke Vereniging (Case C-127/02) .................................... 244–5, 253, 273, 296–7
Lappel Bank (Case C-44/95) .............................................................. 274–5, 302, 313
Larsy (Case C-118/00) .......................................................................................... 285
Lemmens (Case C-226/97) ............................................................................. 258, 523
Les Verts (Case 294/83) ................................................................................. 361, 545
Liberal Democrats v Parliament (Case C-41/92) ................................................. 92–3
Linster (Case C-287/98) ................................................................................. 260, 273
Litster [1990] ......................................................................................................... 263
Lütticke (Case 4/69) ...................................................................................... 353, 367
Marleasing (Case C-106/89) ................................................................... 263, 265, 273
Marshall (1) (Case 152/84) ..................... 234, 236, 248, 249, 250–1, 253, 255, 448, 512
Marshall (2) (Case C-271/91) ..................................................................... 251, 271–2
Matra (Case C-225/91) .......................................................................................... 134
Mecklenburg (Case C-321/96) ............................................................................... 336
Metro (1) (Case 27/76) .......................................................................................... 358
Mondiet (Case C-405/92) ...................................................................................... 369
Muñoz (Case C-253/00) ........................................................................................ 217
Niselli (Case C-457/02) ......................................................................................... 249
Nold (Case 4/73) ................................................................................................... 292
Norbrook (Case C-127/95) .................................................................................... 285

Norup Carlsen (Case T-610/97) ............................................................................ 398
Nunes (Case C-186/98) .................................................................................. 523, 528
Océano (Cases C-240–244/98) ............................................................................... 266
Pafitis (Case C-441/93) .................................................................................. 259, 261
Palin Granit Oy (Case C-9/00) ................................................................................ 40
Petrie (Case T-191/99) ................................................................................... 378, 392
Plaumann (Case 25/62) ......................................................................................... 357
Politi (Case 43/71) ................................................................................................. 217
Pretore di Salo (Case 14/86) ............................................................ 248, 264, 448, 512
Procura della Republica v X (Cases C-74 & 129/95) .............................................. 266
Ramel (Cases 80–81/77) ........................................................................................ 368
Ratti (Case 148/78) ................................................................................. 220, 229, 235
Rechberger (Case C-140/97) ................................................................... 282, 286, 295

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TA B L E O F C A S E S

Regione Veneto (Case C-118/94) ................................................................... 230, 233
Rewe (Case 33/76) ................................................................................................. 270
Rewe (Case 158/80) ............................................................................................... 278
Rutili (Case 36/75) ................................................................................................ 292
Saetti (Case C-235/02) .......................................................................................... 249
Salgoil (Case 13/68) .............................................................................................. 270
San Rocco (Case C-365/97) ........................................... 52, 54–7, 58, 63, 72–3, 79–80,
85, 87, 95, 102, 226, 244, 295, 448, 508
Santona Marshes (Case C-355/90) ........................................................................ 174
Scholz (Case C-419/92) ......................................................................................... 236
Simmenthal (Case 106/77) .................................................................................... 216

Sison (Case T-110/03) ............................................................................ 385, 389, 393
Smanor (Cases T-201/96 & C-317/97P) .................................................. 353, 358, 367
Smithkline Beecham (Case C-77/97) ............................................... 259, 261, 523, 528
Sonito (Case C-87/89) ........................................................................................... 358
Spanish Bathing Waters (2) (Case C-278/01) .................... 113, 116–17, 118, 123, 124,
137–51, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 176
Standley (Case C-293/97) ...................................................................................... 217
Star Fruit Co (Case 247/87) ............................................... 68, 178, 353, 354, 358, 367
Stichting Greenpeace (Case T-583/93) ............................. 359, 361, 362, 364, 370, 404
Sweden v Commission (Case C-64/05P) ................................................................ 386
Tate (Case T-460/92) ............................................................................................. 360
Titanium Dioxide (Case C-300/89) .................................................................. 17, 545
Tombesi (Case C-304/94) ...................................................................................... 249
Traen (Cases 372–374/85) ..................................................................................... 249
Transocéan (Case 17/74) ....................................................................................... 506
Twyford Parish Council v Secretary of State for the Environment and
another (1992) 1 CMLR 286 .................................................................. 231, 293
Unilever Italia (Case C-443/98) .................................................................. 257–8, 259
Union des Minotiers (Case 11/74) ......................................................................... 312
Van Duyn (Case 41/74) .................................................................................. 219, 235
Van Gend en Loos (Case 26/62) .......................................... 14, 213–14, 215, 289, 300
Van Schijndel (Case C-430/93) ...................................................................... 270, 273
Variola (Case 34/73) ........................................................................................ 20, 217
Veneetveld (Case C-316/93) ................................................................................... 251
Verbond (Case C-51/76) ........................................................................................ 230
Verein für Konsumenteninformation (Case T-2/03) ....................................... 383, 393
Von Colson (Case C-14/83) ........................................................................ 262–3, 272
Wagner Miret (Case C-334/92) .............................................................................. 263
Wallonian Waste (Case C-2/90) ............................................................................. 217
Watson (Case 118/75) ............................................................................................ 292

Webb v EMO Cargo [1995] ................................................................................... 263
Wells (Delena) (Case C-201/02) ................................ 252–3, 254, 275–6, 277, 451, 553
WWF UK (Case T-105/95) ................................................ 388–91, 392, 393, 399, 406
WWF v Bozen (Case C-437/97) ................................... 242, 243–4, 244, 253, 273, 451
Zuckerfabrik Süderdithmarschen (Cases C-143/88 & 92/89) ................................. 369

xxiii