The Right to Religious Freedom in International Law Between Group Rights and Individual Rights Routledge Research in Human Rights Law

The Right to Religious Freedom
in International Law

This book analyses the right to religious freedom in international law, drawing on
an array of national and international cases. Taking a rigorous approach to the right
to religious freedom, Anat Scolnicov argues that the interpretation and application of religious freedom must be understood as a conflict between individual and
group claims of rights, and that although some states, based on their respective
histories, religions, and cultures, protect the group over the individual, only an
individualistic approach of international law is a coherent way of protecting
religious freedom. Analysing legal structures in a variety of both Western and nonWestern jurisdictions, the book sets out a topography of different constitutional
structures of religions within states and evaluates their compliance with international human rights law. The book also considers the position of women’s religious
freedom vis-à-vis community claims of religious freedom, of children’s right to
religious freedom and of the rights of dissenters within religious groups.
Anat Scolnicov is lecturer and fellow in law of Lucy Cavendish College and
deputy director of the Centre for Public Law, University of Cambridge.


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The Right to Religious
Freedom in International Law
Between group rights and
individual rights
Anat Scolnicov


First published 2011
by Routledge
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Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
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© 2011 Anat Scolnicov
The right of Anat Scolnicov to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patent Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Scolnicov, Anat.
The right to religious freedom in international law : between group rights and
individual rights / Anat Scolnicov.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-415-48114-4 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-203-84263-8 (ebook)
1. Freedom of religion. 2. Freedom of religion (International law)
3. Human rights. 4. Women–Legal status, laws, etc. 5. Children–Legal
status, laws, etc. 6. Freedom of speech. I. Title.
K3258.S46 2011
342.08´52–dc22
2010012076

ISBN 0-203-84263-4 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 10: 0-415-48114-7 (hbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0415-48114-4 (hbk)
ISBN 10: 0-203-84263-4 (ebk)
ISBN 13: 978-0203-84263-8 (ebk)


Dedicated to the memory of my grandparents,
Sonia Bergmann, Felix Bergmann, and Israel Shekel



Contents

Table of abbreviations
Table of authorities
Table of cases
Table of statutes
Preface
Introduction
1

2

Existing protection of religious freedom in
international law
1.1 Historical underpinnings 9
1.2 Right to freedom of religion in the major UN documents 11
1.3 The International Human Rights Covenants 12
1.4 The UN Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance
and of Discrimination Based on Religion and Belief (1981) 13
1.5 International documents relating to national, religious and linguistic
minorities and to indigenous peoples 14
1.6 Regional instruments 16
1.6.1 The Americas 16
1.6.2 Africa 16
1.6.3 Europe 16
Notes 18
Why is there a right to freedom of religion?
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Can freedom of religion be a group right? 24
2.2.1 What would a group right be? 25
2.2.2 How to identify a group 26
2.2.2.1 Self-identification 26

2.2.2.2 Identification by the group 26
2.2.2.3 Objective identification 27

xvi
xvii
xxi
xxix
xxxii
1

9

23


x

Contents
2.2.3

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6
2.7

2.8

Notes
3

Can group rights ever be recognized? 28
2.2.3.1 Historical considerations 28
2.2.3.2 Community survival 29
2.2.3.3 Cultural interpretation of rights 29
2.2.3.4 Protection of the rights of individual
members of minorities is not sufficient
for the special protection needed
for minorities 30
Freedom of religion: between liberty and equality 31
2.3.1 Liberty or equality: prohibition of incitement 32
2.3.2 Group or individual: implementation of
religious equality 33
Religious freedom in liberal political theory 34
2.4.1 Justifications for religious freedom in liberal thought 35
2.4.1.1 Individual religious freedom as
critical capacity 35
2.4.1.2 Individual religious freedom as
equal liberty 37
2.4.1.3 Individual right as property of the
right holder 40
2.4.2 Justifications based on relations between
religious groups 41
Community and identity 43
2.5.1 Communitarian approaches 43
2.5.2 Freedom of religion as protection of minorities in a
multicultural society 46
2.5.3 Groups that violate the human rights of their

own members 48
2.5.4 Group rights: the utilitarian argument 48
Religious views and liberal prescription of religious freedom 49
Religious political participation 51
2.7.1 Are religious reasons for legislation a breach of
religious freedom? 52
2.7.2 Democratic participation of non-democratic
religious parties 56
Conclusion 57
58

Legal status of religion in the state
Part A: Legal status of religion in the state 67
Part B: Religious freedom should be an individual right in
preference to a group right 75

67


Contents

xi

3.1 Religious institutions have a public or semi-public character and so
cannot be granted rights that override individual rights 76
3.1.1 Churches as bearers of rights and as bearers of
obligations under the European Convention 78
3.1.2 Church employees and internal proceedings 80
3.1.3 Democratic governance 83
3.2 Religious freedom includes the right to participate in religious communities

without waiving one’s basic rights 85
3.2.1 European human rights law 86
3.2.2 Rights of employees of religious organizations –
UK and Germany 87
3.2.3 United States 89
3.3 Recognizing religious group rights inevitably involves the state in
defining religious groups, thus compromising state neutrality
in matters of religion 92
3.3.1 Legal powers 93
3.3.2 Budget allocation 96
3.3.3 Registration and freedom of religious association 96
3.3.3.1 State involvement in private disputes 100
3.3.4 Claims of leadership 101
3.3.5 Conclusions 102
3.4 Jurisdiction cannot be accorded to a religious community to which
individuals may not have chosen to belong. Even where such choice exists,
the state should not allow individuals to waive rights of religious
freedom to their communities 103
3.5 An individual conception of religious freedom should take into account
the different positions of members of minorities and of majorities 106
3.5.1 Employment 107
3.5.2 Exemptions from general rules 108
3.6 Apportioning equality between religious groups is inherently
problematic 109
3.6.1 Equality in allocation of resources 109
3.6.2 Equality on the basis of religion between individuals
or between groups 110
3.7 States should not evaluate the social worth of religious groups as this
breaches state neutrality 111
3.8 Conclusion 114

Notes 114
4

Women and religious freedom
4.1 Introduction: the problem and existing international law 127

126


xii

Contents
4.1.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7
Notes

The conflict between group religious freedom and
the religious freedom of women 127
4.1.2 Guarantees of religious freedom of women in

international documents 128
4.1.3 Reservations to convention provisions affecting
non-discrimination in enjoyment of the right to
religious freedom 129
Application of discriminatory religious law through relegation to the
religious communities 130
4.2.1 Religious tribunals and the right of women to equality
before the law 130
4.2.2 Competing religious and secular sources of legal
authority and protection of the rights of women 131
4.2.3 Religious autonomy and women in
minority groups 132
Discrimination in religious marriage not caused by the state 135
4.3.1 Registration of religious marriages by the state without
religious jurisdiction over personal status 135
4.3.2 State attempts to rectify discrimination in
religious marriage may not be enough to
preserve equality 136
Non-recognition of discriminatory religious marriages may further the
discrimination of women 137
4.4.1 Potentially polygamous marriages 137
4.4.2 Polygamous marriages 139
Discrimination of women in internal religious affairs by
religious institutions 140
4.5.1 Clergy who hold public office 140
4.5.2 Clergy who do not hold public office 141
4.5.3 Discrimination in appointment to religious office
as a concern for international law 141
4.5.4 Discrimination of women by religious
and tax-exempt status 143

Secular legislation based on religious motives 143
4.6.1 Religious reasons for state legislation 144
4.6.2 Religious reasons for international norms 146
4.6.3 Religious determinations and individual
conscience 148
Conclusion 148
149


Contents

xiii

5

Children, education and religious freedom
5.1 Choice of religion 161
5.2 The child’s religion in situations of change of family 162
5.3 Right to religious education: protection of right of child
or of community? 166
5.4 What sort of education is compatible with religious freedom? 169
5.5 Community religious education and individual human rights 170
5.5.1 Schools as public entities 170
5.5.2 The argument of voluntary participation 172
5.6 Religious freedom of teachers 174
5.7 Community religious schools and equality of female children 175
5.8 Wearing of headscarves: a conflict of group and individual values 176
5.8.1 Four states – four cases 176
5.8.2 Religious freedom as individual right 178
5.8.2.1 Religious freedom includes free religious

expression 178
5.8.2.2 Voluntary participation in a public activity
does not amount to a waiver of rights 179
5.8.2.3 A principle of secularity 179
5.8.3 Religious freedom of the student or religious
autonomy of the community? 180
5.8.4 Equality of female students 181
5.9 Teachers’ headscarves and religious freedom in employment 183
5.10 Conclusions 185
Notes 186

160

6

Religious freedom as a right of free speech
6.1 Free speech and religion – preliminary issues 195
6.1.1 The degree of protection of religious speech – a matter
for community resolution? 195
6.1.2 Right to receive religious speech 195
6.1.3 Equality of protection of the right to
religious speech 196
6.1.4 Discrimination in the right to religious speech by
seemingly neutral procedural regulations 197
6.2 Restrictions on proselytism as protection of community identity 198
6.2.1 Restrictions on proselytism in the private sphere 200
6.3 Freedom of religious speech and sanctions within a religious group 201
6.4 Prohibition of blasphemous speech derives from an
identity perception of religious freedom 202
6.4.1 Prohibition of blasphemy as protection of the state 202

194


xiv

Contents
6.4.2 Protection of religious feelings 203
6.4.3 Protection of minorities 204
6.4.4 The UK Parliamentary Select Committee Report 204
6.5 Prohibition of religious hate speech: striking a balance between the
identity and expressive perceptions of religious freedom 206
6.5.1 Existing international protection 206
6.5.1.1 National treatment 207
6.5.2 Religious hate speech should be treated differently
from other hate speech 208
6.6 Conclusions 211
Notes 211

7

Conclusion
219
7.1 Theoretical conclusions 219
7.1.1 Conceptual argument as to the existence of
group rights 219
7.1.1.1 Group rights are incommensurate with
the concept of human rights 219
7.1.2 Arguments as to the dual character of the right of
religious freedom 220

7.1.2.1 The dual character of religious freedom
and the right of the individual both to belong to,
and dissent from the group, must be upheld 220
7.1.3 Arguments as to why individual rights should supersede
group rights, even if group rights are recognized 220
7.1.3.1 On entering a religious group, ‘you do not
leave your rights at the door’ 220
7.1.3.2 The public character of religions mandates
respect for individual rights 221
7.1.3.3 There is no effective voluntary choice and so
individual freedom must be respected both
within and without groups 221
7.1.3.4 Equal protection of members of minorities
can and should be achieved through
a conception of individual rights 222
7.1.4 Argument as to further problems of religious
freedom created by recognition of religious
group rights in the state 223
7.1.4.1 According religious group rights involves the
state in evaluation of the social worth of
religious groups, thereby breaching
state neutrality 223


Contents

xv

7.2 Some practical implications 223
7.3 A few final words 226

Notes 226
Bibliography
Index

228
241


Table of abbreviations

Cases are cited in full in the text, except for decisions of the European Court of
Human Rights and European Commission of Human Rights, which are cited in
full in the Table of authorities.
CEDAW

CERD
CRC
ECHR

GC
HRC
ICCPR

ICESCR
ICJ
UDHR

1981 Declaration

Convention on the Elimination of

All forms of Discrimination against Women..................124,
128–131, 133, 135, 139–141, 144, 145,
148, 150–154, 156–159, 224
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination ...................................32, 158, 206
Convention of the Rights of the Child ...........................158,
160–162, 167, 192
European Convention for the Protection
of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms ...................................................... 66, 94, 97, 107,
120–122, 124, 125, 183, 187, 207, 212, 229
General Comment ......................... 128–130, 140, 142, 144,
148, 150, 156, 159, 224
UN Human Rights Committee ..................... 19, 27, 56, 68,
117, 129, 130, 139, 148, 154, 207, 212, 216
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
............................................................ 12, 13, 19, 27, 56, 60,
61, 68, 104, 128, 129, 135, 139, 140, 150, 154,
157, 158, 161, 166, 168, 172, 174, 189,
190, 206, 212–214, 216, 224, 230
International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights.....................................................12, 61
International Court of Justice .................................150, 151
Universal Declaration of Human
Rights .................................................11, 14, 21, 23, 58–60,
68, 125, 150, 214
The Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of
Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion
or Belief (1981) ..............14, 20, 68, 103, 128, 167, 201, 214

Table of authorities
Treaties and international documents

International Treaties and Declarations
Charter of the United Nations (adopted 26 June 1945;
entered into force 24 October 1945) ...................................................... 11, 158
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (adopted 9 December 1948;
entered into force January 12, 1951) 78 UNTS 277 .............................. 59, 151
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA
Res. 217 A (III) ................................... 11, 14, 21, 23, 58–60, 68, 125, 150, 214
International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (adopted 16 December 1966)
999 UNTS ................................................... 12, 13, 19, 27, 56, 60, 61, 68, 104,
128, 129, 135, 139, 140, 150, 154, 157,
158, 161, 166, 168, 172, 174, 189, 191,
206, 212–214, 216, 224, 230
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination (adopted 7 March 1966)
660 UNTS 195 171 ........................................................................ 32, 158, 206
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(adopted 16 December 1966) 999 UNTS 3 ............................................. 12, 61
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
(adopted 23 May 1969) 1155 UNTS 331 .................................................... 151
Convention on the Elimination of All forms of
Discrimination against Women (adopted
18 December 1979) 1249 UNTS 13............................... 124, 128–131, 133, 135,
139–141, 144, 145, 148,

150–154, 156–159, 224
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance
and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief,
UNGA Res. 36/55 (adopted 25 November 1981) .................................. 14, 20,
68, 103, 128, 167, 201, 214


xviii

Table of authorities

Declaration on the Rights to Development
(adopted 4 December 1986) UNGA Res. 41/128 ......................................... 13
Convention on the Rights of the Child
(adopted 20 November 1989) 1577 UNTS 3............... 158, 160–162, 167, 192
Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to
National, Religious and Linguistic Minorities
(adopted 18 December 1992) UNGA Res. 47/135 ....................................... 14
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
(adopted 13 September 2007) UN Doc.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/29/Annex ............................................................ 15, 59
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action,
Fourth World Conference on Women
(adopted 15 September 1995) UN Doc.
A/CONF.177/20 and A/CONF,177/20/Add. 1 ...................... 128, 144, 147
Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court
(adopted 17 July 1998) UN Doc. A/CONF.183/9 ............................. 147, 159
UN Resolutions
UN Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum
age for Marriage and Registration of Marriage

(18 December 1979) UNGA Res. 34/180 ................................................... 154
Bilateral Treaties
Treaty of Carlovitz 1699 (Austria – Turkey), 22 CTS 219................................. 18
Treaty between the Principled Allied and Associated
Forces and Poland 1919, TS No. 8 ........................................................ 10, 166
Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between
Great Britain and Ireland (6 December 1921),
Documents on Irish Foreign Policy Vol. I,
1919–1922 NAI DE 2/304/1 ...................................................................... 166
Regional Treaties and Instruments
European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (adopted 4 November 1950) 213 UNTS 221
Article 6 ..................................................................................................... p. 99.
6(1) p. 81, 82.
Article 9 and 9(1) ................................................... p. 17, 46, 64, 66, 72, 74, 77,
78, 80, 86, 87, 99, 101, 102, 105, 107, 113,
119, 120, 122, 146, 151, 177, 184, 196,
197, 199, 203, 214.
Article 9 (2) .................................................................. p. 72, 98, 178, 180, 183.
Article 10 .......................................................... p. 121, 157, 203, 204, 212 215.


Table of authorities

xix

Article 14 ........................................................... p. 17, 21, 87, 98, 99, 107, 112,
124, 156, 160, 161, 165, 187, 196.
Protocol 1 (2) ........................................................................... p. 167, 168, 188.
Protocol 12 .......................................................................................... p. 17, 22.

American Convention on Human Rights,
OAS TS No. 36, at 1 (22 November 1969)
1114 UNTS 123 ............................................................... 16, 21, 120, 195, 212
Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation
in Europe (adopted 1 August 1975) 14 ILM 1292 ................................... 17, 22
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
(adopted 26 June 1981) OAU Doc.
CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5. 21 ILM 58 ............................................................ 16
Concluding Document of the Vienna Follow-up
Meeting of Representatives of the Participating States
of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe
(1989) 28 ILM 527 ......................................................................................... 17
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990)
(adopted July 1990 entered into force 29 November 1999) ................. 186, 188
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa
(adopted August 2003).......................................................... 140, 144, 154, 156
Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European
Union and the Treaty establishing the European
Community, 2007/C306/01 (adopted 3 December 2007)
Draft Conventions and Declarations
Draft UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Religious Intolerance, UN Doc. A/8330 App. III............................... 14, 68
Proposed American Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples (adopted 26 February 1997)
A/Ser/L/V/.II.95 Doc.6 .................................................................. 15, 16, 21
Proposal for a European Union Framework Decision
on Combating Racism and Xenophobia (2002)
OJ C75E/269......................................................................... 32, 207, 216, 217

Draft Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe
(18 July 2003) OJ C169 .................................................................................. 18
International Law Commission
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally
Wrongful Acts (adopted by the International
Law Commission 2001) UN Doc. A/56/10 .................................................. 77


xx

Table of authorities

Concluding Observations of the Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
Concluding Observations: Bangladesh (1993)
UN Doc. A/48/38 ............................................................................... 133, 153
Concluding Observations: Israel (1997)
UN Doc. A/52/38/Rev.1 part II ........................................................ 151, 156
Concluding Observations: Italy (1997) A/52/38/Rev.1 part II ...................... 159
Concluding Observations: Croatia (1998)
UN Doc. A/53/38/Rev.1 part I ................................................................. 159
Concluding Observations: Ireland (1999) UN Doc. A/54/38/Rev.1.............. 157
Reports by the Special Rapporteur on freedom
of Religion and Belief
Report on the Holy See submitted by Abdelfattah Amor,
Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion and Belief
(15 February 2000), UN Doc. E/CN.4/2000/65................................ 158, 176
Concluding Observations of UN Human Rights
Conventions Committees
Human Rights Committee

Consideration by the Human Rights Committee of
the initial report by Morocco (1982) CCPR/3 ............................................ 115
Concluding Observations on the Costa Rica state
report, UN Doc. A/49/40 vol. I (1994) 31 .................................................... 69
Concluding Observations on Ireland’s State
Report: Ireland, ICCPR, A/55/40 vol. I (2000) 61, at para. ...................... 443
Concluding Observations on the Luxembourg state report,
UN Doc. A/48/40 vol. I (1993) 30 .............................................................. 117
EU Directives
EU Council Directive Establishing a General
Framework for Equal Treatment in Employment
and Occupation, 2000/78/EC OJ (2000) L303/16 .................................... 61,
88, 121, 174, 185, 224, 226
Restatement of Law
The Restatement [Third] of the Foreign Relations of the
United States § 702 cmt. 1 (1987) .......................................................... 20, 150


Table of Cases

Permanent Court of International Justice
Minority Schools in Albania (advisory opinion) PCIJ Rep.
(ser. A/B) No. 4 (1935) ................................................................................. 188
International Court of Justice
Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of
South Africa in Namibia (South-West Africa) Notwithstanding
Security Council Resolution 276 [1970] ICJ Reports, 4 ..................................... 150
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide Case [1951] ICJ Reports, 15 ....................................... 151
Communications to UN Human Rights Committee

Comm. No. 191/1985 Blom v. Sweden CCPR/C/32/D/191/1985 ................. 189
Comm. No. 195/1985 Delgado Páez v. Colombia CCPR/A/45,40/1990 ........... 116
Comm. No. 550/1993 Faurisson v. France CCPR/C/58/D/550/1993 ............ 216
Comm. No. 40/1978 Hartikainen v. Finland CCPR/C/OP/1/1984 ................. 189
Comm. No. 104/1981 J.R.T. and the W.G. Party v. Canada
CCPR/C/18/D/104/1981................................................................. 207, 216
Comm. No. 24/1977 Lovelace v. Canada
CCPR/C/13/D/24/1977............................................................... 27, 59, 150
Comm. Nos. 288, 299/1988 Lundgren and Hjord v. Sweden
CCPR/C/67/D/694/1996......................................................................... 189
Comm. No. 117/1981 M.A. v. Italy CCPR/C/OP/31,33 /1984 ...................... 66
Comm. No. 736/1997 Ross v. Canada CCPR/C/70/D/736/1997 ......... 206, 216
Comm. No. 208/1986 Singh Bhinder v. Canada
CCPR/C/37/D/208/1986........................................................................... 19
Comm. No. 694/1996 Waldman v. Canada
CCPR/C/67/D/694/1996 ...................................................................69, 116, 189


xxii

Table of cases

European Court of Human Rights and European
Commission for Human Rights
(Decisions for which no published source was found are noted according to
application number. All are available at (accessed
14 December 2009).)
App. No. 50776/99, 52912/99 Agga v. Greece ECtHR ...................................... 123
Ahmed v. UK (1982) 4 EHRR 126 ECtHR .................................................... 46, 64
App. No. 18783/91 Bulut v. Turkey EComHR .......................................... 124, 191

Buscarini v San Marino (1999) 30 EHRR 208 ECtHR
Canea Catholic Church v. Greece (1999) 27 EHRR 21 ECtHR .............................. 116
App. No. 12282/02, Cârmuirea Spirituala˘ a Musulmanilor
din Republica Moldova v. Moldova, ECtHR ...................................................... 122
Cha’arei shalom ve’zedek v. France ECHR 2000-VII 73 ECtHR.............. 95, 122, 179
Choudhury v. UK 12 HRLJ 172 EComHR ................................................. 196, 212
Church of X v. UK 12 YB 306 .............................................................................. 120
Costello-Roberts v. UK (2001) 31 EHRR 1 ECtHR................................ 77, 119, 189
Da Silva Mouta v. Portugal (2001) 31 EHRR 47 ECtHR ..................................... 121
App. No. 42393/98 Dahlab v. Switzerland ECtHR ..................... 124, 183, 184, 192
Darby v. Sweden (1991) 13 EHRR 774 ECtHR .................................... 69, 115, 116
De Becker v. Belgium (1979-80) 1 EHRR 43 ECtHR ............................................. 66
App. No. 27058/05, Dogru v. France [2008] ECtHR ......................... 180, 191, 192
App. No. 43546/02, Case of E.B. v. France, ECtHR........................................... 121
Finska Forsamlingen I Stockholm and Hautaniemi v. Sweden
(1977) 23 EHRR CD 170 EComHR ............................................... 79, 80, 120
Frette v. France ECHR 2002-I 34 ECtHR .......................................................... 121
App. no. 64016/00 Giniewski v. France .................................................................. 212
App. no. 49686/99, Gütl v. Austria, ECtHR ...................................................... 123
H. v. Belgium (1988) 10 EHRR 339 ECtHR ...................................................... 120
H v. Norway (1992) 73 DR 155 EComHR ......................................................... 157
Handyside v. UK (1979-80) 1 EHRR 737 ECtHR .............................................. 215
App. No. 30985/96 Hasan and Chaush v. Bulgaria ECtHR ......................... 101, 123
Hoffman v. Austria (1993) 17 EHRR 293 ECtHR
Apps nos. 412/03 and 35677/04 ................................................................. 187
Holy Monasteries v. Greece (1994) 20 EHRR 1 EctHR ............................. 79, 80, 120
Apps. nos. 412/03 and 35677/04 Holy Synod of
the Bulgarian Orthodox Church v. Bulgaria................................................................94, 122
App. no. 42571/98 I·.A. v. Turkey.......................................................................... 212
Iglesia Battisti et al. v. Spain (1992) 72 DR 256 EcomHR .................................... 119

Johnston v. Ireland (1986) 9 EHRR 203 ECtHR ......................................... 146, 157
Kalac v. Turkey (1997) 27 EHRR 552 ECtHR ........................................... 118, 192
App. No. 16278/90 Karaduman v. Turkey EComHR .................. 124, 177–180, 191
App. No. 12356/86 Karlsson v. Sweden EComHR........................ 86, 120, 121, 156
App. No. 36283/97 Keller v. Germany (1998)
25 EHRR CD 187 EComHR...................................................................... 188


Table of cases

xxiii

Knudsen v. Norway (1985) 42 DR 247 EComHR .......................... 86, 120, 121, 156
Kokkinakis v. Greece (1994) 17 EHRR 397 ECtHR ............................. 199, 212, 213
König v. Germany (1978) 2 EHRR 170 ECtHR ................................................... 120
Konttinen v. Finland (1996) 87-A DR 77 EComHR ..................................... 107, 124
Kosiek v. Germany (1987) 9 EHRR 328 ECtHR .................................................. 193
App. no. 55170/00 Kosteski v. Macedonia .............................................................. 124
Kustannus oy vapaa ajattelija ab v. Finland (1996)
22 EHRR CD 69 EComHR........................................................................ 125
App. no. 184/02 Kuznetsov v. Russia ...................................................................... 122
Larissis v. Greece (1999) 27 EHRR 329 ECtHR .................................. 199, 212, 214
App. no. 30814/06, Lautsi v. Italy, ECtHR ......................................................... 74
Lawless Case v. Ireland (Merits) 1 EHRR 15 ECtHR ............................................. 66
Le Compte v. Belgium (1982) 4 EHRR 1 ECtHR ................................................. 120
App. no. 58911/00 Leela Förderkreise v. Germany ........................................... 113, 125
Lemon v. UK (1982) 5 EHRR 123 EctHR .................................................. 215, 216
App. no. 42967/98, Löffelmann v. Austria, ECtHR ............................................. 123
Manoussakis v. Greece (1996) 23 EHRR 387 ECtHR .................................. 197, 212
Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia v. Moldova (2002)

35 EHRR 13 ECtHR .............................................................................98, 122, 123
App. No. 72881/01, The Moscow Branch of The
Salvation Army v. Russia ................................................................................ 98, 120
App. no. 441 79/98 Murphy v. Ireland ................................................................... 212
Omkarananda v. Switzerland (1979) 25 DR 105 EComHR................................... 119
Open Door and Dublin Well Women v. Ireland (1992)
15 EHRR 244 ECtHR................................................................................. 157
Otto-Preminger-Institut v. Austria (1995)
19 EHRR 34 ECtHR........................................................... 113, 125, 203, 215
Pellegrin v. France ECHR 1999-VIII 210 ECtHR......................................... 81, 120
Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) v. Turkey (2002)
35 EHRR 3 (chamber decision); (2004)
37 EHRR 1 (grand chamber decision) ECtHR ........................... 118, 124, 192
App. no. 40825/98, Religionsgemeinschaft der Zeugen
Jehovas v. Austria, ECtHR ............................................................................ 98, 123
Rommelfanger v. Germany (1989) 62 DR 151 EComHR ......................... 77, 119, 121
App. 44774/98 Sahin
¸
v. Turkey EctHR............................................... 178–180, 191
App. No. 48107/99 Sâmba˘ta Bihor v.Romania ....................................................... 120
App. No. 34614/97 Scientology Kirche Deutschland v.
Germany EComHR............................................................................................. 188
Serif v. Greece (2001) 31 EHRR 561 ECtHR ...................................... 102, 105, 123
App. No. 20402/92 Spetz v. Sweden EComHR .................................................. 122
Stedman v. UK [1997] 23 EHRR CD 168 EComHR .......................... 64, 107, 124
App. no. 39023/97, Supreme Holy Council of the Muslim
Community v. Bulgaria, ECtHR .................................................................... 99, 123
App. no. 51792/99 Tokarczyk v. Poland ECtHR ................................................ 157
Tyler v. UK (1994) 77 DR 81 EComHR ...................................................... 81, 120

xxiv

Table of cases

App. No. 29745/96 Universelles Leben v. Germany EComHR ...................... 113, 125
App. no. 76581/01, Verein der Freunde der
Christengemeinschaft v. Austria, ECtHR ............................................................. 123
App. No.63235/00, Vilho Eskelinen v. Finland, ECtHR ................................ 81, 120
Vogt v. Germany (1995) 21 EHRR 205 ECtHR........................................... 184, 192
App. No. 27008/95 Williamson v. UK EComHR .......... 79, 87, 116, 120, 121, 156
Wingrove v. UK (1996) 24 EHRR 1 ECtHR ............................................... 195, 212
X v. Denmark (1976) 5 DR 157 EComHR ................................................. 120, 121
X v. Germany (1975) 1 DR 64 EComHR ............................................................ 123
X v. Sweden (1979) 16 DR 68 EComHR .................................................... 119, 120
Privy Council
Bishop of Roman Catholic Diocese of Port Louis v. Tengur (Mauritius)
[2004] UKPC 9 .....................................................................................................189
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
The Last Temptation of Christ Case ( Judgment),
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (Ser. C)
No. 73 (5 February 2001) ............................................................................. 195
Communications to the African Human Rights Commission
Comm. 25/89, 47/90, 56/ 91, 100/93 Free Legal
Assistance Group v. Zaire ........................................................................................ 21
(At www1.umn.edu/humanrts/africa/comcases.)
Australia
Pell v. Council of Trustees of the National Gallery of Victoria
[1998] 2 VR 392 .......................................................................................... 216
Brazil

Superior Tribunal de Justiça HC 15155/RS (decided, 18/12/2001) .............. 217
Canada
Canada (Human Rights Commission) v Taylor
[1990] 3 SCR 892 ........................................................................ 210, 216, 218
Germany
12 BverfGE 1 (1960) ......................................................................................... 214