INTERNATIONAL MOBILITY AND THE CHALLENGE OF EXPATRIATION THE CASE STUDY OF EXPATRATE’S MANAGER IN VIETNAM

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ĐÓNG GÓP CỦA KHOA HỌC XÃ HỘI – NHÂN VĂN TRONG PHÁT TRIỂN KINH TẾ - XÃ HỘI

INTERNATIONAL MOBILITY AND THE CHALLENGE OF EXPATRIATION: THE CASE
STUDY OF EXPATRATE’S MANAGER IN VIETNAM
DỊCH CHUYỂN QUỐC TẾ VÀ THÁCH THỨC DI TRÚ ĐỐI VỚI NGƯỜI NƯỚC NGOÀI:
NGHIÊN CỨU TÌNH HUỐNG CÁC CÁN BỘ QUẢN LÝ NƯỚC NGOÀI LÀM VIỆC TẠI
VIỆT NAM: TỪ THÍCH ỨNG GIAO THOA VĂN HÓA ĐẾN ĐỊNH HƯỚNG QUẢN TRỊ
NGUỒN NHÂN LỰC QUỐC TẾ
TRAN Van Nhu 1 - Sarah MANGILII
Summary
Although the global economic crisis has caused most companies to review their costs of
international assignments, the expatriation remains the best way of creating a global mindset among
managers. Expatriation is a big challenge both for expatriates and companies itself, especially while
the arrived country is Vietnam – the fast growing emerging market. From the expatriate point of view,
it is to face a different culture and adapt his personal and professional life, for the sending company, it
is to have a good return on investment, since this investment is significant.
Our research aims to analyze how the assignment phase is experienced by the individual
expatriate. This finding is also served as a tool for the Vietnamese managers to better understand what
international managers really think about their country and the way people are working, and what
could be changed in order to be compete better in this globalizing world. The other aim of our research
is, subsequently, to find out from the expatriates whether or not their companies tend to implement
modern International Human Resource approach to maximize the efficiency of its staff.
The structured in-depth interviews have been conducted on 25 Hanoi’s expatriate managers in
September 2008. The various interviewees composing the sample have been randomly picked up in
business directories of foreign Investment companies in Vietnam, and more particularly Hanoi.
Our main findings have showed that most of the respondents have experienced the environmental
pressures and cultural shocks, but they demonstrated their tenacity in overcoming the various crosscultural issues and all of them revealed optimism, sincerity and open-mindedness. Different tactics
                                                            
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according to the profiles have been implemented to adjust. Few disillusions appeared among some of
the respondents who found their experience especially fastidious and who struggled more than the
others to cope with their working environment and personal social life. These disillusion engendered a
feeling of rejection for the country in very few cases. The expatriate who adjust in living and working
in Vietnam tend to have established a very special relation with the country and their people, however
without trying to become Vietnamese themselves.
The International Human Resource Management aspect showed in most cases a minor
investment from the sending organization on the expatriate. This mainly in terms of preparation and
support during the assignment phase and it prevails among the younger expatriates without long
professional experience. The management of the expatriation as a whole cycle is often true, however
only in terms of bureaucracy.
Key words: expatriation, cross-cultural adaptation, international human resource management,
Vietnam

Tóm tắt
Mặc dù khủng hoảng kinh tế toàn cầu bắt buộc đa số các doanh nghiệp phải xem xét lại những
chi phí bổ nhiệm nguồn nhân lực đi làm việc quốc tế, việc di trú làm việc ở nước ngoài vẫn là cách tốt
nhất để tạo ra tư duy toàn cầu cho các nhà quản lý. Di trú làm việc ở nước ngoài là một thách thức lớn
cho cả người nước ngoài và các công ty gửi lao động, đặc biệt khi điểm đến là Việt Nam - thị trường

mới nổi đang phát triển nhanh. Theo quan điểm của người nước ngoài, đó là phải đối diện với một nền
văn hóa khác và thích ứng cuộc sống cá nhân và nghề nghiệp của họ với môi trường mới; còn đối với
công ty cử lao động đi làm việc, đó là làm sao đạt được lợi nhuận tốt về đầu tư, nhất là khoản đầu tư
này thường đáng kể.
Nghiên cứu của chúng tôi nhằm mục đích phân tích giai đoạn được cử đi làm việc tại nước ngoài
được những cá nhân nước ngoài trải nghiệm như thế nào. Phát hiện này cũng được coi là công cụ hữu
ích cho các nhà quản lý người Việt Nam hiểu rõ hơn về những gì các nhà quản lý quốc tế thực sự nghĩ
về đất nước của họ, về cách thức họ làm việc và về những điều có thể cần phải thay đổi để có thể cạnh
tranh tốt hơn trong thế giới toàn cầu hoá. Ngoài ra, nghiên cứu của chúng tôi có mục đích tìm hiểu, từ
các cán bộ nước ngoài xem các công ty của họ có xu hướng áp dụng cách thức quản lý nguồn nhân lực
quốc tế để tối ưu hóa hiệu quả của các nhân viên của mình hay không.
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Các cuộc phỏng vấn sâu đã được tiến hành từ tháng 9 năm 2008, với 25 cán bộ quản lý nước
ngoài làm việc tại Hà Nội. Các cá nhân trả lời phỏng vấn trong mẫu điều tra được chọn lựa ngẫu
nhiên trong các danh bạ kinh doanh về các doanh nghiệp nước ngoài tạ Việt Nam, và đặc biệt tại Hà
Nội.
Kết quả chính của nghiên cứu đã cho thấy rằng hầu hết những người được phỏng vấn đã trải qua
những áp lực môi trường và những cú sốc văn hóa, nhưng họ đã chứng tỏ sự kiên cường của họ trong
việc khắc phục các vấn đề phức tạp của giao thoa văn hóa và tất cả đều bộc lộ sự lạc quan, chân thành
và sẵn sàng tiếp thu cái mới. Tùy theo đặc thù của từng cá nhân, các chiến thuật khác nhau đã được
thực hiện để điều chỉnh. Một chút

vỡ mộng xuất hiện với một số người trả lời phỏng vấn cảm thấy

kinh nghiệm của họ đặc biệt khó khăn và phải đấu tranh nhiều hơn những người khác để đối phó với
môi trường làm việc của họ và thích ứng đời sống xã hội cá nhân. Tuy nhiên, rất ít trường hợp cảm
thấy bị đất nước di trú chối bỏ họ do những vỡ mộng này gây ra. Những người nước ngoài đã điều
chỉnh trong sinh sống và làm việc tại Việt Nam có xu hướng thiết lập một mối quan hệ rất đặc biệt với
đất nước này và với con người của quốc gia đó, tuy nhiên họ không cố gắng biến họ trở thành người
Việt Nam.
Nghiên cứu về quản trị nguồn nhân lực quốc tế cho thấy đa số các doanh nghiệp gửi cán bộ làm
việc ở nước ngoài đầu tư rất ít ỏi cho các cán bộ của họ. Hoạt động quản lý nguồn nhân lực chủ yếu
tập trung ở khâu chuẩn bị và hỗ trợ các cán bộ quản lý trong quá trình họ thực hiện nhiệm kỳ công tác
và thường dành cho những người nước ngoài trẻ chưa có nhiều kinh nghiệm nghề nghiệp. Việc quản lý
hoạt động di trú như một chu trình khép kín thường đúng, nhưng chỉ đúng về mặt thủ tục hành chính.

Introduction
The multiplication of international joint ventures, alliances, subsidiaries of multinational
organizations across national boundaries makes many organisations to view the management of
expatriates as a critical part of their international human resource management strategy (Zhu & Purnell,
2006; O’Donnell, 2000; Boyacigiller, 1990). The competitiveness of global corporation depends
largely on the effectiveness of their overseas operations. Expatriation is a big challenge both for
expatriates and companies itself. From the expatriate point of view, it is to face a different culture and
adapt his personal and professional life; for the sending company, it is to have a good return on
investment, since this investment is significant.
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None of it is easy and both, assignee and sending company have to undertake adequate actions to
avoid any failure of international assignment, representing substantial cost, both to the corporation and
the individual expatriate involved (Wederspahn, Gary, M.,1992). The case of Vietnam is even more
interesting and challenging since it is a developing and fast-growing country. Since the launch of
market-oriented economic reforms in 1986, the Vietnamese economy has grown at a rate of 7%
annually (Thu Thi H. & al., 2010). The total registered capital of foreign direct investment (FDI) in
Vietnam in 2001-2005 was about 13 times that of the 1988-2000 periods. The FDI has strong impact on
economic growth in Vietnam (Thu Thi H. & al., 2010). Understand and manage the challenges of the
globalized workforce is important to sustain the economic development.
Our research aims is thus to analyze how the assignment phase is experienced by the individual
expatriates. How do they succeed in adapting themselves and their style of management to Vietnam? If
they do not succeed, what are the reasons? A stress will be put on the international manager in
particular on the complex field of intercultural management. To a larger extend, this aim is also to
serve as a tool for the Vietnamese managers to better understand what international managers really
think about their country and the way people are working, what they appreciate, and what could be
changed in order to be compete better in this globalizing world.
The other aim of our research is, subsequently, to find out from the respondent and experts
whether or not companies tend to implement modern International Human Resource approach or not.
This competitiveness should in theory not only achieved by the expatriate himself but also the
organization that is sending. Organizations need to view the management of expatriates as a critical
part of their international human resource management strategy since employing an expatriate costs an
estimated three to four times as much as employing the same individual at home.
The first part of the research will review the key notions and the cross-cultural adaptation scheme
stages of the cross-cultural adaptation cycle through the literature. Secondly, the theoretical
expatriation cycle in terms of International Human Resource management strategic approach will be
explored. Thirdly, the qualitative study will be analyzed using these frameworks.

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Theoretical Framework
1.1

Culture shock and cross-cultural adaptation process
There is no single definition of “culture”. Schein (1985), from the classical managerial

perspective, defines culture as how we understand ourselves, others and the environment within which
we operate. Hofstede G. (1984), an expert on cross cultural differences and management, defined
culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human
group from another…Culture, in this sense, includes systems of values; and values are among the
building blocks of culture”. The core values that we develop during our lifetime are based on our
community, ethnicity, religion, family, education. The increasing of globalization makes individuals
from different backgrounds to work together and the culture shock may occur. The term of “culture
shock” was first introduced by Kalvero Oberg (1960). Culture shock is characterized by the absence of
familiar signs and symbols, often resulting in anxiety and frustration (Oberg K., 1960, cited by
Friedman P.A. & al., 2009).
Culture shock is further perceived as part of cross-cultural adaptation process. In order to
assimilate to the host culture, the individual has to go through the stage of culture shock. Many authors
have developed differentiated stages of cultural shock (Bhaskar-Shrinivas & al., 2005; Black & al.,
1991; Preston, 1985), but the four phases of cultural shock are typically considered as following:
1. The honeymoon stage: in which the individual express his/her excitement, euphoria,
positive expectations and idealization about the new culture. Although there may be anxiety and

stress, this stage tend to be interpreted positively.
2. The crisis or cultural shock stage: in which individual begins to show confusion and
disorientation in behaviors due to cultural differences. Feelings of frustration, isolation or
hostility emerge in this phase.
3. The adjustment, reorientation stage: in which individual learns how to adjust effectively
with the new cultural environment.
4. The adaptation, acculturation stage: there are many different adaptation options,
especially given individual characteristics and goals. The individual tends to build bridges across
cultural differences and adopt a bicultural identity.

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Several researches identified 73 different skills, abilities and competencies related to the
expatriate’s cross-cultural adaptation (cited by Yahmazaki & al., 2004). From this rich review of
literature, Yahmazaki Y. and Kayes C. (2004) have proposed taxonomy of 9 competencies necessary
for the successful expatriate adaptation:
- Building relationships with others;
- Valuing people of different culture
- Listening and observations
- Coping with ambiguity
- Translating complex information into another language
- Taking action and initiative
- Managing others

- Adaptability and flexibility
- Managing stress
Since it is extremely difficult to find a manager matching these entire competencies, crosscultural training takes place to make the person gain and/or improve his/her profile. Cross-cultural
training provides the manager with the appropriate awareness level, cultural knowledge and particular
skills that will ensure their effectiveness on the assignment place. The organization needs to be
committed to this kind of training, but the individual participant also needs to make a similar
commitment to developing global mindset.
1.2

International Human Resource Management: An Holistic approach
For organizations to seek and ensure effective expatriate management, a strategic approach

should be undertaken to the whole expatriate cycle. The main phase of the expatriate includes the
strategic planning phase, the predeparture phase (selection and preparation), the “during” assignment
phase (performances measurement and support) and finally the repatriation phase (Brewster C. &
Harris H., 1999). The following part aims to describe these various stages through what has been
suggested by the literature for the companies to manage more efficiently their international resources.

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The strategic planning phase: to assign whether expatriate or local?
Generally expatriates are sent abroad to fulfill missions such as control and co-ordination of
operations, transfer of skills and knowledge or managerial development. To help organizations in

achieving satisfactory strategic planning through making more rational and sensible sourcing decision,
Cranfield School of Management has developed a tool entitled the ‘Expatriate Portfolio’. The aim is to
help corporate managers identify how an international assignment should be managed and whether a
local should fill it or an expatriate. The framework outlines four types of assignment based upon the
degree of importance of the assignment to the parent organization, and suggests the most suitable type
of appointment for each case (Brewster C. & Harris H., 1999).
The predeparture phase
Selection
Most often expatriates are selected from within the corporation. The rational thinking is that
current managers possess the technical expertise and are more in cohesion with the company’s culture
(McDonald G., 1993). Within such companies that seek globally-minded workforce, research into
criteria of effective international managers take more and more into account the so-called ‘soft’ skills
such as self-awareness, flexibility, intercultural empathy, interpersonal skills and emotional stability.
This kind of selection of expatriates starts from the recruitment phase. By keeping long-term goal in
sight as early as in the recruitment stage, a firm can constantly have a pool of employees of which each
member can contribute to the future international growth.
Tung (1981) selection approach incorporates several of these variables that contribute to the
expatriate success. Firstly, to identify clearly the nature of the job and an assessment of the qualities
and attitudes required by the expatriate that will be on assignment. The candidate’s self-evaluation also
needs to be considered. One major outcome of a good procedure is the self-decision of the expatriate
candidate to proceed with the assignment. Secondly, to obtain adequate information concerning the
differences between the political, legal, social and cultural forces of the home country and the country
of foreign assignment. Thirdly, to evaluate the candidate’s willingness to serve in the foreign operation,
actual preparation to do so, and the ability to serve effectively in what could be a very huge difference
in culture. Finally, to asset the candidate and family’s abilily and willingness to live abroad.
A rigorous selection program should therefore consider both of the following considerations:
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- The time devoted for the selection processes needs to be sufficient. Often, expatriates are
selected spontaneously because of an urgent staffing need in an overseas operation (Mc Donald G.,
1993). A forecast of IHR needs to be done months in advance. Long-term planning and recruitment
schemes should be part of the selection efforts.
- The utilization of appropriate selection device. Various instruments and tests coupled with
interview can be used to better predict the likelihood of a successful placement (Mc Donald G., 1993).
When evaluation by peer repatriates freshly returned from their assignment is possible, this can also be
helpful to assess the candidate’s suitability.
Preparation: training, briefing and family orientation
Research findings indicate that pre-departure preparation is positively related to general
adjustment and effectual functioning of expatriates in their new environments. (Mc Donald, 1993).
Training
Cross-cultural training and foreign language training are two forms of interventions that are
suggested to be crucial in the pre-departure phase (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Such training help the
expatriate equipping with knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to cope with the cultural shock. The
cultural awareness, one of the major outcomes of this kind of trainings, facilitates working with people
who have different social values and behavioral patterns. As stated previously in the selection phase,
many companies still assume that a manager who proved to be effective in the corporate main office is
going to be as effective in the company’s subsidiary. Once again, technical skills are important, but the
ability to work with individuals and group who are diverse and are functioning according to different
business norms is particularly remarkable for expatriates (Mc Donald, 1993).
Even though the potential benefit or cross cultural training is strongly acknowledged, this type of
training is not yet well provided by many corporations. In addition, most of the corporations who offer
such training tend to limit their efforts to a narrow briefing, which provides only little information on
the host country’s political, economic and general living conditions (Dunbar &Katchen, 1990).

Briefing
Methods recommended for briefing vary and can include audio-video presentations, meeting with
area advisors, session with former expatriates, and even a visit to the country of assignment by the

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expatriate and family before the final transfer. Knowledge obtained through the briefing program can
assist the expatriate in developing reasonable ideas about realities and difficulties of the assignment. It
could also be essential in setting realistic expectations about working and living in the new
environment. Moreover, such knowledge can be helping the candidate to accurately assess his/her
suitability or vice-versa for the specific assignment (Raffael, 1982).
Family orientation
Pre-departure preparation program directed at the family is very important since family members
are usually more susceptible to a cultural shock than the expatriate. While the expatriate becomes
involved in his/her new assignment, it is the family that faces the difficult process of coping with the
social and cultural unfamiliarity (Harvey, 1985). The spouse (since it is men that are often offered
international assignment) usually have to deal with disruption of the children’s education, loss of close
contacts with relatives and friends, and maybe even a loss of self-worth and identity. The situation can
be even more stressful if she had to leave behind her job and interrupt a career.
The during assignment phase
Monitoring performance
Monitoring performance during the expatriate assignment requires an understanding of the
variables that influence an expatriate’s success or failure in a foreign assignment.

Three critical

variables are the environment (for instance culture), job requirements and the personality
characteristics of the individual. Organisations need to balance the desire for a global standardised
performance appraisal system with the local requirements of subsidiaries (Brewster C. & Harris H.,
1999). The performance review should allow for a two-way communication and could also serve as a
motivational factor in that the expatriate efforts abroad can be recognized (Croft, 1995).

Support
Support during the assignment is believed to be essential for moral and psychological sustenance
as well as for performance effectiveness of international managers. Superiors and HR professionals in
the home office need to give adequate consideration to the importance of keeping in close touch with
their expatriates and providing them and their families with the needed support. A major source of

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concern for the manager while abroad is loss of visibility to those in home office and fear the out-ofsight out-of-mind phenomenon (Adler, 1987). Support during assignment may involve a wide range of
formal and informal activities. The development of communication channels, for instance, is crucial.
Nowadays, advanced technology facilitates communication. Electronic mail, video conferencing, online information, and shared data bases are among the ways expatriates can remain linked to their home
country (Croft, 1995).
Informal support, particularly at the beginning can be very helpful. This can include social and
professional counseling provided by peers who have already been in the country of assignment for

some time. It also includes assistance to the newly arrived family with the day-to-day matters such as
shopping, schooling, etc.
Repatriation
An often neglected area in IHR management is the repatriation process and the subsequent career
path of the international manager after the overseas assignment is concluded. While the issues
associated with expatriation are significant, those related to repatriation are equally important (Tung,
1981). Expatriate expectations of career advancement are not usually realized. While overseas, the
expatriate is not likely to be considered for promotion in the domestic operation. When repatriated,
he/she is also less likely to receive an upward move. This is amplified in corporation that do not
consider international experience as an important criteria for advancement to high-level management
positions (Adler, 1991).
Organizations need to pay careful attention to the way in which they handle repatriation for two
key reasons:
9

Firstly, the cost of losing someone who is dissatisfied with his or her position on

return is significant, both in purely financial terms and also in terms of the investment in human
capital.
9

Secondly, expatriate assignments are crucial tools in the effort to create a

translational mindset in the organisation. Failure to disseminate the individual learning gained
from a foreign assignment to others in the organisation is a barrier to the goal of becoming a
truly global operation

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In order to benefit from their investment on overseas assignments, the firm should establish
practices that facilitate effective professional and social repatriation. At least 6 months before
repatriation, an internal search should be initiated on behalf of the expatriate to find a position that suits
his/her qualifications after assignment (Shen Y. & al., 2009).
Successful management of expatriation requires a holistic approach to the whole expatriate cycle.
Organizations that continue to send people on expatriate assignments without carefully considering
how this fits into the strategic plan are likely to lose a valuable source of competitive advantage.
Methodology
In order to explore in deep the expatriate’s impressions, as well as identify the adaptation strategy
and phases of the global manager, the structured in-depth interviews have been conducted on 25
respondents from September to November 2008. An interview guide containing open questions and
using the method of the “critical incidents” has been used to collect information about the respondents,
their adjustment process and also the role played by the sending company in the preparation and if
possible, repatriation.
The sample has been determined to give a partial overview of Hanoi’s expatriate Managers
community. Hanoi being a politic capital in comparison to Hochiminh City, a more business centre of
Vietnam. Managers from both the public (such as NGOs and foreign Government development
projects) and the private sector have been interviewed. The sample was therefore composed of
managers from public and private organization in different sectors and profiles (different nationalities,
ages, and seniority in their job and also in the expatriation itself). The size of the sample was 25 people.
The various interviewees composing the sample have been randomly picked up in business directories
of foreign Investment companies in Vietnam, and more particularly Hanoi. These directories are
released by official structures such as the Yellow Pages, Vietnam Economic Times or Hanoi French
Chamber of Commerce, and also unofficial sources such as a database of private and public

organizations that the researchers have obtained thanks to their network.
The sample is composed of two 2 types of expatriates: The first category representing 72% is
composed of “authentic” expatriates since they have been sent by their company, some were already
working for the sending company, and some others have been hired specially for the assignment.
Another category (28%) is composed by alumni without long term working experience, hired through
special programs dedicated specially to them such as VIE or VIA.
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The following figures aims to give some overview of the degree of acculturation reach by the
respondents. This map shows the level of identification of the respondents with their culture of origin
and their host culture. (Model suggested by Oberg K., 1960).
The individuals belonging to “Assimilation” group tends to reject their culture of origin and adapt
themselves to the host culture. They are completely converting their own norms, values and behaviors.
The individuals belonging to “Separation” group tend to reject the host culture and the norms of
the original culture are strengthened. This state leads to segregation
The individuals belonging to ‘Marginalization” group tends to perceive both cultures as being
“equal but naturally incompatible”, the individual in this position doesn’t feel “at home” in neither his
original or host culture.
Finally, the individuals belonging to “Integration” group tends to perceive both cultures as
“equal” and feel compatible with the host culture. The individual becomes multicultural and feels “at
home” in cultures, host and original one.

ASSIMILATION 

INTEGRATION 

+
B

L
E

G O Y Q D S H U 
P X C J V

W

NI

M

Identification 
with the original 
culture

R
F

‐ 

+ 
K   A

Married & spouse abroad 

T

Married with Vietnamese 
X 

Women 

‐
MARGINALISATION 

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Identification with 
the host culture

SEPARATION 


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ASSIMILATION 

INTEGRATION

+
B

L
E

G O Y Q D S H U 
P X C J V

W

NI

M

Identification 
with the original 
culture

R
F

‐ 

+ 
K   A

Status : 

T

X Æ Expatriate /VIE,VIA 
X Æ local 
 

‐

Stay duration:

MARGINALISATION 

Identification with 
the host culture

SEPARATION 

As shown, the results obtained from the survey reveals a particularly good acculturation to the
country among the respondents. The interviews have revealed three cases of relative “separation”. The
three respondent rejected the host culture for a while after having passed though difficult times at work.
The adaptation depends on the expectations of the respondents, and on their previous experiences in the
expatriation and background. The first thing to be noticed is the particularly strong expatriation
international background of the respondents. More interviews should allow a more accurate and
objective view. One hypothesis; however could be that most of the expatriate that have trouble adapting
themselves to the country don’t stay. The other hypothesis is that Vietnam being a developing country,
the companies are sending manager with previous working experience abroad or international personal
background to reduce the risks.
The graph shows that the respondents with the local status tend to be men (only one out of 6 local
respondent is a women), and also tend to stay longer. This can be explained by the fact of being
married to a Vietnamese woman and having a family. Even if they tend to adapt quite well, the women
of the sample don’t stay for a long period more than 6 years) and don’t plan to stay on a long term basis
in the country. All of them are single women and it seems to be more difficult for women to find a

partner in Vietnam. This factor could explain what triggers an earlier repatriation among women.
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Furthermore, it seems to be more difficult to handle the fact of being single for a woman than for a man
in Vietnam.
The two male respondents married to someone from their own country are taking their situation
with philosophy. Respondent N: “My family is quite adaptable with me going away, it make them enjoy
more my presence when I come back”, Respondent A “My wife stayed in Germany. It is the same for
her. Last year she lived in Vietnam but I had to travel around the country all the week so she couldn’t
see me. But I’ll go back for Christmas this year.”
Findings
1.3

Cross- cultural Personal adaptation living in Hanoi

Euphoria stage and culture shock
The euphoria stage is expressed by the majority of the respondents that were willing to come to
Hanoi. This phase was experienced very physically by some of the respondent, such as Respondent O,
who have been staying for 6 years in Hanoi described “ a wonderful blindness, linked to the intensity of
the expatriation and the travel experience”. Hanoi seems to be experienced by the respondents as very
unique and special city, and this is the main point that people enjoy in living here.
Respondent P has been working here for almost 2 years and shares what he likes the most about
the city “I love the weather during spring time, the landscapes, like the lakes, parks, rice fields and

highlands. Countless numbers of café and pastry shops, its rich artistic culture makes me feel very
pleased being in Vietnam. The slow pace of Hanoi life and the feeling being in a country side even I am
actually in a city, the absence of skyscrapers is actually very comforting and relaxing at the same
time.”
Respondent E is married to a Vietnamese and in Hanoi 2 years ago explain his vision of the city,
double and complex, “I have the feeling that Hanoi is two different places at the same time. It can be
extremely laid back and(…) right next to it you have the busiest streets you have ever seen in you life.
You have the people excess in making money and at the same time you got people that just might not
get to work today. It is going on side by side all the time. It does happen to balance somehow and
Vietnamese seems to be pretty comfortable with it. But as a foreigner, it is difficult for you to balance
(…). The combination of the two is hard. First you try to decide which one is Hanoi, and then you
realize it is a combination.”
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The culture shock is generally triggered after event at work or in the personal life. It seems that a
majority of the respondent experienced the culture shock, but not with different paths intensity and
according to the profile more or less positively.
The symptoms of the culture shock described by the respondents remained classical: Feeling of
depression, doubt about one’s own ability, extreme fatigue, hostility towards the host culture and its
members, stereotyping. Some of the respondents don’t really realize the culture shock. According to
some of the respondent, the same symptoms can happen anytime in the home country (Respondent T
especially). Respondent O belongs to group of respondent who didn’t feel the culture shock. She was
already familiar with Asia before to come to Vietnam. But she insists on the fact that every little

problem can take a disproportionate importance because the relatives and the home environment are
not here.
Some people have the feeling to go through period of up and downs more than experiencing one
particular cultural shock at the beginning of the stay (Respondent M “There is some days everything is
good and other days where something minor happened and it shouldn’t be such a big deal, but it makes
me snap. I know I am overreacting. I feel that everything is wrong with the people and with the country,
and you know that this can also happen in your country but you have these very irrational moments. I
have much more ups and downs. In the good days you feel like you are very confident and international
and proud of yourself and in the bad days everything is bad and you don’t like it here and you start
generalizing about the country.”)
Some other respondents express clearly two adaptation cycles, one personal and the other
professional. The personal adaptation is generally being overcome rapidly after few weeks only but it
can take more time to adapt on the professional level. This will be discussed in the second part of the
cross-cultural professional issues raised by the respondents.
Other external elements such as the environment play a role. Solutions are implemented to face
this “down” phases, this leads to a stage of adaptation.
Environmental pressures and culture shock
The traffic
The traffic (and the noise and pollution that goes along with) including an endless amount of
motorbikes, buses, heavy trucks, cars, bicycles, ‘cyclos’ and pedestrians on the streets is extremely
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chaotic for foreigners. The rules of the road commonly accepted in the west in particular do not apply

here. Traffic lights and pedestrian crosswalks exist but are completely disregarded.
The solution implemented among the respondent is to ignore the noise after a while. This comes
indeed unconsciously after a while. The pollution is during rush hours very high, and can even have
consequences on the health (people get Asthma or get sick on a regular basis). A big part of the
respondent subsequently opted for a car (some have car and drivers with the job function) or is taking
taxi every day to go to work. Some of the respondents who where not ready for a motorbike when they
first moved to Hanoi, opted for taxi or cars, in few cases, bicycle instead, and changed to motorbike
after few weeks since they couldn’t cope with the traffic. The traffic can even change the behaviour of
some people on the road. Respondent V assert that driving in Hanoi changed her into being very
aggressive on the road, whereas she is very relaxed driving back home.
Even if the average speeds are quite slow, speeding is becoming more common, with negative
consequences. Foreigners that have been here few years have noticed an evolution in the traffic, and
few of them stopped driving motorbike and even are getting more and more annoyed or scared in the
worst cases (Respondent C) with the taxis drivers.
Driving motorbike remains however the favoured vehicle among the youth. According to them,
it is the most practical way to get to know the city and gives them the opportunity to understand the
system better.
No possible relaxation on the streets
Vietnamese live much more "out" in their neighborhoods than most of typical westerners, who
live

and

work

in

closed-up

buildings

and

travel

everywhere

by

car.

The ‘Xe-om’ drivers and ‘Merchants’ and peddlers do see foreigners as great sources of income. They
bargain aggressively and overcharge.
The solution implemented by the respondents who raised this issue is to go to the supermarket
with fixed prices (Respondent L). Some others like to bargain to practice their Vietnamese. The ‘Xeom’ drivers and merchants are also quite ruthless. People asking for hand-outs are very persistent and
at times unpleasant.
Since there was a long period in the Northern part of the country of relative isolation from the
west, Vietnamese in Hanoi tend to be observers and commentators on life around them, especially on
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westerners. It is not easy to be watched and commented on, on a daily basis and to be asked questions
considered somewhat intrusive by western standards (How old are you? Are you married? How much
money do you make? Why do you have those children? And many more questions). Even if none of this

is meant to cause offence, it is part of the culture (especially asking the age is the base in
communication) and simple curiosity, it can be after a while becomes a form of harassment for
expatriates that are living here and this stress them out in a long run.
Same like for the noise issue, the solution is to ignore the comment and keep answering to the
questions. This is not easy, especially for the People understanding Vietnamese. This can lead to some
extreme situation. Respondent V narrated about her friend, who ends up regretting being fluent in
Vietnamese after having heard comments everyday about sensible issues such as physical description.
Respondent L also evokes her hard time she is going through walking in the streets of Hanoi “It is very
annoying when people stop you or stare at you. In the street you feel always very nervous. You can’t
relax. For me it is the most negative side here. There is too much agitation. It is just too much, you feel
like Hollywood star with the paparazzi. “
The climate
Discomfort from heat and humidity extreme in June, July and August. There is no Air
Conditioning everywhere. Some of the respondents also have physical reaction to the climate; get
frequently sick due to the pollution and the sudden changes in Weather. Respondent C and S
particularly emphasized this point.
Social adaptation
Friendship
Socialization is managed differently according to the profiles. Some prefers to socialize more
with the Vietnamese (Respondent Y for instance), some rather create a small community with their
own countrymen (Respondent A, L, and N for instance), some are totally mixed and don’t really make
distinctions (Respondent P).
Respondent N: “The good thing here is that Hanoi is a small city; you tend to meet lot of people
from other nationality. Also it is good in terms of sharing the so-call frustrations and getting to know
how they do their own adaptation and you can learn a few things from them”. Respondent F, however,

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is having trouble finding friends among the expatriate community. He found that this was easier in Ho
Chi Minh City.
One part the respondents who are married to a Vietnamese wife are the more eager ones to have
social links with the spouse family and friends of the family. Getting married is of course not the only
way to make Vietnamese friends and many respondents had no trouble making Vietnamese friends,
since the people in Hanoi are considered very friendly (except for Respondent E) once you get into
knowing them.
It is however not easy to build friendship relationship with the locals on the long term for many
of the respondents. Few of them had more hopes and expectations. Among the reasons given here is the
language barrier. Some of the respondents have the feeling of not being able to go very far in the
conversations and give up after a while. Most of the respondents were motivated to learn the language
when they first arrived, but (even the most experienced in learning foreign languages like Respondents
C, K) very quickly realized the difficulty and stopped learning. Most of them tend to be efficient in
basic communication. The statement of Respondent F “Enough not to starve or get lost” illustrate well
this fact. Only two of the respondents managed to learn the language are fluent.
The language is, however not the only reason, the interests also are not the same. Respondent L
who speaks fluent Vietnamese says “It is difficult to forge friendship with people of my age. I am a
single women which is quite normal in my country. They are all married and have kids, they care for
the family. I feel more enjoyable spending time with older Vietnamese people, I can learn a lot from
them about culture and history. However, I have a good relationship with my colleagues that speak
Russian.’
Respondent I who spend more than 10 years in Vietnam explains that even a basic such as time is
different. “It is difficult to forge friendship because I like to eat late and to go out late, in the end, you
just stay with the people of your own country, and this is easier”
Respondent M describe also the similar thing “Before I came I thought I was going to have a

Vietnamese lifestyle and hang out with Vietnamese friends, but this turned out not to be true. I have
few good Vietnamese friends, all my colleagues are Vietnamese, but socially, outside of work most of
my friends are expatriates and I found this very important for me. I need to relax and I must admit that

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with the Vietnamese I cannot really relax, since I am always worrying about what I am saying or
watching my behaviour.”
Cultural life and Entertainment
Frustrations concerning the lack of cultural activities and entertainment places have been
expressed by a number of respondents from every ages and profile. Respondent C declares that in
Hanoi she is living a totally different life than in France. She reads a lot more and goes to the gym to
balance the lack of other activities that she normally does in her home city, like walking in the streets
or going to the Museum.
Respondent R is feeling exhausted of going always to the same places and meeting the same
people. He needs to go to Thailand every 2 months to “breathe” and “go back to the civilization” and
“relax”. This trend is confirmed especially among the youths who express a real need to travel around
South-East Asia whenever possible.
Is there a reverse culture shock?
The majority of the respondents have been interviewed in Hanoi during their assignment phase,
and only 3 respondents (Respondent I, H and O) were experiencing the repatriation phase. Among the
three respondents, there is no problem for the re-adaptation to the country of origin, even if their stay in
Vietnam was long. (From 6 to 12 years) a long stay abroad.

The main comments are very positive, especially for Respondent I, for whom coming back to
France was like a revelation. He realized his professional value; feel more serene and efficient in his
work now. He had no difficulties to live normally in his new environment and even express some
regrets for not coming back to France earlier. Respondent H is enjoying more his family life after work
and during Week-ends. In Hanoi, Respondent H had to be available also out of the working hours, to
meet business partners or to welcome colleagues from the headquarters for instance. Respondent H
says he was like an “Ambassador” of the country each time someone from other country was coming to
visit. Finally, three of the respondent kept a huge tenderness for Vietnam and the Vietnamese people,
are still strongly linked to this country and are planning to go back for visit and holiday on a regular
basis.
The reverse cultural shock has been described by some of the respondents who came back for
short visit to their home country. It is the case for Respondent E, which express the reverse culture choc
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as the first real culture choc he ever endure. ‘When I have culture shock it is when I go home and I
expect it to be familiar. Every couple of years when I go back, it is obvious that things are messed up. I
cannot say that I really miss the US as a unified entity, I just miss particular things, such as Basket Ball
and live music.”
2.1. Adjustment of the management style
Implementation of authoritarian-oriented management style
This authoritarian-oriented management style is sometimes already implemented. (company of
Respondent X for instance), sometimes it has to be implemented by the respondent him/herself on
some particular aspect of the work of his/her co-workers (Respondent R), or their all work (

Respondent K).
This management style is favored most of the time for the operational everyday work. In most of
the cases, it is a “controlling approach” focusing in the gain in work efficiency. “This approach implies
a continuous following up of the manager, regular meetings, and good networking within the office or
workplace to make sure that the manager has got access to all the information and also that they have
got chance to ask the relevant questions to the staff.” (Respondent G) This is part of the job that the
respondents didn’t expected, that they didn’t do in their own country or country of previous
assignment.)
Respondent M declares: “My way of managing has changed. In the US we work as a team and
we all talk about what we are going to do openly. Here I realized that in large part most of the
colleagues I have conversation with; it is more seen as manager and staff. (…) So I have to figure out
by myself exactly what we are going to do, give clear understanding of what needs to be done, clear
instructions with schedule, which is taking off the creativity out of the process, and this is frustrating
because I feel that they should know how to do their job better than me, and if I give instructions they
might not be done the most effective way, but if I don’t do that, nothing gets done.” Respondent K
declares that it is very difficult to communicate with his co-workers and seems quite disappointed by
the style of management he had to implement after many disillusion in the workplace. “Now, I apply
the authoritarian method of: Do what I ask without arguing.”

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Implementation of knowledge-sharing and educational management style
Most of the respondents who admit facing suspicion and resistance within the work environment

choose to reach efficiency by giving the co-workers access to the knowledge. These respondents
choose to implement a long term approach, by introducing the partners and co-workers to new concepts
and making them understand the reasons of the change or requirement and make them willing to
change. (It can happen in some cases that the respondents choose to utilize the authoritarian approach
for some aspects of the work and this second one at for other aspects, according to the situation).
Few examples emerged from the study, the respondent are respectively from the tourism, ICT
and consultancy sector and also public organization:
1) Respondent R explains “staff here is a push towards a certain level of service. I had to change
the way they perceive hospitality. Especially in the tourism business, more particularly in the hotel
business, it is like being in a play, with everyone having a role as an actor, smiling and being friendly
being part of this role. To support this we also initiate on staff to the concept of Luxury with some
special training programs for the new staff especially. It is a real opener for them. Most realize that
luxury is not just a new pair of branded jeans or shoes, but it goes much further than that.”
Respondent C, who is also working in the tourism sector, also says “we implement training
session to sensitize the staff on the tastes of the foreign clients regarding traveling. The aim is not to
ask them to like their tastes but to better understand the demand.”
2) MIS and data management and data capitalization is also another major concept that has been
evoked by some of the respondents, especially from the ICT and consultancy sector.
Respondent D explained how he had to manage a change in the habits of the people in the in 6
provinces in northern Vietnam for a project assisting in developing a monitoring and evaluation system
for poverty reduction.
“Most of the partners in the provinces were not familiar with the computer, the data were written
by hand. Furthermore, they were not familiar with transmitting proper data (…) the initial situation
when the project was first launched was bad. 400 communes, wrote some table and distribute it to its
district. Each district send another summarized table of the data to its province, and a final
summarized 10 pages version was finally send to Hanoi. We loose the information, which was

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summarized at each level. We can not do any analysis, because there was no proper database. This is
what they understood from monitoring and evaluating.”
To overcome this, Respondent D went in each province explained than the concept was about
collecting a really source of information down to the communes level. This could end up being a big
database of about 400 communes, which would enable them to analyze, use graphs and ask the right
questions, so that poor household can benefit more than the non-poor, and you can and ask excellent.
And they have never done that before.
Respondent U also spend time making his staff understand the concept of business acumen, that
is to say understanding of the business: ‘When I first came I realized that my team worked well but
people didn’t really look into the reason why they where here. I had trouble explaining to them the
responsibility of us being part of this business. In a retail company your marketing staffs has to know
how much money the company makes, what is their responsibility, how much profit they have to bring
into the company. This is why I explained how the price structure was working. How the profit is being
put. Now they understand. Before these prices have been kept very secret since the management
approach was different. This was not communicated to them. It was not because of their incapacity to
accept, but it was the management decision not to reveal everything. It doesn’t work that way
anymore.’ Respondent U expects his staff to know everything, since the knowledge is the biggest
selling point of his company. ‘It is Important to keep the asymmetry of information between us and the
buyer, but not between us inside the company.’ He also adds that is very for him important to show the
example first in order for the co-workers to understand better. He provides an example regarding aftersales services. “We received a customer complain recently. I took the whole complain very seriously,
visited the client personally and sort it out, even if it was not my job to do it’
3) The sensitive issue of the Business Ethics had to be clarified by Respondent F to his business
partners. He could not accept to cross the line, even the “exchange of money” is common practice.
“What is accepted in Vietnam is not acceptable for our global organization”. Respondent P, who also

evoked this sensitive issue, could not fight against the system and had to accept it to make things done.
2.2. Major personal skills developed and gained by the respondents
During the interview, the respondents were asked which personal skills have been very useful for
them to adapt to working and living in the country. The majority of the respondents considers their
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personal background (bi-culture, children of expatriates, travellers), and their previous professional
experiences abroad as a big asset for their acculturation. Among the other skills evoked is patience,
sense of humour, and optimism.
The second question raised was about the skills that the respondents had to improve for their
acculturation. The results of the interview showed that many respondents had to work hard on being
more patience. The “leadership” skills have also been often quoted. Respondent R explains “you have
to lead your team, hold their hand. I feel like being the bus driver and my mission is to make them
understand that we are in the same bus and show them that they can rely on me.” Also more practical
skills like giving clear instructions has been very challenging for many respondents (such as
Respondent M) and being less shy (such as Respondent W), which also lead to the leadership skills.
Another practical skill raised is to define priorities and taking problems with more distance.
The last question concerning the personal skills focused on the ones that the respondent still don’t
have but wish to have for a better adaptation to the country. An overwhelming majority of the
respondents answered that Vietnamese language was the skill they wish to have.
The table below summarizes the various answers given by the respondents:
Skill 1

Personal and Professional background, patience, adaptability and

(already have)

flexibility (taking people as they come), independence, adventurous,
optimism, language.

Skill 2

Leadership, Rigueur and clarity, Self confidence, Define priorities,

(have improved)

taking problems more easily,(e.g. tolerance with taxi drivers), listening
skills

Skill 3

Proficiency in Vietnamese language, Rigueur

(still don’t have)
IHRM: Still a long way towards the expatriation’s holistic approach
Our research reveals that the holistic approach of taking the expatriation as a whole cycle is not
implemented in the concrete business life by the organizations. 72% of the respondents have been sent

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by an organization. Among the interviewed expatriates, almost the totality hasn’t been through the
holistic approach presented in the theoretical framework.
Selection process
Firstly, the selection process tends to be rather quick and informal. The survey shows that the
expatriates with long professional experience abroad seem to be favoured. Most of them are referred to
the Human Resources department (or the person in charge of the selection) by the top management.
Some respondents, even without working experiences abroad, do not pass through any interview
process if the organization already assumes they are suitable for the job. Respondent Y, and U have
been directly assigned for his position in Vietnam: “My name has been given by someone, who referred
and convinced the Vice president that should be selected. I just had to introduce myself after the
decision has been taken”.
Another category of respondents knew about the position and directly applied. They were
motivated by a change in the career path, gaining experience abroad, experiencing a new culture or
coming back to Vietnam if the country was already experienced in the past (Respondent X, R, M, T).
Most of them tend to think that both their motivation and personal adaptability have been decisive for
the selection. Only one of the respondents, respondent X had psychological test before the selection. He
says he doesn’t appreciate those test since he doesn’t like being categorized.
Preparation
Generally all the sending company seems to organize all the practical details for the expatriate,
such as housing, banking, insurance and the entire standard package. Only some of the expatriates have
to find the accommodation by themselves.
However, most of the respondents never had a proper personal preparation before the assignment.
One of the explaining factors is most of the time there is not much time for such matter. Respondent F
describes how urgent the position had to be fulfilled in Vietnam. His personal situation reflects many
cases of the respondents. “The position was so urgent to fill that I only had 1 month to relax in
Australia after my last assignment in Papua New Guinea.” Another point is that in many cases, the

duration of the assignment is undetermined. One other reason is that the organizations believe in the
ability of the expatriate to adapt by him/her self and do not see the point of doing such training.

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HỘI THẢO QUỐC TẾ
ĐÓNG GÓP CỦA KHOA HỌC XÃ HỘI – NHÂN VĂN TRONG PHÁT TRIỂN KINH TẾ - XÃ HỘI

(Especially for Vietnam, which is a country where very few expatriate of one organization are sent,
they may not see the return on investment).
Briefing and training, if they are given, are usually very informal processes. Few respondents,
especially from Asia, have been given the opportunity to come to Hanoi before the beginning of the
assignment to get a general idea of the city and the country. Most of the respondent expatriates are
single, so there is no need to consider the family briefing for the sending organization. (Being single
seems to be reflecting an important factor considered by the organizations while selecting the
individuals among international organization. Among the two married expatriates of the sample
(Respondent N and A), both of them are living separately from their spouses).

Respondent N benefited from a cross-cultural training in the form of 3 days workshop to be
prepared for the assignment. This workshop took place for a large group of expatriate (no focus on a
specific country). This was good enough for Respondent N, who is quite adaptable and already sensible
to the issue of cultural differences. According to him, however, the workshop remained too general and
he was in the end not convinced of its efficiency on the other people in the group.
During assignment phase
During the assignment phase, the expatriates keep mainly a professional link with the contact
they have to refer to within the sending organization. Most of the respondents from the public

organization don’t keep any links with the headquarters. When the Human Resource Department, local
or international exists, the structure is considered in most of the cases as a bureaucracy only. There is
no support from this part during the assignment period. Respondent U declares: “You are alone; it is
always about you surviving.”
Anticipation of the return
Most of the sending organizations have repatriation programs. The anticipation of the career
advancement, however, is mainly managed by the expatriate himself. Respondent U clearly states “You
are the pilot for the career advancement (…) you have to state clearly what you want, ask if there is
any opportunities. If they say yes, then you take it. If they say no, you should ask what else you can do.”
Otherwise, there is generally no tacit knowledge transfer between the expatriate and the sending
organisation. It is a very “egoist” process (Respondent X ), Respondent U also states “All the skills I
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