Advanced physicochemical treatment technologies lawrence k wang phd, PE, DEE (auth ), lawrence k wang phd, PE, DEE, yung tse hung phd, PE, DEE, nazih k shammas phd (eds )

Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies


VOLUME 5
HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Advanced
Physicochemical
Treatment Technologies
Edited by
Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEE
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY

Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

Nazih K. Shammas, PhD
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA


Dedication
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and all subsequent volumes to Thomas L. Lanigan (1938–2006), the founder and president
of Humana Press.

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Preface
The past thirty years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide that positive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from
the degrading effects of all forms of pollution — air, water, soil, and noise.

Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, the seemingly idealistic demand for “zero discharge” can be construed as an unrealistic demand
for zero waste. However, as long as waste continues to exist, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form.
Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has
been identified: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate
it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement
achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the Handbook of Environmental
Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to help readers formulate answers to the last two questions above.
The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific
pollution problems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engineering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a “methodology of pollution control.” However, the realization of the
ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current environmental
problems renders it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement
systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to such planning is an understanding of
the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution
abatement available for environmental scientists and engineers. In this series
of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or
of potential utility, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unified interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the evolution of environmental engineering.
Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an
engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental
principles and theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics.
This emphasis on fundamental science recognizes that engineering practice has
in recent years become more firmly based on scientific principles rather than
on its earlier dependency on empirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended,
though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science
in favor of more art and empiricism.
Since an environmental engineer must understand science within the context of application, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a
particular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and
v


vi

Preface

operations, and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental
quality control or remediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical
design and calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples
clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided.
Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that
the trained engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles,
be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and originality in the definition
and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should by conviction and practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress.
Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has
demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a
particular subject area; consequently, it has been difficult to treat all subject
material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space,
some of the authors’ favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and
many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on
briefly. All authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of
each chapter for the benefit of interested readers. As each chapter is meant to
be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication,
the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible, the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the
metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The editors sincerely hope
that this duplicity of units’ usage will prove to be useful rather than being disruptive to the readers.
The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to
cover entire environmental fields, including air and noise pollution control,
solid waste processing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological treatment processes, biosolids management, water resources,
natural control processes, radioactive waste disposal and thermal pollution
control; and (2) to employ a multimedia approach to environmental pollution
control since air, water, soil and energy are all interrelated.
As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, the organization of the

handbook series has been based on the three basic forms in which pollutants
and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise pollution
control is included in the handbook series.
This particular book Volume 5 Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies is a sister book to Volume 3 Physicochemical Treatment Processes and Volume 4 Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes. Volumes 3 and 4 have
already included the subjects of screening, comminution, equalization, neu-


Preface

vii

tralization, mixing, coagulation, flocculation, chemical precipitation, recarbonation, softening, oxidation, halogenation, chlorination, disinfection, ozonation,
electrolysis, sedimentation, dissolved air flotation, filtration, polymeric adsorption, granular activated carbon adsorption, membrane processes, sludge treatment processes, potable water aeration, air stripping, dispersed air flotation,
powdered activated carbon adsorption, diatomaceous earth precoat filtration,
microscreening, membrane filtration, ion exchange, fluoridation, defluoridation,
ultraviolet radiation disinfection, chloramination, dechlorination, advanced oxidation processes, chemical reduction/oxidation, oil water separation, evaporation and solvent extraction. This book, Volume 5, includes the subjects of
pressurized ozonation, electrochemical processes, irradiation, nonthermal
plasma, thermal distillation, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, biosorption, emerging adsorption, emerging ion exchange, emerging flotation, fine pore aeration,
endocrine disruptors, small filtration systems, chemical feeding systems, wet air
oxidation, and lime calcination. All three books have been designed to serve as
comprehensive physicochemical treatment textbooks as well as wide-ranging
reference books. We hope and expect that the books will prove of equal high
value to advanced undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of water
and wastewater treatment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors
welcome comments from readers in all of these categories.
The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of
this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and
effort, and for having patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and
comments. We are very grateful to our respective families for their patience
and understanding during some rather trying times.

Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, MA
Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, OH
Nazih K. Shammas, Lenox, MA


Contents
Preface ...........................................................................................................................v
Contributors ............................................................................................................ xvii
1
Pressurized Ozonation
Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas..................................................... 1
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System ................................................................................. 2
1.2. Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System .......................................................................... 5
2. Description of Processes .............................................................................................................................. 7
2.1. Ozonation and Oxygenation Process ................................................................................................. 7
2.2. Flotation Process ................................................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Filter Belt Press ................................................................................................................................. 13
2.4. Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System .................................................... 16
2.5. Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System ............................................. 18
3. Formation and Generation of Ozone ......................................................................................................... 18
3.1. Formation of Ozone .......................................................................................................................... 18
3.2. Generation of Ozone ......................................................................................................................... 19
4. Requirements for Ozonation Equipment ................................................................................................... 22
4.1. Feed Gas Equipment ......................................................................................................................... 23
4.2. Ozone Generators .............................................................................................................................. 24
4.3. Ozone Contactors .............................................................................................................................. 24
5. Properties of Ozone .................................................................................................................................... 26
6. Disinfection by Ozone ................................................................................................................................ 31
7. Oxidation by Ozone .................................................................................................................................... 35

7.1. Ozone Reaction with Inorganics ...................................................................................................... 35
7.2. Ozone Reaction with Organic Material ........................................................................................... 38
8. Oxygenation and Ozonation Systems ........................................................................................................ 43
8.1. Oxygenation Systems ....................................................................................................................... 43
8.2. Ozonation Systems ............................................................................................................................ 46
8.3. Removal of Pollutants from Waste by Ozonation ........................................................................... 48
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................... 50
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................ 50
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 50

2

Electrochemical Wastewater Treatment Processes
Guohua Chen and Yung-Tse Hung ................................................................ 57
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 57
2. Electrochemical Reactors for Metal Recovery ......................................................................................... 58
2.1. Typical Reactors Applied ................................................................................................................. 58
2.2. Electrode Materials ........................................................................................................................... 64
2.3. Application Areas ............................................................................................................................. 64
3. Electrocoagulation ...................................................................................................................................... 64
3.1. Factors Affecting Electrocoagulation .............................................................................................. 66
3.2. Electrode Materials ........................................................................................................................... 69
3.3. Typical Design .................................................................................................................................. 69
3.4. Effluents Treated by EC ................................................................................................................... 70
4. Electroflotation ........................................................................................................................................... 70
4.1. Factors Affecting EF ......................................................................................................................... 71
4.2. Comparison with Other Flotation Technologies ............................................................................. 76
4.3. Oxygen Evolution Electrodes ........................................................................................................... 76

ix

x

Contents
4..4 Typical Designs ................................................................................................................................. 77
4.5. Wastewaters Treated by EF .............................................................................................................. 80
5. Electro-oxidation ........................................................................................................................................ 80
5.1. Indirect EO Processes ....................................................................................................................... 82
5.2. Direct Anodic Oxidation .................................................................................................................. 82
5.3. Typical Designs ................................................................................................................................. 93
6. Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 93
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................... 95
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 95

3

Irradiation
Lawrence K. Wang, J. Paul Chen, and Robert C. Ziegler .......................... 107
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 107
1.1. Disinfection and Irradiation ........................................................................................................... 107
1.2. Pathogenic Organisms .................................................................................................................... 108
1.3. Pathogen Occurrence in the United States .................................................................................... 108
1.4. Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens ....................................................................................... 108
2. Pathogens and Thier Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 109
2.1. Viruses ............................................................................................................................................. 109
2.2. Bacteria ............................................................................................................................................ 110
2.3. Parasites ........................................................................................................................................... 110
2.4. Fungi ................................................................................................................................................ 112
3. Solid Substances Disinfection ................................................................................................................. 112

3.1. Long-Term Storage ......................................................................................................................... 112
3.2. Chemical Disinfection .................................................................................................................... 112
3.3. Low-Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection ................................................................ 113
3.4. High-Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection ............................................................... 114
3.5. Composting ..................................................................................................................................... 114
3.6. High-Energy Radiation ................................................................................................................... 115
4. Disinfection with Electron Irradiation .................................................................................................... 115
4.1. Electron Irradiation Systems and Process Description ................................................................. 115
4.2. Electron Irradiation Design Considerations .................................................................................. 117
4.3. Electron Irradiation Operational Considerations .......................................................................... 118
4.4. Electron Irradiation Performance ................................................................................................... 118
5. Disinfection with L-Irradiation ................................................................................................................ 119
5.1. L-Irradiation Systems and Process Description ............................................................................. 119
5.2. L-Irradiation Design Considerations .............................................................................................. 122
5.3. L-Irradiation Operational Considerations ...................................................................................... 124
6. X-Ray Facilities ........................................................................................................................................ 126
7. New Applications ..................................................................................................................................... 126
7.1. Food Disinfection by Irradiation .................................................................................................... 126
7.2. Hospital Waste Treatment by Irradiation ...................................................................................... 128
7.3. Mail Irradiation ............................................................................................................................... 130
8. Glossary .................................................................................................................................................... 131
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 132

4

Nonthermal Plasma Technology
Toshiaki Yamamoto and Masaaki Okubo .................................................... 135
1. Fundamental Characteristics of Nonthermal Plasma .............................................................................. 135
1.1. Definition and Characteristics of Plasma ...................................................................................... 135
1.2. Generation of Plasma ...................................................................................................................... 145

1.3. Analysis and Diagnosis of Nonthermal Plasma ............................................................................ 165
2. Environmental Improvement ................................................................................................................... 173
2.1. Electrostatic Precipitator ................................................................................................................ 173
2.2. Combustion Flue Gas Treatment from Power Plant ..................................................................... 183
2.3. Nonthermal Plasma Application for Detoxification ..................................................................... 196
2.4. Air Cleaner for Odor Control ......................................................................................................... 199


Contents

xi

2.5. Ozone Synthesis and Applications ................................................................................................. 206
2.6. Decomposition of Freon and VOC ................................................................................................ 212
2.7. Diesel Engine Exhaust Gas Treatment .......................................................................................... 215
2.8. Gas Concentration Using Nonthermal Plasma Desorption ........................................................... 239
2.9. Emission Gas Decomposition in Semiconductor Manufacturing Process ................................... 248
3. Surface Modification ................................................................................................................................ 256
3.1. RF Plasma CVD .............................................................................................................................. 256
3.2. Surface Modification for Substrate ................................................................................................ 257
3.3. Surface Modification for Glass ...................................................................................................... 261
3.4. Surface Modification for Polymer or Cloth ................................................................................... 266
3.5. Surface Modification for Metal ...................................................................................................... 271
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 277
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 280

5

Thermal Distillation and Electrodialysis Technologies for Desalination
J. Paul Chen, Lawrence K. Wang, and Lei Yang ........................................ 295

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 295
2. Thermal Distillation ................................................................................................................................. 301
2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 301
2.2 Working Mechanisms ..................................................................................................................... 302
2.3. Multistage Flash Distillation .......................................................................................................... 304
2.4. Multieffect Distillation ................................................................................................................... 304
2.5. Vapor Compression ........................................................................................................................ 307
2.6. Solar Desalination ........................................................................................................................... 307
2.7. Important Issues in Design (O&M) ............................................................................................... 311
3. Electrodialysis .......................................................................................................................................... 312
3.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 312
3.2. Mechanisms ..................................................................................................................................... 312
3.3. Important Issues in Design ............................................................................................................. 314
3.4. Electrodialysis Reversal ................................................................................................................. 317
3.5. Electrodeionization ......................................................................................................................... 319
4. Reverse Osmosis ...................................................................................................................................... 321
5. Energy ....................................................................................................................................................... 322
6. Environmental Aspect of Desalination ................................................................................................... 324
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 325
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 326

6

Reverse Osmosis Technology for Desalination
Edward S.K. Chian, J. Paul Chen, Ping-Xin Sheng,
Yen-Peng Ting, and Lawrence K. Wang .................................................. 329
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 329
2. Membrane Filtration Theory .................................................................................................................... 330
2.1. Osmosis and RO .............................................................................................................................. 330
2.2 Membranes ...................................................................................................................................... 332

2.3. Membrane Filtration Theory .......................................................................................................... 334
2.4. Concentration Polarization ............................................................................................................. 338
2.5. Compaction ..................................................................................................................................... 339
3. Membrane Modules and Plant Configuration ......................................................................................... 340
3.1. Membrane Modules ........................................................................................................................ 340
3.2. Plant Configuration of Membrane Modules .................................................................................. 343
4. Pretreatment and Cleaning of Membrane ................................................................................................ 346
4.1. Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling ............................................................................................... 346
4.2. Feed Pretreatment ........................................................................................................................... 349
4.3. Membrane Cleaning and Regeneration .......................................................................................... 354
5. Case Study ................................................................................................................................................ 359
5.1. Acidification and Scale Prevention for Pretreatment .................................................................... 359
5.2. Cartridge Filters for Prefiltration ................................................................................................... 359
5.3. Reverse Osmosis ............................................................................................................................. 359


xii

Contents
5.4 Neutralization and Posttreatment ................................................................................................... 361
5.5. Total Water Production Cost and Grand Total Costs ................................................................... 362
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 362
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 363

7

Emerging Biosorption, Adsorption, Ion Exchange,
and Membrane Technologies
J. Paul Chen, Lawrence K. Wang, Lei Yang, and Soh-Fong Lim.............. 367
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 367

2. Emerging Biosorption for Heavy Metals ................................................................................................ 367
2.1. Biosorption Chemistry .................................................................................................................... 368
2.2 Biosorption Process ........................................................................................................................ 369
2.3. Biosorption Mathematical Modeling ............................................................................................. 372
3. Magnetic Ion Exchange Process .............................................................................................................. 374
4. Liquid Membrane Process ....................................................................................................................... 377
4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 377
4.2. Mechanism ...................................................................................................................................... 377
4.3. Applications .................................................................................................................................... 378
5. Emerging Technologies for Arsenic Removal ........................................................................................ 380
5.1. Precipitation–Coagulation, Sedimentation, and Flotation ............................................................ 380
5.2. Electrocoagulation .......................................................................................................................... 381
5.3. Adsorption ....................................................................................................................................... 382
5.4. Ion Exchange ................................................................................................................................... 386
5.5. Membrane Filtration ....................................................................................................................... 386
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 387
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 387

8

Fine Pore Aeration of Water and Wastewater
Nazih K. Shammas ......................................................................................... 391
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 391
2. Description ................................................................................................................................................ 392
3. Types of Fine Pore Media ........................................................................................................................ 393
3.1. Ceramics .......................................................................................................................................... 394
3.2. Porous Plastics ................................................................................................................................ 395
3.3. Perforated Membranes .................................................................................................................... 396
4. Types of Fine Pore Diffusers ................................................................................................................... 398
4.1. Plate Diffusers ................................................................................................................................. 398

4.2. Tube Diffusers ................................................................................................................................. 400
4.3. Dome Diffusers ............................................................................................................................... 402
4.4. Disc Diffusers ................................................................................................................................. 403
5. Diffuser Layout ........................................................................................................................................ 407
5.1. Plate Diffusers ................................................................................................................................. 408
5.2. Tube Diffusers ................................................................................................................................. 409
5.3. Disc and Dome Diffusers ............................................................................................................... 410
6. Characteristics of Fine Pore Media ......................................................................................................... 411
6.1. Physical Description ....................................................................................................................... 411
6.2. Dimensions ...................................................................................................................................... 411
6.3. Weight and Specific Weight ........................................................................................................... 412
6.4. Permeability .................................................................................................................................... 412
6.5. Perforation Pattern .......................................................................................................................... 413
6.6. Strength ............................................................................................................................................ 413
6.7. Hardness .......................................................................................................................................... 414
6.8. Environmental Resistance .............................................................................................................. 414
6.9. Miscellaneous Physical Properties ................................................................................................. 415
6.10. Oxygen Transfer Efficiency ........................................................................................................... 415


Contents

xiii

6.11. Dynamic Wet Pressure ................................................................................................................... 416
6.12. Bubble Release Vacuum ................................................................................................................. 419
6.13. Uniformmity .................................................................................................................................... 420
7. Performance in Clean Water .................................................................................................................... 422
7.1. Steady-State DO Saturation Concentration (C ) ........................................................................... 423
7.2. Oxygen Transfer ............................................................................................................................. 424

8. Performance in Process Water ................................................................................................................. 432
8.1. Performance .................................................................................................................................... 432
8.2. Factors Affecting Performance ...................................................................................................... 439
8.3. Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 441
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 442
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 443

9

Emerging Flotation Technologies
Lawrence K. Wang ......................................................................................... 449
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Modern Flotation Technologies ............................................................................................................... 450
Groundwater Decontamination Using DAF ............................................................................................ 452
Textile Mills Effluent Treatment Using DAF ......................................................................................... 459
Petroleum Refinery Wastewater Treatment Using DAF ........................................................................ 459
Auto and Laundry Wasterwater Using DAF ........................................................................................... 460
Seafood Processing Wastewater Treatment Using DAF ........................................................................ 462
Storm Runoff Treatment Usng DAF ....................................................................................................... 464
Industrial Effluent Treatment by Biological Process Using DAF
for Secondary Flotation Clarification ................................................................................................... 465
9. Industrial Resource Recovery Using DAF for Primary Flotation Clarification ................................... 467

10. First American Flotation–Filtration Plant for Water Purification—Lenox
Water Treatment Plant, MA, USA ....................................................................................................... 469
11. Once the World’s Largest Potable Flotation–Filtration Plant—Pittsfield
Water Treatment Plant, MA, USA ....................................................................................................... 471
12. The Largest Potable Flotation–Filtration Plant in the Continent of North
America—Table Rock and North Saluda Water Treatment Plant, SC, USA .................................... 473
13. Emerging DAF Plants—AquaDAF™ ..................................................................................................... 474
14. Emerging Full-Scale Anaerobic Biological Flotation—Kassel, Germany ............................................ 476
15. Emerging Dissolved Gas Flotation and Sequencing Batch Reactor (DGF-SBR) ................................. 478
16. Application of Combined Primary Flotation Clarification and Secondary Flotation Clarification
for Treatment of Dairy Effluents—A UK Case History ..................................................................... 479
17. Recent DAF Developments ..................................................................................................................... 480
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 481

10

Endocrine Disruptors: Properties, Effects, and Removal Processes
Nazih K. Shammas ......................................................................................... 485
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 485
2. Endocrine System and Endocrine Disruptors ......................................................................................... 487
2.1. The Endocrine System .................................................................................................................... 487
2.2. Endocrine Disruptors ...................................................................................................................... 487
3. Descriptions of Specific EDCs ................................................................................................................ 488
3.1. Pesticide Residues ........................................................................................................................... 488
3.2. Highly Chlorinated Compounds ..................................................................................................... 491
3.3. Alkylphenols and Alkylphenol Ethoxylates .................................................................................. 494
3.4. Plastic Additives ............................................................................................................................. 495
4. Water Treatments for EDC Removal ...................................................................................................... 496
4.1. Granular Activated Carbon ............................................................................................................. 496
4.2. Powdered Activated Carbon ........................................................................................................... 498

4.3. Coagulation/Filtration ..................................................................................................................... 498
4.4. Lime Softening ................................................................................................................................ 498
5. Point-of-Use/Point-of-Entry Treatments ................................................................................................. 499
6. Water Treatment Techniques for Specific EDC Removal ..................................................................... 499
6.1. Methoxychlor .................................................................................................................................. 499


xiv

Contents
6.2. Endosulfan ....................................................................................................................................... 500
6.3. DDT ................................................................................................................................................. 500
6.4. Diethyl Phthalate ............................................................................................................................. 500
6.5. Di-(2ethylhexyl) Phthalate ............................................................................................................. 500
6.6. Polychlorinated Biphenyls ............................................................................................................. 500
6.7. Dioxin .............................................................................................................................................. 500
6.8. Alkylphenols and Alkylphenol Ethoxylates .................................................................................. 501
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 501
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 501

11

Filtration Systems for Small Communities
Yung-Tse Hung, Ruth Yu-Li Yeh, and Lawrence K. Wang ....................... 505
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 505
Operating Characteristics ......................................................................................................................... 505
SDWA Implementation ............................................................................................................................ 506
Filtration Treatment Technology Overview ........................................................................................... 506
Common Types of Water Filtration Processes for Small Communities ............................................... 507
5.1. Process Description ......................................................................................................................... 508
5.2. Operation and Maintenance Requirements .................................................................................... 512
5.3. Technology Limitations .................................................................................................................. 512
5.4. Financial Considerations ................................................................................................................ 513
6. Other Filtration Processes ........................................................................................................................ 514
6.1. Direct Filtration ............................................................................................................................... 514
6.2. Membrane Processes ....................................................................................................................... 514
6.3. Bag and Cartridge Type Filtration ................................................................................................. 516
6.4. Summary of Compliance Technologies for the SWTR ................................................................ 519
7. Case Studies of Small Water Systems ..................................................................................................... 519
7.1. Case Study of Westfir, OR ............................................................................................................. 519
7.2. Mockingbird Hill, Arkansas, Case Study ...................................................................................... 524
8. Intermittent Sand Filters for Wastewater Treatment .............................................................................. 527
8.1. Technology Applications ................................................................................................................ 527
8.2. Process Descriptions ....................................................................................................................... 527
8.3. Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Requirements ...................................................................... 529
8.4. Technology Limitations .................................................................................................................. 529
8.5. Financial Considerations ................................................................................................................ 529
8.6. Case Studies .................................................................................................................................... 530
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 539

12

Chemical Feeding System
Puangrat Kajitvichyanukul, Yung-Tse Hung,

and Jirapat Ananpattarachai .................................................................... 543
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 543
2. Chemicals Used in Water Treatment ....................................................................................................... 545
2.1. Aluminum Sulfate or Alum ............................................................................................................ 546
2.2. Ammonia ......................................................................................................................................... 546
2.3. Calcium Hydroxide and Calcium Oxide ........................................................................................ 546
2.4. Carbon Dioxide ............................................................................................................................... 546
2.5. Ferric Chloride ................................................................................................................................ 547
2.6. Ferric Sulfate ................................................................................................................................... 547
2.7. Ferrous Sulfate ................................................................................................................................ 547
2.8. Phosphate Compounds .................................................................................................................... 547
2.9. Polymers .......................................................................................................................................... 548
2.10. Potassium Permanganate ................................................................................................................ 548
2.11. Sodium Carbonate ........................................................................................................................... 548
2.12. Sodium Chlorite .............................................................................................................................. 549
2.13. Sodium Hydroxide .......................................................................................................................... 549
2.14. Sodium Hypochlorite ...................................................................................................................... 550


Contents

xv

2.15. Sulfuric Acid ................................................................................................................................... 550
3. Chemical Storage ...................................................................................................................................... 550
3.1. Storage of Powder Chemicals ........................................................................................................ 550
3.2. Storage of Liquid Chemicals .......................................................................................................... 555
3.3. Storage of Gaseous Chemicals ....................................................................................................... 555
3.4. Storage Facility Requirements ....................................................................................................... 557
4. Chemical Preparation of Solutions and Suspensions ............................................................................. 558

4.1. Preparation of Dilute Solutions from Concentrated Solutions ..................................................... 558
4.2. Preparation of Dilute Solutions from Solid Products ................................................................... 559
4.3. Preparation of Suspensions ............................................................................................................ 560
5. Chemical Feeding System ........................................................................................................................ 560
5.1. Dry Feeders ..................................................................................................................................... 561
5.2. Solution Feeders .............................................................................................................................. 566
5.3. Gas Feeders ..................................................................................................................................... 567
6. Design Examples ...................................................................................................................................... 567
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 572

13

Wet Air Oxidation for Waste Treatment
Linda Y. Zou, Yuncang Li, and Yung-Tse Hung ........................................ 575
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 575
1.1. Process Description ......................................................................................................................... 576
1.2. Mechanisms and Kinetics ............................................................................................................... 578
1.3. Design .............................................................................................................................................. 580
1.4. Issues and Considerations of Using Wet Air Oxidation ............................................................... 580
2. Catalytic WAO Processes ........................................................................................................................ 581
2.1. Process Description ......................................................................................................................... 581
2.2. Process Application and Limitation ............................................................................................... 582
2.3. Design Considerations .................................................................................................................... 586
3. Emerging Technologies in Advanced Oxidation .................................................................................... 587
3.1. Photocatalytic Oxidation (PCO) Process ....................................................................................... 587
3.2. Supercritical Water Oxidation ........................................................................................................ 592
4. Application Examples .............................................................................................................................. 598
4.1. Case 1: WAO of Refinery Spent Caustic: A Refinery Case Study .............................................. 598
4.2. Case 2: CWAO for the Treatment of H-Acid Manufacturing Process Wastewater .................... 601
4.3. Case 3: Photocatlytic Decolorization of Lanasol Blue CE Dye Solution

in Flat-Plate Reactor .................................................................................................................. 602
4.4. Case 4: Oxidation of Industrial Waste Waters in the Pipe Reactor (100) ................................... 604
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 605

14

Lime Calcination
Gupta Sudhir Kumar, Anushuya Ramakrishnan, and Yung-Tse Hung .... 611
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 611
2. The Chemical Reactions .......................................................................................................................... 612
2.1. Calcium Carbonate .......................................................................................................................... 612
2.2. Magnesium Carbonate .................................................................................................................... 612
2.3. Dolomite and Magnesian/Dolomitic Limestone ........................................................................... 613
3. Kinetics of Calcination ............................................................................................................................. 613
3.1. Stages of Calcinations .................................................................................................................... 613
3.2. Dissociation of High Calcium Limestone ...................................................................................... 614
3.3. Calorific Requirements for Dissociation of Calcium and Dolomitic Quick Lime ...................... 617
3.4. Dissociation of Magnesian/Dolomitic Limestones and Dolomite ............................................... 618
3.5. Sintering of High Calcium Quickllime .......................................................................................... 618
3.6. Sintering of Calcined Dolomite ..................................................................................................... 620
3.7. Steam Injection ............................................................................................................................... 621
3.8. Recarbonation ................................................................................................................................. 621
3.9. Calcination of Finely Divided Limestones .................................................................................... 622
4. Properties of Limestones and Their Calcines ......................................................................................... 622
5. Factors Affecting Lime Calcination ........................................................................................................ 623


xvi

Contents

5.1. Effect of Stone Size ........................................................................................................................ 623
5.2. Effect of Crystal Ion Spacing ......................................................................................................... 624
5.3. Effect of Salts .................................................................................................................................. 624
5.4. Influence of Stone Imurities ........................................................................................................... 624
5.5. Effect of Steam ................................................................................................................................ 625
5.6. Effect of Storage and Production ................................................................................................... 625
5.7. Effect of Calcination Temperature ................................................................................................. 626
6. Calcination of Industrial Solid Wastes .................................................................................................... 627
7. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Lime Calcination ................................................................................ 628
8. Solar Lime Calcination ............................................................................................................................ 628
9. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................... 631
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................................. 631
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 632

Appendix: Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers
Lawrence K. Wang ......................................................................................... 635
Index ................................................................................................................ 699


Contributors
JIRAPAT ANANPATTARACHAI, PhD CANDIDATE • Research Assistant, Department of Environmental Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi,
Bangkok, Thailand
GUAHUA CHEN, PhD • Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Hong
Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong, China
J. PAUL CHEN, PhD • Associate Professor, Division of Environmental Science and
Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
EDWARD S.K. CHAIN, PhD • Retired Professor, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA
YUNG-TSE HUNG, PhD, PE, DEE • Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

PUANGRAT KAJITVICHYANUKUL, PhD • Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental
Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand
GUPTA SUDHIR KUMAR, PhD • Professor, Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
YUNCANG LI, PhD • Research Fellow, School of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of
Science and Technology, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
SOH-FONG LIM, MEng • Research Scholar, Department of Chemical and Environmental
Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
MASAAKI OKUBO, PhD • Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan
ANUSHUYA RAMAKRISHNAN, MSc • Research Scholar, Centre for Environmental Science
and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
NAZIH K. SHAMMAS, PhD • Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant,
Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, Krofta
Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA
PING-XIN SHENG, PhD • Research Fellow, Division of Environmental Science and
Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
YEN-PENG TING, PhD • Associate Professor, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
LAWRENCE K. WANG, PhD, PE, DEE • Dean & Director (Retired), Lenox Institute of Water
Technology, Lenox, MA; Assistant to the President, Krofta Engineering Corporation,
Lenox, MA; Vice President, Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY
TOSHIAKI YAMAMOTO, PhD • Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Osaka
Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan
LEI YANG, PhD • Research Fellow, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore

xvii

xviii

Contributors

RUTH YU-LI YEH, PhD • Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ming Hsin
University of Science and Technology, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan
ROBERT C. ZIEGLER, PhD • Section Head (Retired),Environmental Systems Section,
Arvin-Calspan, Inc., Buffalo, NY
LINDA ZOU, PhD • Associate Professor, Institute of Sustainability and Innovation,
Werribe Campus, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia


1
Pressurized Ozonation
Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES
FORMATION AND GENERATION OF OZONE
REQUIREMENTS FOR OZONATION EQUIPMENT
PROPERTIES OF OZONE
DISINFECTION BY OZONE
OXIDATION BY OZONE
OXYGENATION AND OZONATION SYSTEMS
NOMENCLATURE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
Increasing population and improving standards of living are placing increasing burdens on water resources. The preservation of the limited natural water supplies and, in

the near future, the necessity for direct recycling of water in some parts of the world will
require improved technologies for the removal of contaminants from wastewater.
There are many contaminants in wastewater, which vary from time to time, and they
are not well characterized with respect to chemical species. Commonly, the level of
organic contamination is expressed by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), or total organic carbon (TOC). Ozone and oxygen are powerful oxidants, which can oxidize many contaminants in wastewater and sludge biosolids.
Ozone is more powerful than oxygen, but it must be generated at the point of use
because it is an unstable material.
For many years in European countries, ozone has been used for disinfecting drinking
water. It has also been used for treating some special industrial wastes, notably for
removing cyanides and phenols. Since 1980, ozone has been used for wastewater, industrial wastes, and sludge treatment on a large scale (1–6). Oxidative purification and

From: Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Volume 5: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies
Edited by: L. K. Wang, Y. -T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas © The Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ

1


2

Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas

disinfection with ozone as a tertiary wastewater treatment or sludge treatment has a
number of inherent advantages:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Reduction in BOD and COD.
Reduction of odor, color, turbidity, and surfactants.
Pathogenic organisms are destroyed.
The treatment products are beneficial.
The effluent water has a high dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration.

The relatively high cost of ozone generation requires a high ozone-utilization efficiency if ozone treatment is to be economically competitive. A principal disadvantage
to the use of ozone in waste treatment is its cost. However, recent advances in ozone
generation have rendered the ozonation process more competitive.
This chapter deals with two newly developed oxygenation–ozonation (Oxyozosynthesis®)
systems for wastewater and sludge treatment. Each treatment scheme consists of a wet
well for flow equalization and pH adjustment, a hyperbaric reactor for oxygenation and
ozonation, a flotation clarifier for degasification and solid–water separation, and a filter
belt press for final sludge dewatering. Special emphasis is placed on theory, kinetics, and
disinfection effect of ozonation and oxygenation (7–12).
1.1. Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System
As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, the new sludge management system consists of the following unit operations and processes: sludge production from clarifiers, flow equalization and pH adjustment in a wet well, oxygenation–ozonation in a hyperbaric reactor
vessel (Fig. 3), flotation, dewatering in a belt press, and resource recovery of final product as fuel or for land application.
A full-scale Oxyozosynthesis sludge management system was installed at the West
New York Sewage Treatment Plant (WNYSTP), West New York, NJ. The plant treats
domestic wastewater flow of 10 MGD and produces 22,000 gpd of primary sludge.
Primary raw sludge is pumped from sumps located at the bottom of the primary sedimentation clarifiers by means of two positive-displacement pumps to a sludge grinder,
then to the wet well. As the wet well is being filled with ground sludge, a chemical metering pump is used to add a 10% sulfuric acid solution to adjust the pH value to between
3.5 and 4.0. A mechanical mixer and a pH meter are mounted in the wet well for proper
mixing and pH monitoring, respectively. Following acidification, the sludge is pumped
by a progressive cavity pump to one of the two batch-operated hyperbaric reactor vessels, each capable of treating 1500 gal of sludge in 90 min by oxygenation and ozonation. To start each reactor vessel, the pressure in the reactor is increased to 40 psig with
liquid oxygen first and then up to 60 psig with ozone. There are two operational modes:
a. Continuous oxygenation–ozonation. After the startup with oxygen and ozone, ozone is
continuously fed into the reactor for a total of 90 min. The pressure is maintained at 60 psig
by bleeding off (or recycling) the excess gas.

b. Noncontinuous oxygenation–ozonation. After the startup with oxygen and ozone, ozone
is then shut off, to isolate the reactor and maintain the conditions for 90 min.

During the first 90 min contact time in the oxygenation–ozonation reactor,
pathogenic bacteria, viruses, total suspended solids, and volatile suspended solids in the


Pressurized Ozonation

3

Fig. 1. General view of oxygenation–ozonation (Oxyozosynthesis™) system.

sludge are all significantly reduced. The reactor effluent is then released (at a flow rate
of about 1500 gal/90 min) into an open flotation unit where DO, ozone, and carbon
dioxide gases are released out of the solution to form tiny bubbles, which adhere to the
residual suspended solids causing them to float and thickened at the top of the unit. The
flotation unit is equipped with revolving paddles (or scoops) that transport these floating solids onto a filter belt press for sludge dewatering. The subnatant liquor is recycled


4
Fig. 2. Flow diagram of Oxyozosynthesis sludge management system.


Pressurized Ozonation

5

Fig. 3. The hyperbaric reactor vessel.

to the head of the sewage treatment plant for further treatment with the incoming
wastewater flow.
The filter belt press produces a dry high-nutrient sludge cake with low metal content
and high BTU value. The sludge cake can be recycled by spreading on agricultural land,
reused as a fuel source, or disposed off in a landfill. The dry sludge can also be reused
as secondary fiber in paper manufacturing or as raw material for building blocks.
1.2. Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System
As shown in Fig. 4, the new wastewater reclamation system consists of the following
unit operations and processes: wastewater collection and preliminary treatment (bar
screens and grit chambers), flow equalization and pH adjustment in a wet well, oxygenation–ozonation in a hyperbaric reactor vessel, dissolved gas flotation (DGF), and
filtration.
A pilot-scale Oxyozosynthesis wastewater reclamation system was installed at the
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA. The pilot plant treats a wastewater
flow of 6 gpm and produces small amount of sludge. Raw wastewater is pumped from
sumps located at the bottom of the grit chambers by means of positive-displacement
pumps to a wet well. As the wet well is being filled with the raw wastewater, a chemical metering pump is used to add a 10% sulfuric acid solution to adjust the pH value to
between 3.5 and 4.0 by a chemical metering pump. A mechanical mixer and a pH meter
are mounted in the wet well for proper mixing and pH monitoring, respectively.
From the wet well, a progressive cavity pump delivers the acidified wastewater to a
batch-operated hyperbaric reactor vessel capable of treating 100 gal of wastewater in


6
Fig. 4. Flow diagram of Oxyozosynthesis wastewater reclamation system.


Pressurized Ozonation

7

30–60 min depending on the characteristics of the wastewater. To start the reactor
vessel, the pressure in the reactor is increased to 40 psig with liquid oxygen first, and
then to 60 psig with ozone. There are two operational modes:
a. Continuous oxygenation–ozonation. After the startup with oxygen and ozone, ozone is
continuously fed into the reactor for a total of 30–60 min. The pressure is maintained at
60 psig by bleeding off (or recycling) the excess gas.
b. Noncontinuous oxygenation–ozonation. After the startup with oxygen and ozone, ozone
is then shut off, to isolate the reactor and maintain the conditions for 30–60 min.

During the first 30–60 min contact time in the oxygenation–ozonation reactor,
pathogenic bacteria, viruses, total suspended and volatile suspended solids, phenols,
cyanides, manganese, and so on, in wastewater are all significantly reduced. The reactor effluent is released into a DGF unit, where flocculant(s) can be added and the dissolved gases come out of aqueous phase forming tiny bubbles, which adhere to the flocs
and residual suspended solids causing them to float to the top of the unit. Heavy metals,
iron, phosphate, humic acids, hardness, toxic volatile organics, and so on, will all react
with the flocculant(s) to form insoluble flocs that are floated. The flotation unit is
equipped with revolving paddles (or scoops) that transport these floating solids onto a
subsequent filter belt press for final sludge dewatering. A dual-media filter further
polishes the subnatant clarified water.
The filter effluent quality is close to that of potable water, having extremely low
color, turbidity, suspended solids, hardness, iron, manganese, trihalomethane precursor
(humic acid), heavy metal, volatile organics, phenol, cyanide, and so on. The product
water is suitable for reuse for industrial and agricultural purposes. Further treatment of
the final filter effluent by adsorption on activated carbon is optional.
2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES
2.1. Ozonation and Oxygenation Process
Ozone gas is sparingly soluble in water. The solubility of ozone in water increases
with its increasing partial pressure, decreasing water pH, and decreasing temperature.
However, oxidation rate increases with increasing temperature. For economic operation
of the hyperbaric oxygenation–ozonation reactor, it is operated at room temperature and
a pressure in the range of 40–60 psig, the influent liquid sludge pH is reduced with sulfuric acid to a value in the 3.5–4.0 range.

The addition of oxygen at 40 psig and ozone at 60 psig ensure proper partial pressures for solubilizing both oxygen and ozone gases in the sludge. Both DO and ozone
act to oxidize chemically the reducing pollutants found in the liquid sludge, thus
decreasing BOD and COD, which results in the formation of oxygenated organic intermediates and end products. Ozonation–oxygenation treatment also reduces color and
odor in waste sludge.
Because there is a wide range of ozone reactivity with the diverse organic content of
wastewater, both the required ozone dose and reaction time are dependent on the quality
of the influent to the ozonation process. Generally, higher doses and longer contact times
are required for ozone oxidation reactions than are required for wastewater disinfection
using ozone. Ozone tertiary treatment may eliminate the need for a final disinfection


8

Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas

Table 1
Effectiveness of Ozone as an Oxidant
Ozone dosage
(mg/L)
50
100
200
325
50
100
200

COD (mg/L)

BOD5 (mg/L)

TOC (mg/L)

Influent

Effluent

Influent

Effluent

Influent

Effluent

318
318
318
318
45
45
45

262
245
200
159
27
11
5.5

142
142
142
142
13
13
13

110
100
95
60
7
3
1.5

93
93
93
93
20.5
20.5
20.5

80
77
80
50
15.5

9
5

Source: US EPA.

step. Ozone breaks down to elemental oxygen in a relatively short period of time (its
half-life is about 20 min). Consequently, it must be generated on-site using either air or
oxygen as the feed gas. Ozone generation utilizes a silent electric arc or corona through
which air or oxygen passes, and yields ozone in the air/oxygen mixture, the percentage
of ozone being a function of voltage, frequency, gas flow rate, and moisture. Automatic
devices are commonly applied to control and adjust the ozone generation rate.
For sludge treatment or wastewater reclamation, it is a developing technology.
Recent developments and cost reduction in ozone generation and ozone dissolution
technology make the process very competitive. A full-scale application is currently in
the demonstration stage at the WNYSTP, West New York, NJ. If oxygen-activated
sludge is employed in the system, ozone treatment may be even more economically
attractive, because a source of pure oxygen is available facilitating ozone production.
For poor-quality wastewater or sludge with extremely high COD, BOD, and/or TOC
contents (>300 mg/L), ozone treatment can be economical only if there is adequate pretreatment. The process will not produce any halogenated hydrocarbons. Table 1 shows the
reduction of overall COD, BOD, and TOC, achieved in the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) controlled tests after a 90 min contact time with ozone oxidation. Beyond
the 70% COD removal level, the oxidation rate is significantly slowed. In laboratory tests,
COD removal never reaches 100% even at a high ozone dose of 300 mg/L.
As a disinfectant with common dosages of 3–10 mg/L, ozone is an effective agent for
deactivating common forms of bacteria, bacterial spores, and vegetative microorganisms found in wastewater, as well as eliminating harmful viruses. Additionally, ozone
acts to chemically oxidize materials found in the wastewater and sludge, forming oxygenated organic intermediates and end products. Furthermore, ozone treatment reduces
wastewater color and odor. Ozone disinfection is applicable in cases, where chlorine
(Cl2) disinfection might produce potentially harmful chlorinated organic compounds. If
oxygen-activated sludge is employed in the system, ozone disinfection is economically
attractive, because a source of pure oxygen is available for facilitating ozone production. However, ozone disinfection does not form a residual that will persist and can be

easily measured to ensure adequate dosage. Ozonation may not be economically competitive with chlorination under nonrestrictive local conditions.


Pressurized Ozonation

9

Table 2
Effectiveness of Ozone as a Disinfectant
Source

Influent

US EPA

Secondary
effluent
Secondary
effluent
Secondary
effluent
Drinking water
Primary sludge

US EPA
US EPA
US EPA
WNYSTP
SIT/LI

Secondary
sludge

Dose
(mg/L)

Contact
time (min)

5.5–6

≤1

10

3

1.75–3.5

13.5

4
NA

8
60

NA

60

Effluent
residual
<2 fecal coliforms/100 mL
99% inactivation
of fecal coliform
<200 fecal coliforms/
100 mL
Sterilization of virus
>99% inactivation
of fecal coliform
>99% inactivation
of fecal coliform

Source: US EPA.

Easily oxidizable wastewater organic materials consume ozone at a faster rate than
disinfection, therefore, the effectiveness of disinfection is inversely correlated with
effluent quality but directly proportional to ozone dosage. When sufficient concentration is introduced, ozone is a more complete disinfectant than chlorine. Results of disinfection by ozonation have been reported by various sources, which are summarized in
Table 2.
2.2. Flotation Process
DGF is mainly used to remove suspended and colloidal solids by flotation resulting
from the decrease in their apparent density. The influent feed liquid can be raw water,
wastewater, or liquid sludge. The flotation system consists of four major components: gas
supply, pressurizing pump, retention tank, and flotation chamber. According to Henry’s
Law, the solubility of gas in aqueous solution increases with increasing pressure. A pressurizing pump is used to saturate the feed stream with gas at pressures several times the
atmospheric pressure (25–70 psig). The pressurized feed stream is held at this high pressure for about 0.5–3 min in a retention tank (hyperbaric vessel) designed to provide the
required time for dissolution of gas into the treatment stream. Following the retention vessel, the stream is released back to atmospheric pressure in the flotation chamber. Most of
the pressure drop occurs downstream from a pressure-reducing valve and in the transfer
line between the retention vessel and the flotation chamber, so that the turbulent effect of

depressurization is minimized. The sudden reduction in pressure in the flotation chamber
results in the release of microscopic gas bubbles (average diameter 80 μm or smaller) that
attach themselves to the suspended and colloidal particles present in water. This results in
an agglomeration, due to entrained gas giving a net combined specific gravity less than
that of water thereby resulting in flotation. The vertical rising rate of gas bubbles ranges
between 0.5 and 2 ft/min. The floated materials rise to the surface of the flotation chamber, where they are continuously scooped by specially designed flight scrapers or other
skimming devices. The surface sludge layer or float can in certain cases attain a thickness