Psychology applied to modern life adjustment in the 21st century, 11e chapter 8

Chapter 8
Interpersonal Communication


Interpersonal Communication

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Interpersonal communication is “an interactional process in which one
person sends a message to another.”

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It involves at least two people.
It is a process involving a series of actions.
It is not “one-way”, but bi-directional.


Interpersonal Communication, continued

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Components of the communication process

1. The sender – “person who initiates the message”.
2. The receiver – “person to whom the message is targeted”.
3. The message – “the information or meaning that is transmitted from the sender
to the receiver”.

Interpersonal Communication, continued

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Components, continued

4. The channel – “refers to the sensory channel through which the message
reaches the receiver”.

5. The noise – “any stimulus that interferes with accurately expressing or
understanding a message”.

6. The context – “environment in which communication takes place”.


Technology and Interpersonal Communication

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Electronically mediated communication “is interpersonal communication that takes
places via technology”.

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Although technology offers convenience, there are some disadvantages:

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Overlap between work and home.
Intrusion of private conversations into public spaces.
Absence of non-verbal cues that convey meaning in face-to-face interactions.


Communication and Adjustment

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Effective communication is essential for many important aspects of life.
Good communication enhances satisfaction in relationships.
Poor communication is a major cause of relationship break-ups.


Nonverbal Communication, continued

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Nonverbal communication – “is the transmission of meaning from one person to
another through means or symbols other than words”.

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A great deal of information is conveyed in this manner, so it is important to
recognize the general principles of nonverbal communication.

Nonverbal Communication, continued

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General principles of nonverbal communication

1. It conveys emotions: facial expressions and body posture can convey how we
feel without words.

2. It is multichanneled: we use facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, vocal
tone, and body language.

3. It is ambiguous: body language can be difficult to interpret.


Nonverbal Communication, continued

General principles, continued

4. It may contradict verbal messages: we may say one thing, but our body
conveys something different.

5. It is culture-bound: nonverbal signals vary from one culture to another.


Elements of Nonverbal Communication

1. Personal space

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Proxemics - “the study of personal space”.
Personal space – “a zone of space surrounding a person that is felt to ‘belong’ to
that person”.

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Preference for amount of personal space depends on

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Culture (see Figure 8.4).
Status of the individuals involved.
How well you know the person.


Figure 8.4. Interpersonal distance zones. According to Edward Hall (1996), people like to keep a certain amount of distance between themselves and others. The distance that
makes one feel comfortable depends on with whom one is interacting and the nature of the situation.


Elements, continued

2. Facial expression
• Facial expressions convey basic emotions, recognized by people around the
world.

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However, there are culture-specific norms, called display rules, that govern the
expression of emotion.

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There are also gender differences in expression of emotion, with most males
showing less expression than do females.


Elements, continued

3. Eye contact

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Duration of eye contact is the most meaningful aspect of this channel of
nonverbal communication.

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Among European Americans, high levels of eye contact are associated with
effective social skills and credibility.

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However, eye contact is judged as offensive by other cultures (e.g., Native
American tribes).

Elements, continued
Eye contact, continued

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Eye contact also conveys intensity of feelings.

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In a positive context (e.g., romantic partners), long gazes signal loving
feelings, but

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In a negative context (e.g., road rage), long gazes are interpreted as stares,
and they make people uncomfortable.

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Finally, eye contact is affected by status and gender (see Figure 8.6).


Figure 8.6. Visual dominance, status, and gender. Women typically show low visual dominance (see control condition) because they are usually accorded lower status than men
(Dovidio, et al. 1988). However, when researchers placed women in a high-power position and measured their visual behavior, women showed the high visual dominance pattern, and
men showed the low visual dominance pattern. When men were placed in the high-power position, the visual dominance patterns reversed. Thus, visual dominance seems to be more a
function of status than of gender.


Elements, continued

4. Body language

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Kinesics – “the study of communication through body movements”.

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An “open” posture (e.g., arms uncrossed and down at sides) conveys a
relaxed state.

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A “closed” posture (arms crossed) conveys defensiveness or tension.
Finally, hand gestures emphasize the words we speak.


Elements, continued

5. Touch

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Where and whom we touch conveys a variety of meanings, especially status
and power.

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There are strong norms that govern where we touch friends.
Female-female pairs touch more often than do male-male pairs.
Cross-gender touch is interpreted as support by females, but as power or
sexual interest by males.


Elements, continued

6. Paralanguage

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Paralanguage – “includes all vocal cues other than the content of the verbal
message itself”.

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Variations in vocal emphasis can give different meanings to the same
words.

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Variations in speech also convey emotions (e.g., rapid speech indicates
anxiety or excitement).


Elements, continued
Detecting deception

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Nonverbal cues that actually indicate deception are often different from those most people believe
indicate deception (see Figure 8.9).

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For example:

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Liars often say less, not more.
Liars are not necessarily good “storytellers” and include less unusual content in stories.
Liars are more tense and make a more negative impression on the listener.


Figure 8.9. Detecting deception from nonverbal behaviors. This chart summarizes evidence on which nonverbal cues are actually associated with deception and which are believed
to be a sign of deception, based on a research review by DePaulo, Stone, and Lassiter (1985).


The Significance of Nonverbal Communication

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Nonverbal sensitivity – “the ability to accurately encode (express) and decode
(understand) nonverbal cues”.

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Woman tend to be better encoders and decoders.
However, this may stem from higher motivation.
Thus, anyone can improve their nonverbal skills.


More Effective Communication, continued

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Conversation skills: five steps for making successful “small talk”

1. Indicate you are open to conversation by commenting on your surroundings.
2. Introduce yourself.
3. Select a topic others can relate to.
4. Keep the conversation ball rolling.
5. Make a smooth exit.


More Effective Communication, continued

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Self-disclosure – “the act of sharing information about yourself with another person” is
important to adjustment for several reasons.

1. Sharing problems with others plays a key role in mental health.
2. Emotional self-disclosures lead to feelings of closeness.

3. Self-disclosure in romantic relationships is associated with relationship satisfaction.


More Effective Communication, continued
Self-disclosure, continued

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Reducing the risks of self disclosure

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Disclose information to others gradually.
Don’t disclose more than the other is willing to disclose.
Watch for nonverbal “stop” cues from others.
Be aware of risks associated with electronic disclosures.


More Effective Communication, continued
Self-disclosure, continued

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Self-disclosure and relationship development

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Self-disclosure varies over the course of relationships.

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At the beginning, there are high levels of mutual self-disclosure, which
taper off as the relationship becomes established.

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In established relationships, disclosures are not necessarily reciprocated.