Psychology applied to modern life adjustment in the 21st century, 11e chapter 12

Chapter 12
Development and Expression
of Human Sexuality


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

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Key aspects of sexual identity

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Sexual identity – refers to “the complex personal qualities, selfperceptions, attitudes, values and preferences that guide one’s sexual
behavior”.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Key aspects of sexual identity, continued

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Sexual identity includes four key features.

1. Sexual orientation

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Heterosexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members
of the other gender”.

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Homosexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members
of same gender”.

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Bisexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of
both genders”.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Key aspects of sexual identity, continued
Sexual identity’s four key features, continued

2. Body image
3. Sexual values and ethics
4. Erotic preferences


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

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Physiological influences

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Hormones and sexual differentiation

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During pregnancy, levels of androgens (the male hormone,
testosterone) cause differentiation of the genitals in the fetus.

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High levels result in male genitals, and low levels result in
female genitals.

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At puberty, hormones (estrogens in females, androgens in males)
trigger maturation of sexual traits and organs.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Physiological influences, continued

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Hormones and sexual behavior

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Hormone levels affect sex drive in many animals.
In humans, for both men and women, androgens affect sexual
motivation.

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Higher levels of testosterone in women are also linked with higher
rates of sexual activity.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Psychosocial influences

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Families

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Parents who punish innocent sexual exploration can socialize
children who associate guilt and shame with sex.

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Children benefit from having positive and open conversations about
sex with their parents. They have sex at a later age, less often, and
have fewer partners.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Psychosocial influences, continued

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Peers

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Peers are often the primary source of information for teens regarding
sex.

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Unfortunately, they can be a highly misleading source of information
and often promote unhealthy sexual values.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Psychosocial influences, continued

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Schools

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90% of schools offer some form of sex education.
Most offer “abstinence only” education, which does not seem to deter
teens from having sex.

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In contrast, comprehensive programs are associated with increased

use of contraception, reduced pregnancies, and reduced high-risk
behaviors.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Psychosocial influences, continued

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Religion

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Religious teachings can dictate what is seen as sexually “natural”.
Data from three national surveys show the main message teens get
is “Don’t have sex until marriage”.

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Data also show that “virginity pledges” are largely ineffective.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Psychosocial influences, continued

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The media

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TV, films, books, magazines, and the Internet are all media sources that
contain a large volume of sexual material – some extremely explicit.

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Among 10- to 17-yr-olds, 25% were subjected to unwanted pornography.
However, some sources do provide valuable information on sexual topics.
Thus, it is crucial to be highly selective in what one views.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

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Gender differences in sexual socialization

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Five key differences

1. Men have more interest in sex.
2. The connection between sex and intimacy is more important for women.
3. Aggression is more often linked to sexuality for men.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Gender differences in sexual socialization, continued

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Five key differences, continued

4.

Women’s sexuality is more easily shaped by culture and situational
factors.

5.

Men more often take the lead, while women act as “gate keepers”.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Gender differences, continued

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Socialization may affect these differences by

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Encouraging males to experiment sexually, to initiate sex, and to enjoy sex
without emotional connection.

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Teaching girls to view sex in the context of a loving relationship.
Emphasizing negative associations girls have with sex: pain; guilt and shame;
fear of pregnancy.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

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Sexual orientation

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Key considerations

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Most people view heterosexuality and homosexuality as two distinct
categories.

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However, it is more accurate to view them as endpoints on a sevenpoint scale (see Figure 12.4).

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Approximately 5-8% of the population reports being homosexual.


Figure 12.4. Heterosexuality and homosexuality as endpoints on a continuum. Kinsey and other sex researchers view heterosexuality and homosexuality as ends of a continuum

rather than as all-or-none distinctions. Kinsey created this seven-point scale (from 0 to 6) for describing sexual orientation.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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Origins

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Freud attributed homosexuality to an unresolved Oedipus complex in
which the child identifies with the parent of the opposite gender.

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Sociologists suggest it is caused by poor relationships with same-gender
peers or from childhood labels of “homosexual”.

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There is little support for any of these views.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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Origins, continued

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There is also no evidence that sexual orientation is affected by the
orientation of a child’s parents.

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Many gay men and women trace homosexual leanings to early childhood.
Thus, many theorists propose that sexual orientation is more likely
caused by biological factors.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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Origins, continued

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One prominent biological explanation attributes homosexuality to prenatal
exposure to sex hormones that alter the organization of the fetal brain.

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Genetic factors are also potential contributors and are supported, in part,

by twin studies (see Figure 12.5).

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However, the fact is, it is still largely unknown which factors
determine sexual orientation.


Figure 12.5 Genetics and sexual orientation. A concordance rate indicates the percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives that exhibit the same characteristic. If relatives who
share more genetic relatedness show higher concordance rates than relatives who share less genetic overlap, this evidence suggests a genetic predisposition to the characteristic.
Recent studies of both gay men and lesbian women have found higher concordance rates among identical twins than fraternal twins, who, in turn, exhibit more concordance than
adoptive siblings. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that genetic factors influence sexual orientation. If only genetic factors were responsible for sexual orientation, the
identical twin concordance rates would push 100%; because they are much lower, environmental factors must also play a role. (Data from Bailey & Pillard, 1991; Bailey et al., 1993)


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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Attitudes toward homosexuality

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Although much of the public is opposed to legalizing gay marriage, most
are more accepting of other aspects of homosexuality (see Figure 12.6).

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However, some people do display homophobia, or “the intense fear and

intolerance of homosexuals”.


Figure 12.6 Attitudes toward homosexuals. Americans’ attitudes toward gays are highly variable, depending on the specific issue. Women generally have more accepting attitudes
than men.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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This type of sexual prejudice is associated with

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Being older.
Being male.
Lower education level.
Living in the South or Midwest, and in rural areas.
Having conservative religious and political beliefs.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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Disclosing one’s sexual orientation

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Sexual identify development involves acknowledging, recognizing, and
labeling one’s sexual orientation.

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One must also conceptualize it in positive terms.
Recent generations are becoming aware of and are disclosing gay,
lesbian, and bisexual identities earlier in life.


Becoming a Sexual Person, continued
Sexual orientation, continued

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In deciding to disclose, one must weigh the psychological benefits.

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Being honest.

Social support.

Against the potential costs.

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Losing friends.
Being fired.
Falling victim to hate crimes.
Losing custody of children.