Thinking and study skills grade 11

Thinking and Study Skills
Grade 11

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Grateful acknowledgment is given to authors, publishers, and agents for permission to reprint
the following copyrighted material. Every effort has been made to determine copyright owners.
In the case of any omissions, the Publisher will be pleased to make suitable acknowledgments in
future editions.
p. 8 From “A Camp for Space Science” by Peter Cobun. Science year-1991. The World Book
Annual Science Supplement. © 1991 World Book, Inc. By permission of the publisher.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission is granted to
reproduce the material contained herein on the condition that such materials be reproduced only for
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Thinking and Study Skills
Defining Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Setting Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Observing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Formulating Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Using Prior Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Using a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Using Reference Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Taking Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Outlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Classifying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Using Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Identifying Attributes and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Using Organizational Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Using Metaphorical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Identifying Main Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Identifying Logical Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Inferring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Predicting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Elaborating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Restructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Drawing Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Establishing, Verifying, and Assessing Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Using Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Solving Problems I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Solving Problems II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Making Decisions I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Making Decisions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Using Creative Thinking I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Using Creative Thinking II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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Thinking and Study Skills
Taking Notes While Listening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Managing Study Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Studying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Learning from Graphics I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Learning from Graphics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Taking Tests I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Taking Tests II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

1

Defining Problems
You face problems every day. Some problems are simple, or easily defined. You can work on them
immediately and usually solve them fairly easily. For example, math problems are well defined:
you know that if you follow a predetermined sequence of steps properly, you will solve the math
problems correctly. Likewise, many daily chores are well defined: you know exactly what to do
when it’s time to clean your room.
Many problems are not well defined, though. When you are faced with an undefined problem, you
must define it more clearly before you can even evaluate possible solutions. For example, suppose
you had to cancel a meeting with your friend Jennie one day last week because you suddenly had
to look after your younger brother that afternoon. Since then, Jennie has seemed to avoid you.
This is certainly a problem but not a very well-defined one. You know that Jennie seems angry,
but you’re not immediately sure why or what you can do to help her. Trying to define your
problem can help you to determine what course of action you should follow.
Does the problem involve
• only you or other people as well?
• timing or scheduling?
• object(s)?
• process(es)?
• any other limitation(s)?

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Here are three different ways you might define your problem. If Jennie is angry with me, how
can I apologize and repair our friendship? If Jennie is angry about something else, how can I
get her to discuss it so she’ll feel better? No matter what’s made her angry, how can I let Jennie
know I’m ready to help her?
Each definition suggests a different possible solution. The first definition might lead you to
explain to Jennie what happened the afternoon you canceled the plans. Using the second definition, you might try to remember any setbacks Jennie experienced lately. Using the third definition, you might decide to send Jennie a note expressing your hope for a continued, strong
friendship.
You should examine as many definitions as possible when working on a problem. It’s also

important to think about whether your definition is too loose or too tightly focused. A good
definition will help you think of promising solutions and will not limit your approach to your
problem.
■ Activity

On a separate sheet of paper, write a sentence or two defining the problem in each situation,
and explain how that definition might lead to one or more successful solutions.
1. Last week you were promoted to assistant manager at work, and your new responsibilities
include working longer hours. This afternoon your track coach announces that practices
will be one half-hour longer until the team’s performance improves, and the practice
schedule overlaps your scheduled work hours.
2. Neither you nor your brother seems to have enough time to shower in the morning, and
one of you is always late for school.
3. Your neighbors leave their dog outside all night, and the dog wakes you up at five o’clock
every morning when he barks to be let in.
Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

2

Setting Goals
When you are faced with a large project or task, you can sometimes feel overwhelmed by the
amount of work you have to do. If you work on your project without a clear plan, you might
find yourself floundering because of a lack of focus. Setting goals for any project can help you
work more efficiently and reliably toward completion. Here’s an example of setting a goal you

could apply to anything you wish to achieve.
State a clear, concrete goal in writing. For example, suppose you hope to get an A on your

French midterm exam. After defining this goal clearly, you would write this sentence into your
learning log or your French notebook.
Identify any external limitations that will make further efforts useless. For example, the
French midterm is next Friday; so you have to be prepared by then.
Understand the scope of the task to be accomplished. For example, make sure that you

know what topics will be covered in the exam.
Break the task down into smaller, short-term goals. For example, the test will cover vocab-

ulary words, irregular verb conjugations, and adjective formations, all of which you must learn
by next Friday.
Establish time limits or a schedule for achieving your short-term goals. For example, you

could plan to study the vocabulary words the previous Friday, the irregular verbs on Sunday,
and the adjective formations on Tuesday.
Periodically assess your progress to be sure you are actually achieving your goals. For exam-

ple, you could administer self-tests on each topic or item the day after you study it, and review
everything the day before the exam. Periodic reviews will let you make sure you have learned
everything adequately or show you what you still need to study.
You may wish to copy these six steps for setting goals into your learning log. Follow these six
steps in order whenever you set goals for yourself.

Select a personal or school-related goal and, on the lines below, describe the procedure you
would follow to achieve it.
1. Name your goal. ________________________________________________________________
2. List any time or similar limits. _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
3. State the scope of your task. _______________________________________________________
4. Name your short-term goals. ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
5. Tell when you’ll complete each short-term goal.________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe how you’ll monitor your progress toward short-term goals. _______________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

■ Activity


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

3

Observing
Observing is a key component of good writing. Read any good piece of writing, and you will
find that the observed details about people, places, and situations that the writer added to the

basic facts of the story are what brings it to life, what makes it stand out in your mind.
Becoming a skilled observer is one step toward becoming a good writer.
Stephen Crane’s description of the sea, below, is based on precise, detailed observations. The
description relies primarily on the sense of sight, but it is so vivid that the reader can almost
feel the seesaw motion as the boat rides the waves and hear the roar of the ocean and even the
water sloshing in the bottom of the little boat.
Literature Model
None of them knew the color of the sky. Their eyes glanced level, and were fastened upon the
waves that swept toward them. These waves were of the hue of slate, save for the tops, which
were of foaming white, and all of the men knew the colors of the sea. The horizon narrowed and
widened, and dipped and rose, and at all times its edge was jagged with waves that seemed thrust
up in points like rocks.
Many a man ought to have a bathtub larger than the boat which here rode upon the sea. These
waves were most wrongfully and barbarously abrupt and tall, and each froth top was a problem in
small-boat navigation.
The cook squatted in the bottom, and looked with both eyes at the six inches of gunwhale which
separated him from the ocean. His sleeves were rolled over his fat forearms, and the two flaps of
his unbuttoned vest dangled as he bent to bail out the boat.
Stephen Crane, “The Open Boat”

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Observing is more than just seeing. Try to use all your senses when you observe an object or
scene: see it, touch it, taste it (if you can), smell it, and listen to it.
Also, remember that observation is an active skill, not a passive skill. Observation is not just
watching, not just listening or touching. Observation is more than simply being present and
noticing what’s going on. Observing well often means being aware of yourself and your reactions as you interact with an object, situation, or person. Sometimes, trying to “look over your
own shoulder,” or imagining yourself to be someone else with a different viewpoint, will help
you hone your observation skills.
■ Activities

A. Pick a crowded place at your school, such as the cafeteria during lunchtime or a hall
between classes. Observe the place and scene carefully. On a separate sheet of paper or in
your notebook, jot down the location, time, and any other similar specifics. Now note as
many sensory details of the scene as you can, using as many senses as you can. When you
feel you have captured the scene, review your list of details and write the first paragraph or
two of a short story set in the location you observed.
B. Describe, in a paragraph or two, a meal at your home for a pen pal who has never met you
or your family. Try to make your description and any action you include as detailed and
vivid as possible.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

4

Formulating Questions
Formulating questions helps you clarify issues and explore topics. Asking the right questions in
the right way can help you discover the most important points of an issue and lead you to new
information and new ideas. If you don’t understand a particular point or a concept, formulating and asking questions about it can help you to obtain the information you need.
There are four types of questions you can formulate: personal, creative, analytical, and informational. You will find that you can usually apply more than one type of question to a particular problem, and you will frequently be able to apply all the types of questions to a problem.
You can use the following types of questions when you begin to study a new topic or as a tool
for further study of a topic.
Personal questions can help you decide what’s important to you:
Do I want to take the job at the pizza parlor or the job at the grocery store?
Creative questions help you to think about things differently:

What do I think working at the pizza parlor or at the grocery store
will be like?
Analytical questions help you to find out how things work or
what things do: Will I learn more skills that are interesting to me at
one job rather than at the other?
Informational questions beginning with who, what, where,
when, and why help you to see whether any information is missing: Will I be able to take every other weekend off at one job or at
the other?

■ Activity

1. You need to write a research paper about imperialism, and you haven’t yet thought of a
thesis statement.
2. Your mother is working on a family-history project, and she has asked you to contribute a
short autobiography.
3. You would like to rearrange the furniture in your bedroom so you have more floor space
and a better layout.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Decide which types of questions to use for each of the following situations. On a separate sheet
of paper, write five questions you would ask for each situation. With a partner discuss whether
you have asked the most appropriate questions.


Thinking and Study Skills

Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

5

Using Prior Knowledge
When you use prior knowledge, you try to understand a concept or process in terms of a
similar concept or process that you have already seen or experienced. You might need to use
prior knowledge during a conversation, while reading, or even when you are thinking.
For example, perhaps your history teacher has assigned a research project in which each
student prepares an oral presentation on a particular topic. You have been assigned “The
Enfranchisement of Women in the United States,” and you’re trying to figure out where to
begin. Because your class has already studied the enfranchisement of African Americans in the
United States, you think you might be able to use this knowledge as a starting point.

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You might choose to begin your research by making a chart similar to the one below, listing
facts you know about African-American suffrage and trying to find matching facts about
women’s suffrage. Such a chart will certainly help you to organize your factual material. It
might also help you to see interesting relationships among the facts you’ve gathered, and it
may provide a framework on which to base further research. Whenever you encounter a
concept or process that you don’t understand, try deciphering it by using prior knowledge.
Suffrage

African Americans

Women

Times

1870–1965 (and beyond?)

1848–1920

Causes

Concept of equality expanded to include
all people

Greater emphasis on equality; women
more educated and politically active

Major Events
and
Legislation

• 15th amendment (1870) prohibits government from denying vote on basis of race
• 24th Amendment (1964) outlaws poll tax
in national elections
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited poll
taxes, permitted federal supervision of voter
registration, and prohibited major changes
in voting laws without federal approval

• Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, 1848
• National Woman Suffrage Association
and American Woman Suffrage Association formed, 1869
• 19th Amendment introduced in1878
• Wyoming first territory to grant
women’s suffrage, 1869

• 19th Amendment ratified, 1920

■ Activity

Read the following passage. On a separate sheet of paper, write down what is happening in the
passage. Describe the prior knowledge that you used to arrive at your conclusions.

Literature Model
When Colin Sherrard opened his eyes after the crash, he could not imagine where he was. He
seemed to be lying, trapped in some kind of vehicle, on the summit of a rounded hill, which sloped
steeply away in all directions. Its surface was seared and blackened, as if a great fire had swept over
it. Above him was a jet-black sky, crowded with stars; one of them hung like a tiny, brilliant sun low
down on the horizon.
Could it be the sun? Was he so far from Earth? No—that was impossible. Some nagging memory
told him that the sun was very close—hideously close—not so distant that it had shrunk to a star.
And with that thought, full consciousness returned. Sherrard knew exactly where he was, and the
knowledge was so terrible that he almost fainted again.
Arthur C. Clarke, “Summertime on Icarus”

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

5


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

6

Using a Library

Libraries are filled with many types of media: books, government pamphlets, audiotapes and
videotapes, microfilmed documents, maps, and more. Every library maintains a card catalog or a
computerized catalog that lists each item owned, and that identifies each item with a number. A
library may use either the Library of Congress or the Dewey decimal classification system. Being
familiar with these two numbering schemes will help you find information quickly in any library.
Category
Numbers
000–099
100–199
200–299
300–399
400–499
500–599
600–699
700–799
800–899
900–999

Dewey Decimal System
Examples of
Major
Subcategories
Category
Encyclopedias, bibliographies
General works
Ethics, psychology
Philosophy
Theology, mythology
Religion
Law, political science, education

Social sciences
Dictionaries, foreign languages
Language
Chemistry, astronomy, mathematics
Sciences
Medicine, engineering, agriculture
Technology
Painting, music, theater, sports
Arts
Poetry, plays, essays
Literature
Ancient history, biography, travel
History and geography

Major
Category
Medicine
Agriculture
Technology
Military science
Naval science
Bibliography and
library science

■ Activities
A. Ask the reference librarian at your school or local library what different materials the
library has in addition to its books (for example, periodicals, videotapes, microfiches, art
prints, CDs, DVDs, and so on). Think of an event that happened in the United States
within the past twenty years, and research it, using at least two resources that are not books.
Using the materials you chose, write a paragraph summarizing the event and list the two

sources.
B. Ask the reference librarian at your school or local library to tell you about any special collections the library may have. Write a paragraph listing each special collection, and describing the collection. Tell what subject the collection covers (for example, the Civil War), or
whether the collection contains a special type of material (for example, the letters of a town
founder).
C. Many libraries offer a series of special lectures or another type of presentation. Find out if
your library offers any special series, and attend one of the events. Write a paragraph summarizing the event. Write a second paragraph about the reason the library may offer such
special events. Describe a special event you would like to attend that your library does not
currently offer.

6

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Library of Congress Classification System
Category
Major
Category
Major
Category
Letters
Category
Letters
Category
Letters
A
General works
K
Law

R
B
Philosophy and religion
L
Educational
S
C–F
History
M
Music
T
G
Geography and
N
Fine arts
U
anthropology
P
Language and literature
V
H
Social sciences
Q
Science
Z
J
Political sciences


Thinking and Study Skills

Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Using Reference Books

7

Every time you write a report or try to find an answer to a question, you must use reference
books. There are specialized reference resources on almost every subject imaginable. Your
school and public libraries maintain a selection of general and specialized reference works.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

General Reference Works
Type of Source

Examples of Source

Dictionaries arrange words alphabetically
and include word definitions and
pronunciations.

Random House, Webster's College Dicionary,
Webster's Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary

Encyclopedias are multivolume works
containing alphabetically arranged articles
covering all branches of knowledge.

World Book Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia
Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana,

Columbia Encyclopedia

Biographical Works contain brief histories of
living or deceased persons and are usually
organized by the particular field in which
these persons are best known.

Contemporary Authors, Current Biography,
The International Who’s Who, American
Authors 1600–1900, European Authors
100–1900, World Authors, Cyclopedia of
World Authors

Yearbooks and Almanacs contain
information and statistics for the past year.

Information Please Almanac, World Almanac
and Book of Facts, Official Associated Press
Almanac

Atlases contain maps, charts, plates, or
tables illustrating any subject.

Hammond Ambassador World Atlas, Cambridge Atlas of Astronomy, Historical Atlas
of the United States

Gazetteers are geographical dictionaries.

Chambers World Gazetteer, Webster’s New
Geographical Dictionary

■ Activity

Research these topics, and write one or two sentences about each, giving the source of your
information.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

definition of habeas corpus
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow’s discovery
derivation and definition of shibboleth
the difference between a sloth bear and a polar bear
George Burns’s given name
Margaret Mitchell’s most famous work
name of the first woman in space
book that won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1990
location of the country of San Marino
Benazir Bhutto, stateswoman
the winner of the 10-kilometer biathlon in the 1998 Winter Olympics
a synonym for luxate

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

8

Taking Notes
You are already familiar with taking notes in classes. You probably don’t have as much practice,
though, in taking notes from source materials when you’re preparing a research paper or presentation. This quick review will help sharpen your note-taking skills. Read the passage below,
and then examine the note card that follows it.
Literature
Since 1982, more than 90,000 young people from all 50 states and an ever-growing number of
nations have been introduced to the programs of Space Camp/Space Academy . . . .
For the temporarily earthbound dreamer, Space Camp/Space Academy provides opportunities for
students in fourth grade through high school to explore all fields of space science and engineering,
from designing rockets to building a space station. They participate in simulated space activities,
using space shuttle orbiter and mission control mock-ups specially designed for each age group.
Some “fly” the orbiter. Some don space suits and walk in “space.” Others direct and monitor a
flight from mission control. They learn the space program, but also the importance of teamwork
and the responsibilities of leadership. . . .
Everyone who participates in Space Camp/Space Academy learns how to build and launch a small
rocket. In addition, everyone becomes familiar with equipment used to train astronauts, and everyone takes part in a simulated space mission. There are also films and lectures in the history of the
space program, future space projects, and career paths in the fields of space science, space engineering, and space flight. All of these common activities, however, are geared to the various age
groups and therefore differ somewhat in their complexity and variety.
Peter Cobun, “A Camp for Space Science,” World Book 1991 Science Year

When you write note cards, use one card for each topic. The note card below covers only attendance. You should write down important details, cause-and-effect relationships, and the like on
your note cards. When you write note cards, make sure to do a thorough job.

Also, writing down any questions you have will help you articulate any problem more fully, so
that you can seek specific answers. For example, instead of thinking, “I don’t really understand
this point,” you might write: “Exactly what is the purpose of Space Camp/Space Academy?”
■ Activity

Reread the passage above. Choose two topics, and write note cards for them on a separate sheet
of paper. Exchange note cards with a partner, and discuss your notes. Do they successfully
reflect the topics and important details?

8

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Attendance at Space Camp/Space Academy
90,000 since 1982
from 50 states and other nations


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

9

Outlining

You probably already make outlines when you write essays and research papers. However, you
might not outline when you study. Outlining can help you understand new or complicated
ideas and can help you organize your notes and spend your study time wisely.
The next time you read a chapter in your textbook, try outlining as you read. To outline a
chapter, first write the chapter title; then write the chapter’s headings and subheadings. Before
beginning to read, glance at your skeleton outline. Does it bring to mind any overall impression about the chapter? Does it lead you to ask any questions about the chapter’s content? Jot
down any impressions or questions you may have.
Now begin to read the chapter thoroughly. As you read, refer frequently to your skeleton outline. List the chapter’s main points, vocabulary words, important concepts, or any questions
you may have at the appropriate item in your outline. Also keep in mind any impressions or
questions you initially noted. See whether the chapter answers your questions or bears out
your initial impression.
After you’ve finished reading the chapter, see whether your outline is complete. Does it seem to
skip any important points you remembered reading in the book? Do you still have any questions about the material? Finish filling in your outline immediately, while the information and
your questions are fresh in your mind. Once you have a completed, reliable outline, you can
use it to review the chapter when you are studying for an exam.
You can use this method to outline material of any length. For instance, if a short article
doesn’t have headings, simply write its main idea(s) and supporting details.
Skeleton Outline: chapter title, main headings, subheadings
Add: main points, vocabulary words, important concepts, questions
Complete: recall, answer questions, fill in missed information

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

■ Activities
A. Read the following paragraph, and outline its most important points and supporting
details.
Model
The Pacific Ocean is encircled by a “Ring of Fire”; the world’s largest ocean is bounded by about 60
percent of the world’s active volcanoes. Within the past fifteen years the Ring of Fire has lived up to
its name: Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines and Mount Unzen in Japan erupted in 1991; Augustine

volcano in Alaska erupted in 1986; and Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia erupted in 1985. With each
eruption, lives were lost and property destroyed. The Ring of Fire is a fire we can never put out but
must learn to live with.

B. Read one of the literature selections in your textbook of your own choosing, or as directed
by your teacher. On a separate sheet of paper, outline it as discussed above.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

9


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

10

Comparing and Contrasting
Comparing and contrasting can help you organize and understand complicated information
by letting you see the similarities and differences between two objects, processes, or ideas.
Comparing and contrasting can help you study or organize your thoughts when you’re faced
with large amounts of information.
The first step in making a compare-and-contrast chart is deciding which categories of information to include. The categories you select are often determined by the purpose of your
chart. Sometimes you will already know which information you need, as when you’re trying to
keep World Wars I and II straight while studying for a history exam. Your textbook states all
the facts you need to know (dates, leaders, major battles, and so on), so you just need to list
them in your chart in order to understand and memorize them easily.
Other times, as when you’re preparing a research paper on two authors, you may not even be
sure which information you want to compare and contrast. You’ll want to begin by listing simple, factual information (such as birth and death dates, titles of books written, and so on) in
your chart. But you’ll also need to glean information, such as major themes in each author’s

works, from your source materials. Finding and entering in your chart information about one
author may help you to realize that you need to look for similar information about the other
author.
World War I

World War II

Dates

July 28, 1914–Nov. 11, 1918

Sept. 1, 1939–Sept. 2, 1945

Allied
Coalitions

Allies: Great Britain, France, Russia,
Belgium, Italy, Japan, the United
States, and others
Central powers: Germany, Turkey,
Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria

Allies: Great Britain, France, the
Soviet Union, the United States,
and others
Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and
Japan

Enemy
Coalitions

■ Activities
A. Use the following paragraph to make a chart comparing and contrasting bacteria and
viruses.
Model
Many people confuse bacteria and viruses: they are similar, but distinct. Bacteria are single-celled
organisms without nuclei; they are surrounded by a tough protective layer called the cell wall.
Bacteria reproduce by means of binary fission in a supportive environment. Viruses are nothing
more than a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coating. They reproduce inside a host cell
by taking control of the host’s protein-making process.

B. Make a chart comparing and contrasting the writing habits and topics of Cléo Boudreau
and Barbara Brandon, described on pages 4–6 and 48–50 of your textbook. You might
select topics such as these for your chart: Where They Get Ideas, Favorite Method of
Drafting, How Many Revisions, How Audience Considered.
10

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Your compare-and-contrast chart can also help you see information in new ways. For example,
if you’ve done some research on a topic but haven’t come up with a theme statement yet, a
compare-and-contrast chart can help you see new relationships that may lead you to a
good idea.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Classifying

11

Classifying is grouping similar items together, whether you group ideas mentally or group
objects physically (see “Identifying Attributes and Components” on page 13 of this booklet).
Classifying objects or ideas can help you decide which ideas or items are most important, so
you can focus on them.
Any classification scheme will have a reason, a purpose, or a result. Whenever you classify, you
need to keep the final product of your classification scheme in mind. Are you classifying information you need to study for a test? You might classify the material according to the amount of
time that was spent on it in class or according to how difficult you find it. You would spend the
most time studying the most often discussed or most difficult material. Are you classifying
careers you might enjoy? You could decide to classify careers according to those you think
you’ll like best or those for which you think you’ll be most qualified.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

To classify, you must examine objects or ideas and decide what their most important features
or characteristics are. For example, suppose you need to select source materials for a research
paper on global warming. Your library search has so far turned up the five items listed below,
and classifying them will help you organize your research time and patterns efficiently.
●

A newspaper article discussing global warming for a general audience

●

A scientist’s report showing worldwide heating and cooling patterns over the last
two millennia

●

A report from the government listing statistics on current CO2 emissions and projected
emissions over the next decade

●

A report by a consortium of manufacturers stating that installation of pollution-control
devices would impose an unbearable financial burden on factories

●

A citizens’ task force pamphlet discussing ways to help combat global warming

You need to classify all these items according to their usefulness and their importance in
proving your point. As discussed above, you might even devise more than one classification
scheme for these materials. For example, you might classify the sources according to how easy
you think they’ll be to read. In this case, you might rank them in this order: pamphlet, newspaper article, manufacturers’ report, scientist’s report, and governmental report.
You might classify the items according to the quantity of hard statistics that you think they
contain. In this case, you might classify the sources in this order: governmental report, manufacturers’ report, scientist’s report, newspaper article, and pamphlet.
■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, classify the equipment found in the school weight room or at
a health club according to whether it’s muscle-building equipment, muscle-toning equipment, aerobic exercise equipment, and so on.
B. Think of two other classification criteria for the source materials on global warming listed
above, and write them on a separate sheet of paper.
C. Think of the last five novels or plays you’ve read in your English class or for personal enjoyment. On a separate sheet of paper, list the works’ names, and classify each according to its
format (novel, play, and so on), the country in which it was written, the era in which it was
written (Renaissance, Victorian, and so on), the type of work (drama, comedy, and so on),
and any other classification criteria you can determine.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

11


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

12

Using Graphic Organizers
You’ve probably seen and created graphic organizers, which are pictures or diagrams that convey information. A time line is a type of graphic organizer. Time lines, such as the one shown
below, show a sequence of events through time. For example, a time line could show the major
events in a person’s life, battles during a war, milestones in technological development during
this century, and so on.
Time Line of Lewis and Clark Expedition
1804
May
Expedition
sets out from
St. Louis

1805
May Lewis sights
Rocky Mountains
September
Expedition first meets
Sioux Indians

1806

March
September
Expedition heads
Expedition
for home
arrives in St.
Louis
November
June
Expedition arrives
Expedition crosses
at Pacific Ocean
Rocky Mountains

To create a time line, follow these steps.
1. Identify the person, object, or idea that will be the subject of your time line. If necessary,
research your subject in order to identify the milestones or major events that take place
during the time period.
2. Identify the most relevant beginning and end dates or times for the person, object, or idea
that you will represent. Also identify the units of time that are most relevant for your time
line. For example, a time line of a chemical experiment might be measured in seconds,
while a time line of a geological process might be measured in billions of years.

4. Enter dates of the major events you selected along your time line in relative proportion to
the time at which they occur. For example, the time line above lists the November 1805
date very near the end of the 1805 section, while it lists the June 1806 date in the middle
of the 1806 section. Don’t forget to title your time line.
■ Activity

On a separate sheet of paper, draw a graphic organizer for each example described below.

A. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a time line showing the following information.

Early humans developed a number of tools and practices during the Paleolithic, or Old Stone
Age. They started making simple shelters and pebble tools, the earliest tools, approximately
two million years ago. Humans started creating specialized tools, such as hand axes and chopping tools, approximately one and one-half million years ago. Humans also gained the ability
to make fire approximately one and one-half million years ago. Humans invented the bow and
arrow, spear thrower, blade tools, and sewing approximately 10,000 years ago. Humans also
began to bury their dead and paint caves approximately 10,000 years ago. Humans began to
domesticate plants and animals and to farm between 8,000 and 7,500 years ago.
B. On a separate sheet of paper, make a time line for all or a part of your life. List events that
you consider important on your time line.
12

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3. Draw a line or bar (a horizontal bar is shown in the example above). Divide the line or
bar into sections of equal length to match the unit of time that you decided to use in the
previous step. For example, the time line above shows three sections of equal length for
the years 1804, 1805, and 1806.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

13

Identifying Attributes and Components
Suppose you want to buy a personal computer. If you are going to make a wise purchase, you

need to know as much about the available models of personal computers as you can. You need
to identify which computer and peripherals you’re going to need and how you need those
peripherals to perform. In other words, you will need to identify the components of your computer system and the attributes each component will have.
A component is a part or an element of an object or an idea. For example, any personal computer may have numerous components: central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, printer,
internal diskette drive, external diskette drive, CD-ROM drive, and so on.
Each component has a number of attributes (characteristics or features). The most important
characteristic, or attribute, of certain components (the processing unit and the disk drives, for
example) is speed. Before you select these components, you will want to know how quickly
they can file or find your data. Other components will have other attributes; for example, the
monitor you select will be a certain size and may or may not be able to display graphics
or colors.
Ideas, as well as objects, have attributes and components, and being able to identify and
analyze them can often be helpful. For example, suppose your teacher had asked the class to
critique each presentation of a short speech or oral report. You would need to identify the
major parts of the presentation and determine whether each part was delivered well. You might
arrange your ideas into a chart similar to the one shown below.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Components of Presentation
Introduction
Body
• Supporting details
• Visuals (slides and handouts)
Conclusion

Edmond’s Presentation
Engaging delivery; weak idea
Strong, tied directly to main idea
Nicely drawn, but data not substantial

Interesting, stronger than Introduction!

■ Activity

On a separate sheet of paper, identify at least three components that make up each of the
following items. For each component, name an attribute that you consider important
or relevant.
1. A zoo
2. A classic novel
3. A hit song
4. An outing with your family
5. An effective city government

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

13


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

14

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Many of your writing assignments, whether in history, science or literature, will require you to
use cause-and-effect relationships. For instance, when you read a novel, you may try to analyze
the actions that caused a character to act in certain ways.
Sometimes a single effect may have more than one cause. For example, two people who are not
watching where they are walking in a hall or other confined space bump into each other.
One cause may also produce multiple effects. For example, when a water pipe breaks in an

apartment building, some apartments are flooded, and all the tenants must go without water
until the plumbing can be repaired.
A causal chain (when one cause leads to an effect that, in turn, causes another event) is the
most complicated type of cause-and-effect relationship. For example, not studying well for a
single math exam will net you a single C minus, but you will have to study and achieve high
grades on the rest of your math exams to earn a B in math by the end of the school year.

Several causes,
one effect

One cause,
several effects

A causal chain

■ Activities

1. A large trailer truck carrying oil rolled over on the expressway during rush hour yesterday, and five hundred thousand gallons of oil spilled.
2. The airline canceled the flight after the passengers had boarded the plane; I needed to
get another flight so that I could attend my grandmother’s ninetieth birthday party.
3. This morning your best friend was late to school for the third time in a row.
4. Your high school’s football team needs new uniforms and equipment.
B. Invent four causal chains, like the ones listed above, that could be plot lines for short stories. Write your four causal chains on a separate sheet of paper.

14

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

A. Read the following situation statements. On a separate sheet of paper, list two to three possible causes of each situation, two to three possible effects of each situation, and a causal
chain involving each situation.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

15

Using Organizational Patterns
The way you choose to present information, whether you are speaking or writing, influences
the way your audience reacts to the information. To create an effective presentation that will
interest and convince your audience, you must first be sure to organize your information well.
Selecting and using an appropriate organizational pattern will help you do this. Here are three
organizational patterns that can help you sort details into a clear, convincing order.
Order of impression organizes details in the order
in which they are noticed or experienced.
Order of importance organizes details by their significance or importance.
Spatial order presents details according to their
location.

Each organizational pattern allows you to point out specific features that you feel give the best
overall impression of your material.
Model
Towering 305 feet and 1 inch above her pedestal, the Statue of Liberty has stood fast on Liberty
Island for 108 years. Emblem of our freedom, this copper statue is the largest built since ancient
times.
Liberty holds aloft the glowing torch of freedom in her right hand. A crown whose seven spikes
stand for the seven seas and the seven continents graces her head. Her left arm cradles a book on
which is inscribed the date 1776. She tramples underfoot the broken chains of tyranny.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Lady Liberty stands on an enormous pedestal of reinforced concrete and decorative granite
cladding, and a concrete and granite plaza surrounds the pedestal. The pedestal and the plaza
together constituted the largest reinforced concrete structure in the world at the time they were
built. The statue and a few small outbuildings are the only structures on tiny Liberty Island.

■ Activities
A. Rewrite the material above, using a different organizational pattern.
B. Write a one- or two-paragraph description of a room in your home using each of the three
organizational patterns described above. Write one description in order of impression,
detailing what you notice as you enter the room; one description in order of importance,
detailing what is most valuable or interesting to you in the room; and one in spatial order,
detailing how objects are arranged in the room.
C. Read your favorite description to the class and have them identify the organizational pattern.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

15


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

16

Using Metaphorical Relationships
A metaphor is a word or phrase that equates, identifies, or explains one thing or concept with
another thing or concept. A metaphor does not use the word like or as. For example, the

phrase “the evening of my life” is a metaphor that equates the narrator’s lifetime with the passage of a single day. Since evening is near the end of a day, the evening of the narrator’s life can
be equated with advanced age.
Metaphors can certainly help to enliven a piece of writing, but they can also help you to
understand concepts and remember ideas more easily. For example, sometimes the circulatory
system within the human body is equated to a system of roads.
Using this metaphor, the arteries becomes major expressways connecting with the secondary
roads, or veins. These secondary roads, in turn, connect to side streets, or capillaries. This
metaphor explains the circulatory system, which you cannot see firsthand, in terms of a similar
system that you already know about and can see every day.
Circulatory System
major arteries
veins and most arteries
capillaries

Road Network
expressways
secondary roads
side streets

You may find that creating your own metaphorical relationships can sometimes help you to
understand concepts you’re having difficulty with. For instance, perhaps you have difficulty
understanding how storms develop. Thinking of a storm as an argument might help. You can
think of the differences in air temperature and pressure at different latitudes that cause storms
as differences of opinions among friends. The storm that results from different air temperatures and pressures coming in contact with one another becomes the argument that results
from the differences of opinion.

A. Test a metaphorical relationship comparing writing to another process by creating a chart
of metaphorical similarities such as the one above. List as many similarities between the
two processes as you can.
B. Choose a scientific concept you may have trouble understanding, such as atomic structure,

and create a chart comparing it to some similar concept you already understand.
C. Use your imagination to create a metaphorical relationship to describe a word-processing
program, a disease or illness, or a mathematical equation in terms of another object or idea.
Write the relationship on a separate sheet of paper and explain the details of the metaphor.

16

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

■ Activity


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

17

Identifying Main Ideas
Formulating a sentence that states your main idea clearly and concisely can help you organize
your notes and thoughts when you’re writing an essay. Likewise, being able to state the main
idea of the essay or novel you’re reading can help you to read with more comprehension and
attention.
Sometimes you can find a sentence that describes the main idea of the work you’re reading.
This is usual in a news story or essay, when the writer wants the reader to follow and evaluate
the evidence presented. For example, a news article might begin with the sentence “United
States voters are disgruntled with incumbent representatives.” This tells you that the article
may discuss topics such as problems the voters feel aren’t being solved, differences between
voters’ wishes and incumbents’ positions, and the like.

Other times, you won’t find a single sentence that describes the main idea; you’ll need to build
a main idea out of clues and points the writing makes. This is typical of fiction, when the
writer wants the reader to experience the pleasure of discovery while reading. You’ll build your
statement of main idea as you read the novel or short story. For example, as you read The
Great Gatsby, you may devise this main idea: “Jay Gatsby loves and tries to win the love of
Daisy Buchanan, but she remains indifferent; Gatsby is killed trying to protect Daisy after she
accidentally kills another woman.”
Whether you’re reading or writing, you can come up with a statement of a main idea in one of
two ways. You can review supporting details and information that lead you to develop a main
idea. If you already have a main idea, you can study the supporting details you find to see
whether they support your main idea. Both methods frequently reinforce each other: details
lead you to formulate a main idea, which in turn leads you to conclusions or to finding other,
stronger details.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

A main idea is a powerful tool, whether you’re using it as a study aid or as a writing focus. If you
review an essay or novel with your main-idea statement in mind, you will find it easier to grasp
and remember the material. If you reread your main idea often as you write an essay, you will
often find that your writing reflects and supports your idea and doesn’t wander off the track.
■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, write the main ideas of the excerpt below.
Literature Model
You may love to visit, but would you really like to live there? First, realize that you don’t have to give
up your U.S. citizenship if you live in a foreign country, and you don’t have to live there year-round. In
fact, many retirees live in one place for less than six months at a time and thereby avoid tax and other
residency requirements; they leave for a few weeks and come back to start another six-month sojourn.
And many smart travelers go off season (from October to May for resorts and vice versa for winter
spas) and save as much as 30 percent on hotels, restaurants, sightseeing, and transportation. Also, if
you’re staying for more than two months in any one place, try to lease or rent an apartment by checking through the chamber of commerce or the hotel where you may stay for a few days.

Peter A. Dickinson, Travel and Retirement Edens Abroad

B. Go to your school or public library, and read an article that interests you in a recent news
magazine. On a separate sheet of paper, write the main idea of the article. Exchange a copy
of the article and your summary of the main idea with a partner. Evaluate your partner’s
summary for clarity and accuracy while your partner does the same for your summary.
Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

17


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

18

Identifying Logical Errors
Logical errors are flaws in arguments. Any argument, opinion, or conclusion that contains a
logical error is false. Being able to detect logical errors can help you decide which viewpoints
or arguments are correct and which are erroneous—and can help you avoid making mistakes.
Cause/effect errors state a conclusion which isn’t backed up by the facts: the cause doesn’t
really lead to the effect that takes place. Take the statement “George argued with his sister yesterday; so he fell during basketball practice today.” George’s argument probably had little to do
with his fall. An untied shoelace or a shove by another player might have caused George to lose
his footing.
Circular reasoning means that an argument appears to lead to a conclusion, but merely
restates the point. For example, the statement “Celia makes good cookies because she is a good
baker” is circular. Saying that she makes good cookies is merely another way of saying that she
is a good baker.

Cause

r
la

Effect

Reasonin
g

Circ
u

Either/or errors offer limited or false outcomes to a situation. Either/or errors usually describe
a situation that hasn’t happened yet. The statement “If Jim doesn’t win the lottery, he’ll never
be well-off ” includes an either/or error. Not winning the lottery doesn’t necessarily mean Jim
will be poor: Jim may have a good job and good saving habits.

Either
Or

A. Read each sentence or sentence pair below. On a separate sheet of paper, write T if the
statement is true. If the statement contains a logical error, name the logical error: CE for a
cause/effect error, CR for circular reasoning, or EO for an either/or error.
1. Because Greg lost his lucky pen yesterday, he didn’t do well on his math exam this
morning.
2. If Sarah doesn’t drive more slowly, she’ll get into an accident.
3. Andy is a football expert who knows the game inside and out.
4. Michelle sings well because she has a good voice.
5. Jennifer broke her glasses this morning; she won’t be able to see well until she gets new
ones.

6. After the Lakers won the series, the police went on strike.
7. My brother’s wallet was stolen; so he will have to replace his driver’s license and all his
credit cards.
8. If Sam is late to school one more time this semester, he’ll never go to college.
B. On a separate sheet of paper, write six original sentences: two demonstrating cause/effect
errors, two demonstrating circular reasoning, and two demonstrating either/or errors.
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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

■ Activities


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

19

Inferring
An inference is a logical conclusion you arrive at after examining information, or evidence, that
you have seen or heard. For example, you might notice that an acquaintance is wearing a new
outfit, and you know that his birthday was last week. You could infer that he received clothes as
a birthday gift. Making inferences can help you to “read between the lines” or to understand the
cause of an occurrence more clearly. Below are three steps to making an inference.
What You Know + Prior Knowledge = Inference
1. Identify what you know about the situation.

2. Match your knowledge of the object or situation

against information you already know.
3. Make the inference by combining the new information with your prior knowledge.

Here’s an everyday situation: Your next-door neighbors have just finished repainting their
house, and now you see them digging a hole in their backyard with a backhoe. Your neighbors’
three children as well as some of the other neighborhood children are watching from a window of the house. What inference can you make about this situation?
Begin by asking yourself, “What do I know about the situation?” You know what you’ve seen:
your neighbors are digging a hole in their backyard.
Next, ask yourself, “How does the situation match what I already know?” You know that your
neighbors are continually fixing up their house and yard, and the neighborhood children are
welcome to visit and play with their children.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Finally, ask yourself, “What inference can I make?” You might infer that your neighbors are
putting in a swimming pool.
Beware, however, of inferring hastily, without considering other possibilities. Perhaps your
neighbors are planning to fix their septic system, put in an underground sprinkler system, or
even plant a tree or two. With only the information you have, you can’t be sure what your
neighbors are planning to do.
■ Activities
A. Read each sentence below. Write your inference about each situation on a separate sheet of
paper. With a partner, compare and discuss the inferences you made.
1. Kyong wears red when she’s happy; she’s wearing red today.
2. Brian promised to water my plants last week, and they look brown this week.
3. Tom said he would buy a new coat if he received his bonus at work; he’s wearing a new
jacket today.
4. Mrs. Brown sets the thermostat at sixty-five degrees every night before she and Mr.
Brown go to bed; in the morning, the thermostat is set at seventy degrees.
5. Ernest has suddenly become very good at math, and I haven’t seen him as much as

usual.
B. On a separate sheet of paper, write five sentences from which a reader can make inferences.
Exchange papers with a partner, and discuss the inferences that you make.
Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

19


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

20

Predicting
A prediction is a statement about what might happen in the future. There are two ways of predicting: making wild guesses and making inferences based on evidence about possible future
events or outcomes. As you may suppose, the second type of prediction is likely to be more
accurate. Since a prediction is merely an inference about the future, you base a prediction on
your knowledge of what has already happened. There are three steps involved in predicting an
outcome.
Past Experience
Identify relevant prior knowledge of the situation.

Present Situation
Identify what you know about
the current situation.

Prediction About the Future
Combine previous and present
knowledge to make an inference about the future.

Apply this three-step process to an everyday situation: Bill is taking his driving test on Monday,
but he has not memorized the rules of the road and still can’t parallel park.
The first step is to ask yourself, “What do I know about the current situation?” You know that
Bill’s exam is Monday, and you know that he has not studied or practiced a great deal.
Next, ask yourself, “How does the situation match what I already know about the driving test?”
You know that people who aren’t prepared usually fail the test.
The last step is to ask yourself, “How do I think this situation will turn out?” You can predict
that Bill won’t get his license because he isn’t prepared.
If you learn new information, you might revise your prediction. If you learn that Bill is studying the rules of the road and practicing parallel parking, you might predict that he will pass his
test. Sometimes, despite the reliability of your prior knowledge and the apparent accuracy of
your prediction, you will predict the wrong outcome. An unforeseen event may sometimes
occur that affects the outcome of the situation.

A. Read each sentence or sentence pair below. Write your prediction about each situation, listing each of the three steps shown above in your answers.
1. Marlene is baking banana bread; she isn’t a good baker.
2. Fred has to practice basketball after school, he has to help his little brother with his
homework, and he has to do his own homework.
3. Jerry is taking his chemistry final today; he has studied hard for the exam.
4. Mark has two tickets to the game this weekend; he had an argument with his friend
Paul, but he and his brother have been getting along well lately.
5. Our school’s baseball team has won all the home games this season. The team will play
a home game this Friday night.
B. On a separate sheet of paper, write four original sentences that allow the reader to make a
prediction about a situation. Exchange papers with a partner, and discuss the predictions
you both make.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

■ Activities


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

21

Elaborating
Elaborating is a mental process that can help you to understand and remember information
more easily. It’s been found that the more elaboration you do when learning about a concept
or topic, the better you will remember it. Elaboration is a two-step mental process. First, you
brainstorm as many ideas as possible; then you determine how your ideas are linked.
Brainstorming ideas for elaboration is not the same as listing facts you’ve read in your textbook or heard in a lecture. When you brainstorm ideas for elaboration, you think about your
personal responses and ideas about the topic or concept. When you elaborate, you could brainstorm questions, examples, details, explanations, images, or even personal experiences.
Determining how your ideas are linked is the second step of elaboration. Drawing a graphic
organizer is frequently helpful when you elaborate. Cluster diagrams, network trees, and spider
maps can all help you discover connections among your ideas.
For example, suppose your teacher has assigned an essay on this statement: “Stephen Crane
and Mark Twain used their writing to study society’s influence on the individual.” To begin,
you would brainstorm ideas about both Crane and Twain, jotting down anything that came
into your head. You would mentally “doodle” until you felt you had exhausted any questions,
images, and details that occurred to you about both of these authors.
Next, you would arrange your notes into any organizational pattern or graphic organizer that
helped you to see patterns, similarities, and differences among your ideas. Trying more than
one type of graphic organizer may help you to see a variety of new relationships between your
two subjects. One completed diagram on this topic is shown below.

one of the first to use
colloquial speech in
American literature

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

wrote about
personal struggles vs.
impersonal forces
Stephen Crane
worked as freelance journalist

his poetry
foreshadowed
free verse

Mark Twain

worked as a printer,
then correspondent,
writer, and lecturer

wrote humorous books
with an undercurrent of
social criticism

■ Activity

Elaborate on the following ideas. On a separate sheet of paper, write down your brainstormed
ideas, and then arrange your ideas into a graphic organizer of your choice.

1. Sometimes called the only art form born in the United States, jazz music captures the
rhythms, life, and dreams of this country.
2. Many plants contain substances that can be included in valuable medicines.
3. Continental drift is a theory suggesting that the continents move because of movements
of the molten rocks of the earth’s mantle.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 11

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