Handbook of nutraceuticals and Functional Foods Second Edition

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Half Title Page

Handbook of

Nutraceuticals
and

Functional Foods
Second Edition


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Title Page

Handbook of

Nutraceuticals
and

Functional Foods
Second Edition
EDITED BY

ROBERT E. C. WILDMAN

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business


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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-6409-4 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-6409-9 (Hardcover)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted
with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to
publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of
all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for

identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of nutraceuticals and functional foods / edited by Robert E.C. Wildman. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-6409-4 (alk. paper)
1. Functional foods--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Wildman, Robert E. C., 1964QP144.F85H36 2006
613.2--dc22

2006045563

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at


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6/19/06 8:41:57 AM


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To Dawn, Gage, and Bryn


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Preface
It may be difficult to imagine a more exciting time than today to be involved in nutrition research,
education, and general health promotion. The investigative opportunities seem to be limitless and
research tools range from large-scale epidemiology survey assessment to focused assessment of
cellular gene expression using molecular biology technique. Furthermore, scientific information
can be shared rapidly and globally via a variety of channels including scientific journals, magazines,
and Internet Web sites. The advent of many of the probing investigative techniques occurred in the
latter half of the 20th century and has evolved to the current state of the art. These advances have
allowed scientists to objectively investigate some of the most ancient concepts in the application
of foods as well as epidemiological relationships related to optimizing health and performance and
the prevention and/or the treatment of diseases.
Throughout the bulk of the twentieth century nutrition recommendations seemed to focus more
upon “what not to eat” on a foundation consisting of the adequate provision of essential nutrients
such as essential amino and fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and water. For instance, recommendations were to limit dietary substances such as saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and sodium. Today
scientists are recognizing that the other side of the nutrition coin, or “what to eat,” may be just as
important, if not more so. We have known for some time now that people who eat a diet rich in
more natural foods, such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, and fish, tend to lead a more
disease-free life. The incidences of certain cancers and heart disease are noticeably lower than in
populations that eat considerably lower amounts of these foods. For a while many nutritionists
believed that this observation was more of an association rather than cause and effect. This is to
say that the higher incidence of disease was more the result of higher calories, fat and processed
foods in conjunction with lower physical activity typically associated with the lower consumption
of fruits, vegetables, etc., rather than the lack of these foods. Thus, recommendations focused on
limiting many of the “bad” food items by substituting them with foods that were not associated
with the degenerative diseases, deemed “good” foods somewhat by default. With time scientists
were able to better understand the composition of the “good” foods. Evidence quickly mounted to
support earlier beliefs that many natural foods are seemingly prophylactic and medicinal.
Today we find ourselves at what seems to be an epoch in understanding humanity’s relationship
with nature. Nutraceutical concepts remind us of our vast reliance upon other life forms on this

planet. For it is these entities that not only provide us with our dietary essentials but also factors
that yield protection against the environment in which we exist and the potentially pathological
events we internally create. Food was an environmental tool used in the sculpting of the human
genome. It is only logical to think then that eating more natural foods such as fruits and vegetables
would lead to a healthier existence.
The advancement of scientific techniques has not only allowed us to better understand the diet
we are supposed to eat, but it has also opened the door to one of the most interesting events in
commerce. Food companies are now able to market foods with approved health claims touting the
nutraceutical or functional properties of the food. Food companies are also able to fortify existing
foods with nutraceutical substances and/or create new foods designed to include one or more
nutraceutical substances in their recipes. The opportunity afforded to food companies involved in
functional foods appears without limitations at this time.
Despite the fact that this book reviews numerous nutraceuticals and functional foods, the field
is still very young and surely there is much more to be learned and applied to a healthier existence.


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It is hard to imagine that nutrition science would ever be more exciting than this. But perhaps some
scientist wrote that very same thought less than a century ago during the vitamin and mineral boom.
I truly hope you enjoy this book and welcome your comments and thoughts for future editions.


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The Editor
Robert E.C. Wildman is a native of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and attended the University of Pittsburgh (B.S.), Florida
State University (M.S.), and Ohio State University (Ph.D.). He
is coauthor of the textbooks Advanced Human Nutrition and
Exercise and Sport Nutrition and author of The Nutritionist:

Food, Nutrition, and Optimal Health.


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Contributors
D. Lee Alekel
Department of Food Science and Human
Nutrition
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa, USA
Jose Antonio
International Society of Sports Nutrition
www.theissn.org
Leonard N. Bell
Department of Nutrition and Food Science
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama, USA
Richard S. Bruno
Department of Nutritional Sciences
University of Connecticut
Storrs, Connecticut, USA

Edward R. Farnworth
Food Research and Development Centre
Agriculture Canada
Saint Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada

Manohar L. Garg
School of Biomedical Sciences
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
Najla Guthrie
KGK Synergize Inc.
London, Ontario, Canada
Meghan Hampton
Department of Human Nutrtion
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas, USA

Robin Callister
School of Biomedical Sciences
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia

Suzanne Hendrich
Department of Food Science and Human
Nutrition
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa, USA

Claude P. Champagne
Food Research and Development Centre
Agriculture Canada
Saint Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada

Luke R. Howard
Department of Food Science

University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

Pratibha Chaturvedi
KGK Synergize Inc.
London, Ontario, Canada

Thunder Jalili
Division of Nutrition
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah, USA

Nancy M. Childs
Department of Food Marketing
Saint Joseph’s University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
Michael A. Dubick
Institute of Surgical Research
U.S. Army
Fort Sam Houston, Texas, USA

Sidika E. Kasim-Karakas
Department of Internal Medicine
University of California–Davis
Davis, California, USA
Mike Kelley
Melaleuca Inc.
Idaho Falls, Idaho, USA

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Donald K. Layman
Department of Food Science and Human
Nutrition
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois, USA
Peony Lee
School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences
University of Sydney
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Yong Li
Department of Food Science
Lipid Chemistry and Molecular Biology
Laboratory
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
Denis M. Medeiros
Department of Human Nutrtion
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
John A. Milner
Nutritional Science Research Group
National Cancer Institute
National Institutes of Health
Rockville, Maryland, USA

Brendan Plunkett
School of Biomedical Sciences
University of Newcastle

Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
Sharon A. Ross
Nutritional Science Research Group
National Cancer Institute
National Institutes of Health
Rockville, Maryland, USA
Steven J. Schwartz
Department of Food Science and Technology
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio, USA
Jennifer E. Seyler
Bally Total Fitness Corporation
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Lem Taylor
Exercise and Biochemical Nutrition Laboratory
Baylor University
Waco, Texas, USA
R. Elaine Turner
Food Science and Human Nutrition Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida, USA

Patricia A. Murphy
Food Science and Human Nutrition
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa, USA

Darrell Vachon
KGK Synergize Inc.
London, Ontario, Canada

Jade Ng
Goodman Fielder
Macquarie Park
New South Wales, Australia

Marie-Rose Van Calsteren
Food Research and Development Centre
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Saint Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada

Stanley T. Omaye
Department of Nutrition
University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada, USA

Dianne H. Volker
Department of Psychology
University of Sydney
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Susan S. Percival
Food Science and Human Nutrition Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida, USA

Bruce A. Watkins
Department of Food Science
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA

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Trent A. Watson
School of Biomedical Sciences
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
Robert E.C. Wildman
Melaleuca Inc.
Idaho Falls, Idaho, USA

Diah Yunianingtias
School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences
University of Sydney
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia


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Contents
Chapter 1

Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods ...........................................................................1

Robert E.C. Wildman and Mike Kelley
Chapter 2

Isoflavones: Source and Metabolism .........................................................................23

Suzanne Hendrich and Patricia A. Murphy
Chapter 3

Lycopene: Food Sources, Properties, and Health ......................................................55

Richard S. Bruno, Robert E.C. Wildman, and Steven J. Schwartz
Chapter 4

Garlic: The Mystical Food in Health Promotion.......................................................73

Sharon A. Ross and John A. Milner
Chapter 5

Grape Wine and Tea Polyphenols in the Modulation of Atherosclerosis and
Heart Disease ............................................................................................................101

Michael A. Dubick and Stanley T. Omaye
Chapter 6

Dietary Fiber and Coronary Heart Disease .............................................................131

Thunder Jalili, Denis M. Medeiros, and Robert E.C. Wildman
Chapter 7

Omega-3 Fish Oils and Lipoprotein Metabolism ....................................................145

Sidika E. Kasim-Karakas

Chapter 8

Omega-3 Fish Oils and Insulin Resistance ..............................................................155

Sidika E. Kasim-Karakas
Chapter 9

Antioxidant Vitamin and Phytochemical Content of Fresh and Processed
Pepper Fruit (Capsicum annuum) ............................................................................165

Luke R. Howard and Robert E.C. Wildman
Chapter 10 Osteoarthritis: Nutrition and Lifestyle Interventions...............................................193
Dianne H. Volker and Peony Lee
Chapter 11 Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Mediterranean Diet, Probiotics, Vitamin D, and
Exercise in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis.................................................223
Dianne H. Volker


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Chapter 12 Skeletal Effects of Soy Isoflavones in Humans: Bone Mineral Density
and Bone Markers ....................................................................................................247
D. Lee Alekel
Chapter 13 Applications of Herbs to Functional Foods.............................................................269
Susan S. Percival and R. Elaine Turner
Chapter 14 Conjugated Linoleic Acids: Biological Actions and Health....................................285
Yong Li and Bruce A. Watkins
Chapter 15 Olive Oil and Health Benefits ..................................................................................297
Denis M. Medeiros and Meghan Hampton
Chapter 16 The Role of α- and γ-Tocopherols in Health ..........................................................309

Richard S. Bruno
Chapter 17 Probiotics and Prebiotics..........................................................................................335
Edward R. Farnworth
Chapter 18 Exopolysaccharides from Lactic Acid Bacteria: Food Uses, Production,
Chemical Structures, and Health Effects .................................................................353
Edward R. Farnworth, Claude P. Champagne, and Marie-Rose Van Calsteren
Chapter 19 Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Tryptophan, B Vitamins, SAMe, and Hypericum
in the Adjunctive Treatment of Depression .............................................................373
Dianne H. Volker and Jade Ng
Chapter 20 Protein as a Functional Food Ingredient for Weight Loss and Maintaining
Body Composition....................................................................................................391
Jennifer E. Seyler, Robert E.C. Wildman, and Donald K. Layman
Chapter 21 Nutraceuticals and Inflammation in Athletes...........................................................409
Brendan Plunkett, Robin Callister, and Manohar L. Garg
Chapter 22 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Requirements in Trained Athletes .....................421
Trent A. Watson, Robin Callister, and Manohar L. Garg
Chapter 23 Coenzyme Q10: A Functional Food with Immense Therapeutic Potential ............443
Pratibha Chaturvedi, Darrell Vachon, and Najla Guthrie


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Chapter 24 Coffee as a Functional Beverage .............................................................................453
Lem Taylor and Jose Antonio
Chapter 25 Nutraceutical Stability Concerns and Shelf Life Testing ........................................467
Leonard N. Bell
Chapter 26 Nutraceutical and Functional Food Application to Nonalcoholic
Steatohepatitis...........................................................................................................485
Dianne H. Volker and Diah Yunianingtias
Chapter 27 Marketing and Regulatory Issues for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals ..........503

Nancy M. Childs
Chapter 28 Obesity Policy: Opportunities for Functional Food Market Growth.......................517
Nancy M. Childs
Index ..............................................................................................................................................523


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and
1 Nutraceuticals
Functional Foods
Robert E.C. Wildman and Mike Kelley
CONTENTS
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

Introduction ............................................................................................................................1
Defining Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods .....................................................................2
Classifying Nutraceutical Factors ..........................................................................................3
Food and Nonfood Sources of Nutraceutical Factors ...........................................................4
Nutraceutical Factors in Specific Foods ................................................................................5
Mechanism of Action.............................................................................................................6

Classifying Nutraceutical Factors Based on Chemical Nature .............................................8
A. Isoprenoid Derivatives (Terpenoids) .............................................................................9
B. Phenolic Compounds ...................................................................................................13
C. Carbohydrates and Derivatives....................................................................................16
D. Fatty Acids and Structural Lipids ...............................................................................19
E. Amino Acid-Based ......................................................................................................20
F. Microbes (Probiotics) ..................................................................................................20
G. Minerals .......................................................................................................................20
References ........................................................................................................................................20

I. INTRODUCTION
The interest in nutraceuticals and functional foods continues to grow, powered by progressive
research efforts to identify properties and potential applications of nutraceutical substances, and
coupled with public interest and consumer demand. The principal reasons for the growth of the
functional food market are current population and health trends. Across the globe, populations are
aging. Life expectancy continues to rise, as does the contribution made by older individuals to the
total population. Also, obesity is now recognized as a global issue as its incidence continues to
climb in countries throughout the world. In the U.S., approximately 62% of the adult population
is classified as overweight (based on body mass index (BMI)), and more than half of those adults
are classified as obese. Heart disease continues to be a primary cause of death, responsible for 32%
of deaths in the U.S., and cancer, osteoporosis, and arthritis remain highly prevalent. As of this
writing, the International Obesity Task Force reports that the incidence of obesity in the majority
of European countries has increased by 10 to 50% in the last 10 years.1
Although genetics play a major role in the development of the diseases mentioned above, by
and large most are considered preventable or could be minimized by a proper diet and physical
activity, weight management, and a healthier lifestyle including environment. Additionally, people
can optimize the health-promoting capabilities of their diet by way of supplementation and by
consuming foods that have been formulated or fortified to include health-promoting factors.

1

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2

Handbook of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

Another reason for the growing trend in functional foods is public education. People today are
more nutrition-savvy than ever before, their interest in health-related information being met by
many courses of information. Each year more and more newspaper and magazine articles are
devoted to the relationship between diet and health, and more specifically, to nutraceutical concepts.
Furthermore, more health-related magazines and books are appearing on bookstore shelves than
ever before. More television programs address topics of disease and prevention/treatment than ever.
But perhaps one of the most significant events to influence public awareness was the advent of the
Internet (World Wide Web). The Internet provides a wealth of information regarding the etiology,
prevention, and treatment of various diseases. Numerous Web sites have been developed by government agencies such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA; www.nal.usda.gov) and
organizations such as the American Heart Association (www.americanheart.org) and the American
Cancer Society (www.cancer.org). Other information-based businesses such as CNN have information Web sites (i.e., www.WebMD.com) and Internet search engines exist for perusing medical
abstracts (e.g., www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus).

II. DEFINING NUTRACEUTICALS AND FUNCTIONAL FOODS
The term nutraceutical is a hybrid or contraction of nutrition and pharmaceutical. Reportedly, it
was coined in 1989 by DeFelice and the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine.2 Restated and
clarified in a press release in 1994, its definition was “any substance that may be considered a food
or part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and treatment
of disease. Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary, supplements and diets to
genetically engineered ‘designer’ foods, herbal products, and processed foods such as cereals,
soups, and beverages.”3 At present there are no universally accepted definitions for nutraceuticals
and functional foods, although commonality clearly exists between the definitions offered by

different health-oriented professional organizations.
According to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), functional foods are “foods
or dietary components that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition.”4 The International
Life Sciences Institute of North America (ILSI) has defined functional foods as “foods that by
virtue of physiologically active food components provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition.”5
Health Canada defines functional foods as “similar in appearance to a conventional food, consumed
as part of the usual diet, with demonstrated physiological benefits, and/or to reduce the risk of
chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.” The Nutrition Business Journal classified
functional food as “food fortified with added or concentrated ingredients to functional levels, which
improves health or performance.6 Functional foods include enriched cereals, breads, sport drinks,
bars, fortified snack foods, baby foods, prepared meals, and more.”
As noted by the American Dietetics Association in a position paper dedicated to functional
foods, the term “functional” implies that the food has some identified value leading to health
benefits, including reduced risk of disease, for the person consuming it.7 One could easily argue
that functional foods include everything from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables endowed
with antioxidants and fiber, to fortified and enriched foods, such as orange juice with added calcium
or additional carotenoids, to formulated ready-to-drink beverages containing antioxidants and
immune-supporting factors.
The Nutrition Business Journal states that it uses the term nutraceutical for anything that is
consumed primarily or particularly for health reasons. Based on that definition, a functional food
would be a kind of nutraceutical.8 On the other hand, Health Canada states that nutraceuticals are
a product that is “prepared from foods, but sold in the form of pills or powders (potions), or in
other medicinal forms not usually associated with foods. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have
a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.”6 Based on this definition and
how functional foods are characterized, as noted previously, nutraceuticals would be distinct from
functional foods.


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Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

3

TABLE 1.1
Food Label Claim Guidelines
Claim
Nutrient content claim
Qualified health claim

NLEA authorized health
claims
Structure/function claim

Purpose
Describe content of certain nutrients.
Describe the relationship between food, food
component, or dietary supplement and
reduced risk of a disease or health related
condition. This claim uses qualifying
language because the evidence for this
relationship is emerging and is not yet strong
enough to meet the standard of significant
scientific advancement set by the FDA.
Characterize a relationship between a food, a
food component, dietary ingredient, or
dietary supplement and risk of a disease.
Describes role of nutrient or ingredient
intended to affect normal structure or
function in humans.

May characterize the means by which the
nutrient or ingredient affects the structure or
function.
May describe a benefit related to a deficiency.
Must be accompanied by a disclaimer stating
that FDA has not reviewed the claim and that
the product is not intended to “diagnose,
treat, cure, or prevent any disease.”

Example
“Fat-free,” “low sodium.”
“Some scientific evidence suggests that
consumption of antioxidant vitamins may
reduce the risk of certain forms of cancer.
However, FDA has determined that this
evidence is limited and not conclusive.”

“Diets high in calcium may reduce the risk of
osteoporosis.”
“Calcium builds strong bones.”

Source: Adapted from International Life Sciences Institute of North America Web site, 2006.

The potential functions of nutraceutical/functional food ingredients are so often related to the
maintenance or improvement of health that it is necessary to distinguish between a food ingredient
that has function and a drug. The core definition of a drug is any article that is “intended for use
in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals.”(21
U.S.C. 321(g)(1)(B)). At the same time, certain health claims can be made for foods and ingredients
that are associated with health conditions. In the U.S., such health claims are defined and regulated
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). Health claims related to foods and ingredients

include an implied or explicit statement about the relationship of a food substance to a disease or
health-related condition (21 U.S.C.343(r)(1)(B) and 21 C.F.R.101.14(a)(1)). The major categories
of health claims are listed in Table 1.1 with examples of each.

III. CLASSIFYING NUTRACEUTICAL FACTORS
The number of purported nutraceutical substances is in the hundreds, and some of the more
recognizable substances include isoflavones, tocotrienols, allyl sulfur compounds, fiber, and carotenoids. In light of a long and growing list of nutraceutical substances, organization systems are
needed to allow for easier understanding and application. This is particularly true for academic
instruction, as well as product formulation by food companies.
Depending upon one’s interest and/or background, the appropriate organizational scheme for
nutraceuticals can vary. For example, cardiologists may be most interested in those nutraceutical
substances that are associated with reducing the risk factors of heart disease. Specifically, their


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4

Handbook of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

interest may lie in substances purported to positively influence hypertension and hypercholesterolemia and to reduce free radical- or platelet-dependent thrombotic activity. Nutraceutical factors
such as n-3 fatty acids, phytosterols, quercetin, and grape flavonoids would be of particular interest.
Meanwhile, oncologists may be more interested in those substances that target anticarcinogenic
activities. These substances may be associated with augmentations of microsomal detoxification
systems and antioxidant defenses, or they may slow the progression of existing cancer. Thus, their
interest may lie in both chemoprevention or potential adjunctive therapy.
On the other hand, the nutraceutical interest of food scientists working on the development of
a functional food product will not only include physiological properties, but also stability and
sensory properties, as well as issues of cost efficiency. To demonstrate this point, the anticarcinogenic triterpene limonin is lipid-soluble and intensely bitter, somewhat limiting its commercial use
as a functional food ingredient.10 However, the glucoside derivative of limonin, which shares some

of the anticarcinogenic activity of limonin, is water soluble and virtually tasteless, thereby enhancing
its potential use as an ingredient.11
Whether it is for academic instruction, clinical trial design, functional food development, or
dietary recommendations, nutraceutical factors can be organized in several ways. Cited below are
a few ways of organizing nutraceuticals based upon food source, mechanism of action, and
chemical nature.

IV. FOOD AND NONFOOD SOURCES OF
NUTRACEUTICAL FACTORS
One of the broader models of organization for nutraceuticals is based upon their potential as a food
source to humans. Here nutraceuticals may be separated into plant, animal, and microbial (i.e.,
bacteria and yeast) groups. Grouping nutraceutical factors in this manner has numerous merits and
can be a valuable tool for diet planning, as well as classroom and seminar instruction.
One interesting consideration with this organization system is that the food source may not
necessarily be the point of origin for one or more substances. An obvious example is conjugated
linoleic acid (CLA), which is part of the human diet, mostly as a component of beef and dairy
foods. However, it is actually made by bacteria in the rumen of the cow. Therefore, issues involving
the food chain or symbiotic relationships may have to be considered for some individuals working
with this organization scheme.
Because of fairly conserved biochemical aspects across species, many nutraceutical substances
are found in both plants and animals, and sometimes in microbes. For example, microbes, plants,
and animals contain choline and phosphotidylcholine. This is also true for sphingolipids; however,
plants and animals are better sources. Also, linolenic acid (18:3 ω-3 fatty acid) can be found in a
variety of food resources including animal flesh, despite the fact that it is primarily synthesized in
plants and other lower members of the food chain. Table 1.2 presents some of the more recognizable
nutraceutical substances grouped according to food-source providers.
Nonfood sources of nutraceutical factors have been sourced by the development of modern
fermentation methods. For example, amino acids and their derivatives have been produced by
bacteria grown in fermentation systems. The emergence of recombinant-genetic techniques have
enabled new avenues for obtaining nutraceutical compounds. These techniques and their products

are being evaluated in the arenas of the marketplace and regulatory concerns around the world. An
example is the production of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by bacteria. This fatty acid is produced
by some algae and bacteria. The EPA derived from salmon are produced by algae and are later
incorporated in the salmon that consume the algae. EPA can now be produced by non-EPA producing
bacteria by importing the appropriate DNA through recombinant methods.12 The ability to transfer
the production of nutraceutical molecules into organisms that allows for economically feasible
production is cause for both optimism and discussion concerning regulatory and popular acceptance.


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Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

5

TABLE 1.2
Examples of Nutraceutical Substances Grouped by Food Source
Plants

Animal

Microbial

β-Glucan
Ascorbic acid
γ-Tocotrienol
Quercetin
Luteolin
Cellulose
Lutein

Gallic acid
Perillyl alcohol
Indole-3-carbonol
Pectin
Daidzein
Glutathione
Potassium
Allicin
δ-Limonene
Genestein
Lycopene
Hemicellulose
Lignin
Capsaicin
Geraniol
β-Ionone
α-Tocopherol
β-Carotene
Nordihydrocapsaicin
Selenium
Zeaxanthin
Minerals
MUFA

Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
Docosahexenoic acid (DHA)
Spingolipids
Choline
Lecithin

Calcium
Coenzyme Q10
Selenium
Zinc
Creatine
Minerals

Saccharomyces boulardii (yeast)
Bifidobacterium bifidum
B. longum
B. infantis
Lactobacillus acidophilus (LC1)
L. acidophilus (NCFB 1748)
Streptococcus salvarius (subs. Thermophilus)

Note: The substances listed in this table include those that are either accepted or purported nutraceutical
substances.

V. NUTRACEUTICAL FACTORS IN SPECIFIC FOODS
In an organization model related to the one above, nutraceuticals can be grouped based upon
relatively concentrated foods. This model is more appropriate when there is interest in a particular
nutraceutical compound or related compounds, or when there is interest in a specific food for
agricultural/geographic reasons or functional food-development purposes. For example, the interest
may be in the nutraceutical qualities of a local crop or a traditionally consumed food in a geographic
region, such as pepper fruits in the southwestern United States, olive oil in Mediterranian regions,
and red wine in western Europe and Northern California.
There are several nutraceutical substances that are found in higher concentrations in specific
foods or food families. These include capsaicinoids, which are found primarily in pepper fruit, and
allyl sulfur (organosulfur) compounds, which are particularly concentrated in onions and garlic.
Table 1.3 provides a listing of certain nutraceuticals that are considered unique to certain foods or

food families. One consideration for this model is that for several substances, such as those just


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Handbook of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

TABLE 1.3
Examples of Foods with Higher Content of Specific Nutraceutical Substances
Nutraceutical Substance/Family

Foods of Remarkably High Content

Allyl sulfur compounds
Isoflavones (e.g., genestein, daidzein)
Quercetin
Capsaicinoids
EPA and DHA
Lycopene
Isothiocyanates
β-Glucan
CLA
Resveratrol
β-Carotene
Carnosol
Catechins
Adenosine
Indoles

Curcumin
Ellagic acid
Anthocyanates
3-n-Butyl phthalide
Cellulose
Lutein, zeaxanthin
Psyllium
Monounsaturated fatty acids
Inulin, Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria
Catechins
Lignans

Onions, garlic
Soybeans and other legumes, apios
Onion, red grapes, citrus fruit, broccoli, Italian yellow squash
Pepper fruit
Fish oils
Tomatoes and tomato products
Cruciferous vegetables
Oat bran
Beef and dairy
Grapes (skin), red wine
Citrus fruit, carrots, squash, pumpkin
Rosemary
Teas, berries
Garlic, onion
Cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, brussels sprouts
Tumeric
Grapes, strawberries, raspberries, walnuts

Red wine
Celery
Most plants (component of cell walls)
Kale, collards, spinach, corn, eggs, citrus
Psyllium husk
Tree nuts, olive oil
Whole grains, onions, garlic
Yogurt and other dairy
Tea, cocoa, apples, grapes
Flax, rye

Note: The substances listed in this table include those that are either accepted or purported nutraceutical
substances.

named, there is a relatively short list of foods that are concentrated sources. However, the list of
food sources for other nutraceutical substances can be much longer and can include numerous
seemingly unrelated foods. For instance, citrus fruit contain the isoflavone quercetin, as do onions,
a plant food seemingly unrelated. Citrus fruit grow on trees, whereas the edible bulb of the onion
plant (an herb) develops at ground level. Other plant foods with higher quercetin content are red
grapes — but not white grapes, broccoli (which is a cruciferous vegetable), and the Italian yellow
squash. Again, these foods appear to bear very little resemblance to citrus fruit or onions for that
matter. On the other hand, there are no guarantees that closely related or seemingly similar foods
contain the same nutraceutical compounds. For example, both the onion plant and the garlic plant
are perennial herbs arising from a rooted bulb and are also cousins in the lily family. However,
although onions are loaded with quercetin, with some varieties containing up to 10% of their dry
weight of this flavonoid, garlic is quercetin-void.

VI. MECHANISM OF ACTION
Another means of classifying nutraceuticals is by their mechanism of action. This system groups
nutraceutical factors together, regardless of food source, based upon their proven or purported