project management for business and technology

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Projec~ Management for
business and tec~~ology: prine



Project Management
for Business
and Technology
Principles and Practice
2ND

John

~I.

EDITION

Nicholas

Prentice.. Hall of India

New Delhi - 110 001

2004

[fu~ llikiI)~


This Indian Reprint-Rs. 375.00
(Original U.S. Edition-Rs. 3472.00)
PROJECT MANAGEMENT FOR BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY-Principles and Practice.
2nd Ed. (with CD-ROM)
by John M. Nicholas

© 2001 by Prentice-Hall, Ire. (now known as Pearson Education Inc.), Upper Saddle :::'i~er, New'
Jersey 07458, U.S.A. All r.ghts reserved. No part of this bock may be reproduced in a-y form, by
mimeograph or any other means. wiT,out permission in writing frcm t1:e publisher.
ISBN-81-203-2134-0

Published by Asoke K. Gr-osh, Prentice-Hal! of India Private Limited, M-97, Connat.ont Circus.
New Delhi-110C01 and Printed by Syndicate Binders, A-20, Hosiery Complex, Nolca, Phase-It
Extension, Noida-201305 (N.C.R. De-1hi).


To Sharry, Julia, Joshua, and Abigail

CONTENTS

Preface

xv

CRAYIER 1 Introduction
1
1
1.1 In the Beginning. . .
1.2 What Is a Project?
4
7
1.3 Project Management: The Need
1.4 Response to a Changing Environment
9
1.5 Systems Approach to Management
9
1.6 Project Goals
10
1.7 Project Management: The Person, the Team, the System
1.8 About This Book
12
Study Project Assignment
15
MS Project
15
Review Questions
15

Endnotes
16

PART I:

PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

11

17

CHAPTER 2 What Is Proj ect Management?
19
2.1 Functions and Viewpoints of Management
19
2.2 Project Viewpoint versus Traditional Management
21
2.3 Evolution of Project Management
24
2.4 Where Is Project Management Appropriate?
27
2.5 Project Management: A Common Approach in Everyday Business
2.6 Different Forms of Project Management
31
2.7 Project Environments
35
2.8 Project Management in Industrial Settings
36
2.9 Project Management in the Service Sector
40

2.10 Project and Program Management in Government
42
2.11 Summary
45
Review Questions
46
Questions About the Study Project
47
Case 2-1
47
Case 2-2
49
Endnotes
50

29

rii


CHAPTER 3 Systems, Organizations, and System Methodologies
3.1 Systems Thinking
51
3.2 Definition of System
52

3.3
3.4
3.5

3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

Systems Concepts and Principles
Human Organizations
58

53

Systems Approach
64
Systems Analysis
68
Systems Engineering
7-1
Systems Management
76
Summary
77
Review Questions
79
Questions About the Study Project
Case 3-1
81
Endnotes
82

PART II:

51

80

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

85

CHAPTER -1 Systems Development Cycle: Early Stages
87
4.1 Systems Life Cycles
88
4.2 Systems Development Cycle
89
-1.3 Systems Development Cycle, Systems Engineering, and Project Management
4.4 Constraints in Systems Development
94
4.5 Phase A.: Conception
95
4.6 The Project Proposal
106
-1.7 Project Contracting
111
-1.8 Summary
115
Review Questions
116
Questions About the Study Project
117

Case -1-1
117
Case 4-2
118
Endnotes
118
CHAPTER 5 Systems Development Cycle: Middle and Later Stages
120
120
5.1 Phase B: Definition
...,
J._
Phase C: Execution
132
138
5.3 Production/ Build Stage
5.4 Implementation Stage
111
143
5.5 Phase D: Operation
5.6 Systems Development in Industrial and Service Organizations
5.7 Systems Development in Large Government Programs
148
5.8 Surnrnarv
151
Review Questions
152
Questions About the Study Project
153
Case 5-1

153

-

viii

Contents

93


Case 5-2
Case 5-3
Endnotes

Part III:

154
155
156

SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES

Chapter 6 Planning Fundamentals
159
6.1 Planning Steps
160
6.2 The Project Master Plan
161
6.3 Scope and vVork Definition

164
6.4 Project Organization Structure and Responsibilities
177
6.5 Project Management System
6.6 Scheduling
177
6.7 Planning and Scheduling Charts
179
184
6.8 Summary
Review Questions
188
Questions About the Study Project
Case 6-1
190
Case 6-2
191
Endnotes
191

157

173

189

193
Chapter 7 Network Scheduling and PDM
193
7.1 Logic Diagrams and Networks

7.2 The Critical Path
205
7.3 Calendar Scheduling and TIme-Based Networks
7.-1 Management Schedule Reserve
217
217
7.3 PD~1 Networks
7.6 Summary
222
Review Questions and Problems
")")4
Questions Abou t the Study Project
228
Endnotes
228
229
Chapter 8 PERT, CPM, Resource Allocation, and G ERT
230
8.1 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERTI
238
8.2 Critical Path Method (CPN!)
244
8.3 Scheduling vv ith Resource Constraints
233
8.-1 GERT
8.3 Discussion and Summary
258
260
Review Questions and Problems
262

Questions About the Study Project
Case 8-1
263
Endnotes
266
Chapter 9 Cost Estimating and Budgeting
9.1 Cost Estimating
269
269
9.2 Cost Escalation
Contents

268

ix


9.3

Cost Estimating and the Systems Development Cycle

9.-1

Cost Estimating Process

9.5

Eleme~ts

9.6

9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10

274

of Budgets and Estimates

281

Project Cost Accounting and Management Information Systems
Budgeting C sing Cost Accounts
Cost Summaries

288

Cost Schedules and Forecasts
Summary

286
293

300

Review Questions and Problems

301

Questions About the Study Project

Case 9-1
Endnotes

305
306

10.2

Risk Identification

307

10.3

Risk Assessment

10.4

Risk Response Planning

10.5

Project Management Is Risk Management

10.6

Summary

10.7

Supplement: Risk Analysis Methods

312
319

Questions About the Study Project

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.-l
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10

11.11
11.12

11.13
11.1-1
11.15

323

326

Review Questions and Problems

x

304

304

· Chapter 10 Managing Risks in Projects
10.1 . Risk Concepts
307

Chapter 11

273

Case 10-1

336

Case 10-2

337

Endnotes

338

Proj eet Control

327

333
336

340

The Control Process
3.JO
Information :\lonitoring
341
Internal and External Project Control
342
Traditional Cost Control
342
Cost Accounting Systems for Project Control
343
Project Control Process
3-15
Project Control Emphasis
349
Performance Analvsis
356
Forecasting "To Complete" and "At Completion"
365
Performance Index Monitoring
369
\ 'ariance Lirni ts
3:-0
Controlling Changes
3:-1
Contract Administration

375
Control Problems
376
Summary
377

Contents

284


Review Questions and Problems
Questions About the Study Project
Case 11-1
381
Endnotes
382

378

380

Chapter 12 Project Management Information Systems
385
12.1 Functions of the p~ns

384

12.2
12.3

Computer-Based Tools
385
Computer-Based p~n Systems

12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7

Representative Computer-Based PMISs
389
405
Web-Based Project Management
Applying Computer-Based Project Management Systems
Summary
411
Review Questions
411
Questions About the Study Project
412
Endnotes
412

Chapter 13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5

13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9

PART IV:
Chapter 14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
1-!.3
14.6
14.7
1·t8
14.9
14.10
Contents

386

Project Evaluation, Reporting, and Termination
414
Project Evaluation
Project Review Meetings
415
Reporting
419
Terminating the Project
420

Termination Responsibilities
422
Closing the Contract
423
Project Extensions
424
Project Summary Evaluation
424
Summary
427
Review Questions
428
Questions About the Study Project
428
Endnotes
429

ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR

407

413

431

Project Organization Structure and Integration
433
Formal Organization Structure
434
Organization Design by Differentiation and Integration

Requirements of Project Organizations
438
Integration of Subunits in Projects
438
Liaison Roles, Task Forces, and Teams
439
Project Expediters and Coordinators
-l-l0
Pure Project Organizations
442
Matrix Organization
44~
Selecting a Project Form
447
Project Office
430

434


14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14
14.15
14.16

Chapter 15
15.1
15.2

15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8

The Informal Organization
451
Integration in Large-Scale Projects
452
Integration in Systems Development Projects
Concurrent Engineering
458
Quality Function Deployment
463
Summary
470
Review Questions
471
Questions about the Study Project
472
Case 14-1
473
Case 14-2
474
Endnotes
475

456

Project Roles, Responsibility, and Authority
477
The Project Manager
478
483
Project Management Authority
Selecting the Project Manager
486
\Vays of Filling the Project Management Role
490
491
Roles in the Project Team
Roles Outside the Project Team
494
496
Relationships Among Project and Functional Roles
Summary
496
Review Questions
498
Questions About the Study Project
499
Case 15-1
500
Case 15-2
500
Endnotes
501

Chapter 16 Managing Participation, Teamwork, and Conflict
16.1 Leadership in Project Management
504
16.2 Participative Management
506
16.3 Teams in Project Management
507
16A The Team Building Approach
510
16.5 Improving Ongoing \Vork Teams
512
16.6 Building ~e\\· Teams
513
16.7 Intergroup Problem Solving
515
16.8 Origins of Contlict
518
16.9 Consequences of Conflict
520
16.10 :\lanaging Contlict
521
16.11 Team Methods for Resolving Conflict
523
16.12 Emotional Stress
523
16.13 Stress Management
xi i

Contents

503


16.1-1

Summarv
528
Review Questions

. 529

Questions About the Study Project
Case 16-1
531
Endnotes
Chapter 17

530

532

Project Failure, Success, and Lessons Learned

534

17.1
17.2

535
Project Failure

Project Management Causes of Project Failure

17.3
17.-1
17.5

Project Success
542
Project Management Causes of Project Success
5-l3
A Model and Procedure for Analyzing Project Performance

17.6

Epilogue
550
Review Questions

551

Questions About the Study Project
Endnotes
Appendix A

553

553

Systems Engineering Process

Stage 0: Indentification of Need
Stage 1: System Concept
557

555

555

Stage 2: System Definition and Preliminary Design
Stage 3: Detailed Design and System Development
Stage -1: System Construction and/ or Production
Stage 5: System Operation and Support
560
Throughout: System Evaluation
561
Endnotes
562
Appendix B Types of Contracts
Fixed Price Contracts
56-1
Cost-Plus Contracts
565
Incentive Contracts
566
Endnotes
569
Appendix C

537

557
559
560

563

Logistical On-Line System Project Master Plan

Author Index

591

Subject Index

59-1

570

5-!S



PREFACE

When people see something impressive--a bridge arching high over a canyon, a
space probe touching down on a distant planet, a graceful curlicue ramp on a free\vay, a motion picture such as Titanic (so real you think you're there!), or a nifty
computer the size of your hand-they wonder, "how did they do that?" By they. of
course, they are referring to the creators, designers, and builders, the people who
thought up and actually made those things. Rarely do they mean the m,1 1 wgers, the
people who organized and lead the effort that brought those wondrous things from a

concept or idea into reality.
This book is about the managers-project managers-and what they do and how
they do it. Project managers are the mostly unsung heroes of business and technology,
people who, in most cases, stand outside the public eye but without whose talent,
skills, and hard work most neat ideas would never amount to anything. Certainly fit:
project manager is but one of the many people who help shape the products, systems,
and artifacts of modem life, those things we take for granted as well as those ~....e
marvel at. Nonetheless, the project manager is the one who gets all of the others involved, and then organizes and directs them so their combined efforts will corne
out right. (Sometimes, though rarely, the manager and the creator happen to be the
same. vvoody Allen, Kelly Johnson, and Gutzon Borglum are examples. Their life
work-s-in motion pictures, supersonic airplanes, and Mount Rushmore. resF€ctively-represent not only creative or technological genius, but leadership and m anagerial talent as well.)
The pace of change in business and technology is accelerating. The last fe'N
decades have seen business be transformed from domestic, nationalistic enterprises
and markets into multinational enterprises and a single global market. As a result. no
matter what your perspective there is more of everything to contend with-e-n-ore
ideas, competitors, resources. constraints, and, certainly, more F€ople doing and
wanting things. The accelerated rate of change in technology means that products or
processes are evolving at a more rapid pace, and as a result the life cycles of the thir.gs
v.... e use and rely on are getting shorter. This accelerated rate of change has a direct impact on the frequency and conduct of projects-s-whether projects to develop products,
systems, or processes that compete in local, domestic, and international markets: Frojects to create and implement new \\"ays of meeting demand for energy. recreation,
housing, communication, transportation, and food; or projects to answer basic q·.1estions in science or to resolve problems such as hunger, disease, and pollution. All of
this project activity has spurred a gro\':ing interest in \\'ays to plar. end control F:-ojects, and to organize and lead people and groups to meet the needs o; custorr.ers.
markets, and society within the bounds of limited time and resources.
Associated \vith the growing interest in project management is the g:"(,\\"ing r.eed
to train project managers. In the past and still today, project managers ·..vere larcely
xv


persons who had demonstrated some exceptional capability, though not necessarily
as a manager. If you were a good engineer, programmer, systems analyst, architect, or

accountant, eventually you would become a project manager. Then, presumably, you
would pick up the necessary management skills somewhere along the way. The flaw
in this approach is that project management encompasses a broad range of skillsmanagerial, leadership, interpersonal-that are much different than the skills associated with the technology of the particular project. There is no compelling reason to
presume that the project environment alone will provide the opportunity for someone to "pick up" the skills necessary for project management.
As a text and handbook, this book is about the "right" way to manage projects. It
is intended for advanced undergraduate and graduate university students, and for
practicing managers in business and technology. As the title says, it is a book about
principles and practice, meaning that the topics in it are meant to be applied. It covers
the big picture of project management-origins, applications, and philosophy, as
well as the nitty-gritty, how-to steps. It describes the usual project management topics of networks, schedules, budgets, and controls as well as the human side of project
management.
. Why a book on business and technology? In my experience, technical specialists
such as engineers, programmers, architects, chemists, and so on, often have little
or no management training. This book, which includes many technology project examples, provides somewhat broad exposure to relevant business concepts and management specifics to help them get started as project managers.
What about those people involved in product-development, marketing, processimprovement, and related projects commonly thought of as "business projects"? Just
as students of technology seldom get management training as part of their formal
education, students of business seldom get training about the conduct of projects in
'technology. For students of business this book reveals not only how "business 0' projects are conducted, but what happens in a wide variety of engineering, construction,
and other kinds of "technical" projects.
Of course, technical projects are also business projects because they involve business issues such as customer satisfaction, resource utilization, cost, profits, and so on.
Although engineering and development projects may aprear different from
nonengineering projects, both types are similar in the way they are managed. This
book conceptualizes all projects using a single framework called the Systems Development Cycle. This framework serves as a general scheme for illustrating commonalities and differences among projects.
This book is an outgrowth of more than a decade of teaching project management
at Loyola Lniversity Chicago, preceded by several years of practical experience in
business and technology projects, including design and flight test work in the aircraft
industry, and software applications development and process improvement projects
in banking. From this practical experience I developed an appreciation not only for the
business-management side of project management-systems and procedures for
planning, scheduling, budgeting, and control-but for the human and organiza rional

side as well. I saw the benefits of good communication, trust, and teamwork on project outcomes, as 'sell as the costs of emotional stress and group conflict. I observed that
the most successful projects usually were those where trust, good communications,
and teamwork flourished, regardless of the formal planning and control systems in
place. This book largely reflects these personal experiences and learnings. Of course,
the book reflects much more than my own personal experience. To cover Froject management in a more general, comprehensive sense, I had to rely on the published T.·.·orks
of many other authors, and on the suggestions of colleagues and reviewers.
xvi

Preface


In this second edition I have revised and added substantial new material to incorporate current examples and reviewers' suggestions, and to take advantage of the
growing body of literature in project management. Every chapter has been revised
and updated. The most significant changes are as follows: Chapters 1 and 2 have
many new examples and case studies of projects and project managers: Chapters -I
and 5 have increased coverage of important front-end topics such as preparation of
RFPs and proposals, and definition of user needs, project objectives, requirements,
and specifications. Chapter 7 has been revised to cover activity-oriented (rather
than event-oriented) scheduling. Chapter 8 has expanded coverage of constrainedresource scheduling and multiple-project scheduling. Chapter 9 includes a new section on the various methods of cost estimating. Chapter 10 is a new chapter that
addresses models and practices for assessing and managing project risk. Chapter 11
is expanded to address multiple aspects of project control: scope, quality, schedule,
performance, and change control. Chapter 12 is completely revised and covers cur- .
rent software applications and Web-based project management. Chapter 14 is expanded and discusses not only project organization, but mechanisms for project
integration including integrated product development teams, concurrent engineering, and quality function deployment. To every chapter I have added new examples
and end-of-chapter case studies.
My goal in writing this book has been to provide students and practicing managers of projects the most practical, current, and interesting text possible. I appreciate
hearing your comments and suggestions. Please send them to jnicholfcluc.edu.

Acknowledgments
Writing a book is a project and, like most projects, reflects the contributions of many

people. Here I want to acknowledge and give special thanks to those who contributed
the most. First, thanks to my research assistants. In general, research assistants do a
lot of work-s-academic research as well as gofer work, and without their toiling efforts
most professors would accomplish far less. I have been fortunate to have had the assistance of two such bright and capable people, Elisa Denney, who reviewed much of
the book, helped draft most of Chapter 12, and served as a constant source of energy:
and Hollyce James, who helped with revisions and provided editorial competency.
Also thanks to Cary Morgan and Louis Schwartzman, my research assistants for the
first edi non.
I want to express appreciation to Dr. Enrique Venta for reviews and assistance in
portions of this and the first edition. Others who deserve special mention and thanks
are Dr. Harold Dvck. Dr. Samuel Ramenofsky, Dr. Donald Meyer, Elaine Strnad, Paul
Flugel, John Edison, Sharon Tylus, and Debbie Gillespie. I also want to acknowledge
the influence of three of my professors, Charles Thompson and Gustave Rath a:
Northwestern University, and Dick Evans at the Univer sity of Illinois, whose philosophy and teachings helped shaped this book.
My appreciation to the following who served as reviewers and provided dozens
of helpful suggestions: Thomas B. Clark of Georgia State University; Frank Derornedi
of Golden Gate Uruversirv: Bruce Hartman of the University of Arizona; Joseph L,
Orsini of California State University, Sacramento; Peter Papantos of DeVry Institute:
and Thomas Tice of California State Polytechnic Lniversity, Pomona.
My wife Sharry also gets special thanks. She read the draft for the first edition,
provided numerous suggestions, and helped reduce the amount of "techno-jargon"
in the book. She also managed the home front, allowed me the time to pursue and
complete this project, and was a steadfast source of support.
Preface

xvii


Thanks also to the folks at Prentice Hall and BookMasters, especially to Tom
Tucker for his encouragement and support for this second edition.

There are other colleagues, students, and friends, some mentioned in endnotes
elsewhere throughout the book, who provided support, encouragement, and reference materials; to them I say thank you. Despite the assistance of so many people and
my 0\\"11 best efforts, there are still likely to be omissions or errors. I had final say, and
I accept responsibility for them.
John M. Nicholas

xviii

Preface


ABOUT THE AUTHOR
---------------------------------"',.~

JOHN NICHOLAS is professor of information systems and operations management,
and associate dean of the Graduate School of Business, Loyola University Chicago..
He is an active teacher, writer, and researcher in project management and manufacturing management, and has written extensively about performance issues of teams
working in confined, hazardous, stressful environments. He conducts executive seminars and has been a consultant on project management and process improvement.
John is the author of numerous academic and technical publications, including
two textbooks, Nfanaging Business and Engineering Projects (1990) and Ccmpetiii:e
Manufacturing Management (1998). He has held the positions of engineer and team
leader on aircraft development projects at Lockheed-Martin Corporation, business
systems analyst on bank operations at BankAmerica, and research associate on
energy-environmental research projects at Argonne National Laboratory. He has a
B.s. in aeronautical and astronautical engineering and an :\LB.A. in operations research from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and a Ph.D. in industrial
engineering and applied behavioral science from Northwestern University.



Introduction

:~~/\ofs0111el-hjnB1-0 be done; plan;
'·Ml~£ecif,

a) a special uni« of
..1(Jho~akJ"YJ etc., b) an extensive
. ... Cl:JJfSenlalion, construction, etc.
f.c

.>

;:~~\~x7
. ,

-Vv'ebster's New \Vorld Dictionaru

1 .1

IN

THE BEGINNING . . .

Sometime during the third millennium B.C., workers on the Great Pyramid of
Cheops set the last stone in place. Certainly they must have felt jubilant, for this
event represented a milestone of sorts in one of humanity's grandest undertakings. Although much of the ancient Egyptians' technology is still a mystery,
the enormity and quality of the finished product remains a marvel. Despite the
Jack of sophisticated machinery, they were able to raise and fit some 2,300,000
stone blocks, weighing 2 to 70 tons apiece, into a structure the height of a modem
-iO-story building. Each facing stone was set against the next with an accuracy of

.O-i inch, and the base, which covers 13 acres, deviates less than 1 inch from level
(Figure 1-1).1
Equally as staggering was the number of workers involved. To quarry the
stones and transport them down the Nile, about 100,000 laborers were levied. In
addition, -iO,OOO skilled masons and attendants were employed in preparing and
laying the blocks and erecting or dismantling the ramps. Public \..v orks were essential to keep the working population employed and fed, and it is estimated that
no less than 150,000 women and children also had to be housed and fed.i
1


Figure 1-1
The Great Pyramid of Cheops, an early (circa 2500 B.C.) large-scale project.
[Photo courtesy of Arab Information Center.]

But just as mind-boggling was the managerial ability of the Egyptians-the plan.ning. organizing, and controlling that were exercised throughout the 20-year duration
of the pyramid construction. Francis Barber, a nineteenth century American naval attache and pvrarnid scholar, concluded that:
it must have taken the organizational capacity of a genius to plan all the
work. to lay it out, to provide for emergencies and accidents. to see that the
men in the quarries, on the boats and sleds, and in the mason's and
smithies shops 'were all continuously and usefully employee, that the
means of transportation was ample, ... that the water supplv was
ample/ ... and that the sick reliefs were on hand.:'

Building the Great Pyramid is what we today would call a large-scale project. It
stands as evidence of numerous such projects from early recorded history that required
massive human works and managerial competency. The Bible provides many accounts
of projects that required orchestration of thousands of people and tne transport and utilization of enormous quantities of materials. Worthy of note are the managerial and leadership accomF lishments of .\loses. The scriptural account of the exodus of the Hebrews
from the bondage of the Egyptians gives some perspective on the ;-reparation, orzanization. and execution of this tremendous undertaking. Supposedly. Moses did a ::nagnificent job of personnel selection, training, organization, and delegation of authority;"
The famed ruler Solomon, among other accomplishments, was the "manager" or nurnerous grea: construction projects. He transformed the battered n..::.ins of many ancient
cities and crude sr.antv towns into powerful fortifications. With his ·....·ealth and the help

of Phoenician artisans. Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem. Seven years went into
the construction ci the Temple, and after that Solomon built a palace for himself which
took 13 more year3 to complete. He employed a \·..orkforce of 30,000 Israelites to fell rrees
and import ti.•.rnber from the forests of Lebanon." That was almost 3.. JOO years ago.
2

Chapter 1

Introduction


With later civilizations, most notably the Greeks and Romans, the number of activities requiring extensive planning and organizing escalated. These societies undertook extensive municipal and government works programs such as street paving,
water supply, and sewers. To facilitate their military campaigns and commercial interests, the Romans constructed networks of highways and roads throughout Europe,
Asia Minor, Palestine, and northern Africa so that all roads would "lead to Rome."
The civilizations of renaissance Europe and the Far East undertook river engineering,
construction of canals, dams, locks, and port and harbor facilities, With the spread of
modern religions, construction of churches, temples, monasteries, mosques, and massive urban cathedrals was added to the list of projects. The remains of aqueducts,
bridges, temples, palaces, fortifications, and other large structures throughout the
Mediterranean and China testify to the ancients' occupation with large-scale projects.
With the advent of industrialization and electricity, the projects of humankind
took on increasing complexity, Projects for the construction of railroads, electrical and.
hydroelectrical po\-\Ter facilities and infrastructures, subways, and factories became
commonplace. In recent times, research and installation of large systems for communications, defense, transportation, and information technology have spurred different, more complex kinds of project activity,
As long as humankind does things, there will be projects. M any projects of thefuture will be similar to those in the past. Others will be vastly different either in terms
of increased scale of effort or more advanced technologv, Representative of the latter
are two recent projects, the English Channel tunnel (Chunnel) and the international
space station. The Chunnel required tremendous resources and took a decade to cornplete. The international space station (Figure 1-2) will require new technologies, SOIne
that have yet to be developed.

Figure 1-2

The 'international space station, a modern large-scale project.
[Photo courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center.}

Chapter 1

Introduction

3