A course of english for student of forestry resources management

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TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES ............................................................................... Page 2-5
Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION ....................................... Page 6-10
Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I) ......................................................... Page 11-15
Further Reading: A GUIDE TO TREE IDENTIFICATION .............................. Page 16-17
Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)........................................................ Page 18-20
Further Reading: TREE IDENTIFICATION ...................................................... Page 21-23
Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION ........................................ Page 24-27
Further Reading: TREES AND FORESTS ......................................................... Page 28-32
Unit 6: FOREST AND FLOODING ................................................................... Page 33-37
Further Reading: WINDBREAKS....................................................................... Page 38-39
Unit 7: CREATING A NEW STAND ................................................................. Page 40-45
Further Reading: TREE MAINTENANCE ......................................................... Page 46-49
Unit 8: DIFFERENT TYPE OF CUTTING ........................................................ Page 50-56
Unit 9: FOREST MEASUREMENTS DEFINED............................................... Page 57-61
Unit 10: FOREST HARVESTING ...................................................................... Page 62-66
Unit 11: FOREST TREE INSECTS AND HOW TO CONTROL THEM ........ Page 67-72
Further Reading: TREES DISEASES ................................................................. Page 73-78
Unit 12: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDFIRES ............................ Page 79-82
Further Reading: FIRE MANAGEMENT ................................................................ Page 83
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... Page 84

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Unit 1:

THE ROLE OF TREES

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text
For hundreds of years people have
planted trees to serve the needs of
future generations for timber and
tree products. In Europe and Asia
forests were planted by rulers,
church leaders and farmers – for
the people. By planting trees they
particularly
and
symbolically
showed faith and hope for the
future.
Trees are fundamental to life and
the processes that maintain healthy
soil, and clean air and water. There
is evidence which shows that in
regions where the trees are cleared
to less than 30% of their original
surface area, other sustainable life
processes begin to collapse. Rivers
silt up, soils wash away, and air
quality declines. James Lovelock, a
renowned ecologist, claimed these
breakdowns in natural systems will
in turn affect other word bio-areas
continent or cyclones may occur

more frequently. It will be sad if
these things happen before we
change
from
consumers
to
producers.

II. Comprehension questions: Now read the text carefully, and try to answer the following
questions:
1. What do people plant trees for?
2. What do European and Asian people want to show by planting trees?
3. What are fundamental roles of trees?
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4. What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down?
III. Vocabulary
Fill in the gaps with words in the box
boundary ; slopes
pressures

; verges

; sanctuary ; shelter ; indigenous

; surrounding ; reptiles ; uncontaminated ; backbones

1.……….. forests involved over millions of years with all the …………. of natural selection
operating, so that finally what we see is a highly refined complex which is beautifully honed to

survive in the ………….. environment.
2. If the forest is large enough it will offer ………… to indigenous mammals, birds and
………………. .
3. Forest may be established in the areas such as: creeks, gullies, farm ………….., ridges and
places with …………. greater than 15, and roadside …………………. .
4. Your garden is the natural forest that are the …………. and security for the whole landscape.
5. Like your food forest and structural forest, this assembly of trees and their organisms provides
…………… and protection, and maintains air, water and soil in ……………. states.
B. GRAMMAR

COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are generally followed by specific prepositions. However,
there are many exceptions to any rule listing certain words which must appear with certain
prepositions. This is something that one must learn from constant contact with and attention to
the elements of a new language.
Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition
1. It‟ very nice ................... you to let me use your car. Thank you very much.
2. Why are you always so impolite ………….. your parents? Can‟t you be nice ……...….. them?
3. It wasn‟t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you.
4. I can‟t understand people who are cruel to …………. animals.
5. Why do you always get so annoyed …………….. little thing?
6. We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….…. the hotel.
7. I was surprised ………….….. the way he behaved. It was out of character.
8. These days everybody is aware ……………….. the danger of smoking.
9. Mr. Davis spends a lot of time gardening. His garden is very well-kept, and he‟s very proud
………..…. it.
10. Bill has been doing the same job for too long. He‟s bored ……..……… it.

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Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank.
1. A sound understanding of trees and their growth should be important ………….. somebody
who participates in managing forests. (on / for / to / with)
2. Forestry must be based …………….. a sound understanding of botanical principles. (on / for /
to / with)
3. Considering the growth of tree is important …………… the determination of the yield of
lumber and other products. (in / on / for / with)
4. Some areas tend to be crowded ……………… bushes. (in / on / by / with)
5. Biophysical life processes of broad-leaved trees are different ……………. those of needle-like
ones. (with / at / from / for)
6. The life cycle of trees, similar …………… that of most plant, begins with germination. (with /
to / as / by)
7. A tree may develop stunted roots if the soil is poor …………… nitrogen. (with / in / at / on)
8. If the tree is deficient (not enough) ……………. water, it is hard for nutrients to be carried to
different parts. (in / with / on / for)
9. The forest edge is essential ……………… the lift of the wind. (with / for / to / of)
10. In the soil, water may be valuable …………….soil organisms and plant roots. (with / for / to /
of)
11. The gross features of trees are more useful …………….. quick field identification. (with / for
/ to / of)
12. The positions of tree crown are relative ……….. the general level of the forest canopy. (with
/ for / to / of)
13. Some branches are capable …………. growing independently. (with / for / to / of)
14. Glucose is rich …………….. energy. (with / in / for/ of)
15. Some forests are free ……………. rotting diseases. (with / for / to / from)
16. Trees are vulnerable …………. various diseases. (with / for / to / of)
17. It is a good way to plant trees highly resistant …………….. diseases. (with / for / to / of)
18. Forest trees are prone …………… attacks by diseases. (with / for / to / of)

19. The fungus causing wilt diseases used to be native ………….the Orient. (with / for / to / of)
20. The rotting fungi are responsible ……….great volumes of wood worthless. (with / for / to /
of)
21. Cellulose is high …………. energy content. (with / for / in / of)

Exercise 3 :
1. The American chestnut once accounted ………….. as much as one half of the trees in many
forest stands. (with / for / to / of)
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2. Any tree consists ………. the roots, stem and leaves. (with / for / to / of)
3. The tree provides habitat ………….. the animals. (with / for / to / of)
4. The word „crown‟ refers ……………. the branches and leaves of a tree. (with / for / to / from)
5. Four sections of layers make …………. the outer part of a tree trunk. (with / for / to / of)
6. The outer bark protects the tree ………….. radical changes in temperature, diseases, insects
and dying. (with / for / to / from)
7. Nature supplies the tree ………carbon dioxide from the air, minerals and water from the soil
and light energy from the sun. (with / for / to / of)
8. Metabolism is the process of building ………. and breaking ……… substances containing
carbon. (of-of / up-of / down-up / up-down)
9. The cycle including respiration and photosynthesis results …………… several net effects.
(with / for / in / from)
10. Biomass production should depend ……..the tree species and their spacing and age. (up / on /
upon / of)
11. Chemical substances can prevent trees ……….. being attacked by fungi. (with / for / from /
of)

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Unit 2:

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text

In very early pioneer days,
trees were cut down with no
thought of replacing them.
However, the significance of
trees was indicated as early as
the 1620s by the Plymouth
Colony, when an ordinance
was passed prohibiting the
felling of timber on any
colony land without official
consent. A little later in
Pennsylvania, William Penn,
the governor, ordered that, for
every 5 acres of forest land
cleared, 1 acre was to be left
uncut.
After the United States was
established,
laws
with
penalties were passed by
several states to prevent

thoughtless waste of the
forests. In the early 1800s
Congress authorized the president to protect live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida
and to use the Army and Navy for enforcement. During this same period the first step in forestry
was taken by the government by providing for the growing of live oaks in the southern states for
ship timbers. A federal act also provided for preservation of nearly 250.000 acres of forest land in
Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana. According to another act passed in that decade, any person
cutting down or destroying living red cedar, live oak, or other trees on federal land could be
punished by the government. These laws and regulations, through which the government tried to
control the forest land, helped call attention to the importance of forests and led to the
development of conservation at the state level.
In January 1867, the first state committee on forest protection was appointed in Michigan, and
Wisconsin followed in March of that year. Two years later the State Board of Agriculture of
Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of
trees. Minnesota created a law in 1871 that granted bounties to encourage the planting of forest
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trees. The first Arbor Day, a day in late April or early May observed by the planting of trees was
celebrated the following year in Nebraska.
The federal government adopted the Timber Culture Act in the early 1870s. It provided that the
government would donate 160 acres of land to any person who planted 40 acres of that trees with
trees not more than 12 feet apart and kept the trees growing and healthy for one decade. This act,
however, was repealed after 10 years because of serious abuses; too many recipients of these
grants were not honoring their commitments by failing to follow the rules and regulations
pertaining to the grants.
In many instances, while employing fire to prepare their land for cultivation, the settlers
disregarded caution relating to neighboring land. Gross carelessness often resulted in destruction
of property well.
II/ Comprehension questions

A/ True or False?
1. Trees were cut with thought of replacing them in very early pioneer days.
2. The importance of trees was known in the 17th century.
3. Before USA was founded laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent
thoughtless waste of the forests.
4. In the early 10th century, live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida were protected.
5. Red cedars were grown by the government in southern states for ship timbers in the early 19 th
century.
6. In some states of America, about 250.000 acres of forest land were preserved by a federal act.
7. Any persons cutting down one acre of living red cedar, live oak or other trees on federal land
could be punished by the government.
8. In the early 19th century police were used to enforce forest laws and regulations.
9. In 1896 the state Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state
policy for the preservation and production of trees.
10. These early laws and regulations played an important role in the establishment of forestry in
USA.

B/ Answer the questions:
1. In very early pioneer days, why were trees cut with no thought of replacing them?
2. What was the content of the ordinance passed in 1620?
3. What did William Penn order?
4. In the early 1800s, what did the congress authorize the president to do?

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5. When was the planting of trees started?
6. When was the timber culture Act adopted and what was its content?

III. Vocabulary

A.
1. Look at paragraph 1 again. Which word has the same meaning as:
A. harvested

C. importance

B. without thinking of

D. banning

2. Look at paragraph 3 again. Find the synonym of the words:
A. agreement

C. give hope and courage

B. conservation
3. Look at paragraph 4 again. Which word has the same meaning as:
A. 10 years

B. parliament

B. Put the appropriate word in the blank
conserve
cut
significance
fell
prevented
protection
growing
timber

laws
destruction

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1. The…………………….…of Eucalyptus on waste land is becoming popular.
2. In Sweden, machines have been used to……………….….trees.
3. It is very important to……………….….all the valuable wood species.
4. Shifting cultivation causes a lot of forest……………….… .
5. Nowadays, most of people are aware the…………………of forests.
6. Forests……………..…….is a very important subject for us.
7. Long, long ago, trees were………………………with no thought of replacing them.
8. …………………..consumption of Japan has been increasing since the Second World War.
9. Everybody should respect the……………….………. .
10. New forest laws have……………..……people from destroying forests.

B. GRAMMAR
Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form:
He admitted taking my book.
Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”:
He agreed to lend me his book.
Verbs followed by a particles like „in‟, „from‟, ect. are followed by the -ing form:
He insisted on going to a film last night.
Some verbs are followed by either gerunds or infinitives:
It began raining.
It began to rain.
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Enjoy: I enjoy working in my gardent
Finish: Bob finished studying at midnight.
Stop: It stooped raining a few minutes ago.
Quit: David quit smoking.
Mind: Would you mind opening the window?
Postpone: I postponed doing my homework.
Put off:I put off doing my homework.
Keep: Keep working. Don’t stop.
Keep on: Keep on working. Don’t stop.
Consider: I’m considering going to Hawaii.
Think about: I’m thinking about going to Hawaii.
Discuss: They discussed getting a new hat.
Talk about: They talked about getting a new car.

want
need
would like
would love
hope
expect
plan
intend
mean
decide
promise
offer
agree

refuse

appear
pretend
forget
can’t afford

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1. Make sentences from the following notes. Think whether you should use the infinitive or
the – ing form after the verbs.
He/suggest/read/chapter 5/before/we/go/lecture
The rain/not stop/fall/until yesterday evening
He/wants/spend/more time/study.
A good farmer/try/set/objectives.
Peter/prevent/harvest/his crop/bad weather.
I enjoy/listen/music.
He/not mind/work/weekends.
He/forget/hand in/essay/ last night.
There/nothing/that shop/worth/buy.
It/no use/leave/your work/last minute.
I/miss/watch/college football match/last week.
He/ hope/get/ good results/his examination.
I/expect/grow/more vegetables/next year.
I/not want/risk/fail/my exams.

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Unit 3:

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I)

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text

Trees are woody plants, but not all woody plants are trees. A tree usually grows upright to
at least 20 feet (15.5 metres) at maturity and has a single stem, often called bole or trunk.
The stem supports limbs and leaves, forming the top or crown. Other woody plants are
vines and shrubs. Vines may have woody stems but do not have a distinct crown of upright
branches. Shrubs may have several woody stems growing from a clump, and they usually
are smaller than trees.
Trees generally develop a typical shape when they grow in an open area. Trees that grow
in crowded forests usually have trunks of greater clear length. Essentially, we have no
timberline resulting from high elevation in the East, but at timberline and at higher
mountain elevations in the West many trees are knurled, twisted, and sometimes prostrate.
Such tortuous form is the result of many factors, including thin soils, limited growth
periods, deep snows, and continuous exposure to strong winds. However, under favorable
conditions, most species develop characteristic shapes. Several field trips with a good
identification manual showing local species should enable an inexperienced person to
become rather proficient in identifying trees.
Identification features are also found in bud, flower, fruit, leaf, twig, and bark structure.
The precise botanical characteristics by which trees are classified (primarily flower parts)
are too small or fleeting to be useful in field identification for those with little experience.
The gross features (shape, leaf, and bark structure, buds and twigs) are more useful for
quick field identification.

II/ Comprehension questions
1. All woody plants are trees or not?
2. At maturity, how high is a tree?
3. How many stem does a tree have?

4. What does the stem support?
5. Do vines have distinct crowns?
6. How do trees develop when they grow in an open area?
7. What kind of trunk does a tree often have when it has to compete for light?
8. Why are some trees knurled or twisted?
9. In what conditions do most species develop characteristic shape?
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10. In order to have quick field identification what should be used?
III. Vocabulary
A. Put the appropriate word into the blank:
stem

knurled

crown

factors

shape

identification

branches

bark

light

characteristics

1. …………………..is very important for the growth of trees.
2. Trees…………………...is a subject that we are going to study next week.
3. The……………………………..of this tree is very thick.
4. Many………………………affect the growth of a tree.
5. After the flood, the………………………..of the river banks changed so much.
6. This kind of Pine has got a lot of………………….….. .
7. We used to play under the…………………………….of this old, big tree.
8. The…………………………....of this bamboo is 10 metres long.
9. Yesterday, a car run into that tree, but only the……………………….is damaged.
B. Comprehension check
1. A tree usually grows…………… .
A. vertically

B. horizontally

C. downward

2. A tree usually has…………… .
A. two stems

B. one stem

C. some stems

3. Vines has got……………… .
A. great crown

B. small crown

C. complex crown

D. indefinite crown

C. not upright

D. hard

4. The branches of a vine are…………… .
A. big

B. long and thin

5. When growing in an open area, trees often have a………… .
A. nice form

B. popular form

C. great form

D. dense form

6. The tree that has to compete for light often has …………. .
A. a long stem

B. many branches

C. thick bank

D. a beautiful crown

7. The tree that grows on very adverse place generally has…………. .
A. a long stem

B. a usual shape

C. an unusual shape

D. a dense brown
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B. GRAMMAR

COORDINATORS

You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS
FOR AND NOR BUT

OR

YET

SO

for

Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their health.
(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)

and

Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more often.
(The two clauses express equal, similar ideas.)

nor

Women don‟t smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much
alcohol. (Nor means „and not‟. It joins two negative independent
clauses. Notice that questions word order is used after nor.)

but

Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as
women do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)

or

Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, or
they risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express alternative
possibilities.)

yet

Women used to be known as the „weaker sex‟ yet in some ways, they
are stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected
contrast to the first clause.)

so

Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in accidents. (The
second clause is the result of the first clause.)

Exercise1:
A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form
compound sentences. Be sure to write a complete clause containing a subject and a
verb. Underline the coordinator and add punctuation.
Example:
The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very easy to do my
shopping.
1. Students can attend day classes and ……………………………………………. .
2. Students can live in dormitories or ……………………………………………….
3. I have finished my math homework but ………………………………………….
4. I have studied English for six years yet …………………………………………..
5. My adviser suggested a word processing class for ………………………………..
6. Some students do not like to write term paper nor ………………………………....
7. The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers yet ………………....
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8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor …………………………………….
9. The instructor was very upset for …………………………………………………..
10. My roommate scored very high on the English placement test so ………………..
B. For each pair of sentences below, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning,
and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. Use each FAN
BOYS coordinator once. Write your new sentences on a separate sheet of paper, and
punctuate them correctly.
Example:
Nuclear accidents can happen. Nuclear power plants must have strict safety controls.

Nuclear accidents can happen, so nuclear power plans must have strict safety controls.
1. The accident at the nuclear power plant at three Mile Island in the United States created
fears about the safety of this energy source. The disaster at Chernobyl in the former Soviet
Union confirmed them.
2. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost of installation is very high.
3. Energy needs are not going to decrease. Energy sources are not going to increase. (Use
nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the word not.)
4. Burning fossil fuels causes damage to our planet. We need to develop other sources of energy.
5. Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. People
continue to do it.
6. Poorer nations especially will continue this harmful practice. They don‟t have the money
to develop “clean” energy sources.
7. All nations of the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren will suffer the
consequences.
Notice: Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, or and but are written in
parallel form. Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following
sentences:
The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobiles exhausts, and the
Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.
The States regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft.
Pesticides cannot be sold if they have an adverse effect on humans, on animal life, or on
the environment.
Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with and, so, because, then or but
1. We didn‟t have any money ……………… we couldn‟t go to a restaurant.
2. He closed all the doors and windows, and ……….. he left the house.
3. I was feeling very tired, …………… I went to bed very early.
4. Romano is usually on time, ……….. tonight she arrived half an hour late.
5. I couldn‟t sleep ………… there was a party next door.
6. It was very cold outside, ……….. I put on my warmest clothes.
7. I phoned my friends ………… invited them to come to my house.

8. We couldn‟t go out ……….. the weather was so bad.
9. He looked through the window for a minute or two, …………. went inside.
Exercise 3: Paragraph writing
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Match the following clauses together, using and, but, when, after, so and because.
a.
the next evening he needed them
b.
he arrived at the canteen
c.
they did not please Andrew very much
d.
Last night Andrew lend Robert his
lecture note
e.
Andrew needed his notes immediately
f.
He had waited for an hour

Robert could not attend
Robert finally arrived
he went to the canteen to look for
Robert
Robert has not returned them
Robert was not there
he decided to wait

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FURTHER READING:

A GUIDE TO TREE IDENTIFICATION
It is possible to identify many of our native trees by looking at their leaves. Strictly
speaking, identification should involve examination of the flowers which are far less
variable than leaves. However, in most cases, it is possible to make an identification using
just a few features of the leaves and twigs.

The leaf blade
Leaves are generally speaking broad, flat, and thin: these features allow them to intercept
light for photosynthesis and allow gases to enter or leave the leaf easily. The flat surface of
the leaf is termed the leaf blade or lamina, as seen to the left. The top surface of the leaf is
often very different from the lower surface. For example the lower surface may be hairy, or
a different colour, or the veins of the leaves may be more obvious. The leaf is usually
joined to the stem of a plant by a stalk; this is called the petiole. The angle that the petiole
makes with the stem of the plant is termed the leaf axil. The tip of the leaf is sometimes
referred to as the apex of the leaf.

The leaf margin
The edge of the leaf is known as the leaf margin. Looking at the margin of the leaf can be
an important in identifying the leaf. Leaf margins may be described as entire, toothed, or
lobed.

Simple or compound
A leaf is said to be simple if its lamina is undivided; that is, any „teeth‟ or lobes do not
reach down to the main vein of the leaf. A compound leaf consists of several leaflets, all of
which join up with a single leaf stalk or petiole. It is important when looking at the leaves
of a tree to look for the petiole – as a single leaflet of a compound leaf can look like a

single, simple leaf.

Leaf arrangement
Leaf arrangement is another feature of leaves that may help in you in identifying a tree is
how they are arranged on the shoots or twigs of the tree. Look at a shoot (not too near the
tip), how are the leaves arranged? Do they occur in pairs? If the pairs of buds are set at
right angles to each other, then this arrangement is described as decussate (as seen in the
Horse Chestnut) Or are they arranged singly and alternately, as in Beech and Birch.

Buds
The buds are usually encased in modified leaves – scale leaves. These may be tough
protective structures, they may be coloured or they may be sticky (as in the horse
chestnut). When the scale leaves fall, they often leave distinctive scars on the twigs. The
size, colour, position of the buds can often help identify a tree in winter, when the leaves
have been shed.

Shoots and twigs
When examining shoots and twigs, it is sometimes useful to look for lenticels. Lenticels
are small areas on the stem, where the cells are less densely packed so as to allow for the

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exchange of gases. Depending on the species, they can be small, round „spots‟ or minute
„slits‟ and the colour of them can also vary.

Bark
In more mature trees, another feature that can help in identification is the bark. The bark
protects the underlying tissues from damage. The outermost part of the bark consists of
dead cells and often has a characteristic colour and texture.

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Unit 4:

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text

Trees and other plants often have several common names, which vary with locality or local
use. To make specific identities world-wide, botanists employ Latinized names, which
remain constant since Latin is a language that no longer changes. The scientific name
consists of two parts: the genus (a collection closely related species) and the specific
epithet or species (a collection of individuals so similar that they suggest common
percentage and produce like offspring). The generic name always appears first and is
capitalized, while the specific name follows and begins with a lowercase letter. Because
general and regional guides to field identification of trees and government publication that
describe local or native trees are readily available, only a few of the important
commercially significant trees of the major forest regions will be studied in this chapter.
Most of these are valued for their wood products.
Prior to studying individual tree species, it is necessary to know that trees are divided into
two main groups. These are the conifers (gymnosperms) or softwood trees and the
broadleaf (angiosperms) or hardwood trees. Conifers have mostly needle-like or scale-like
leaves and bear their seeds in cones or cone-like structures. The conifers or evergreens do
not shed all their leaves annually, with the exception of larch and bald cypress. Deciduous
trees, those that shed all their leaves in the fall, generally are broad-leaved hardwoods.
The term hardwood and softwood can be misleading because the wood of some hardwood
trees is softer than that of some softwood trees. For example, the wood of yellow poplar

and basswood is much softer than that of the longleaf pine.
We will first study the conifers, which are very widely distributed in the various regions
and are very significant in the production of lumber and paper.

I/ Vocabulary
Find word or combination of words that means:
1. some (paragraph 1)

6. types (paragraph 2)

2. definite (paragraph )

7. accurate (paragraph 1)

3. the same (paragraph 1)

8. sawn wood (paragraph 4)

4. before (paragraph 2)

9. easily to be seen, bought (paragraph 1)

5. classified (paragraph 2)

10. different (paragraph 4)

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II/ Comprehension questions

1. How many names do trees and other plants have?
2. Why do they have many names?
3. Why do botanists have to use Latin to name trees?
4. How many parts does the scientific name consist of? What are they?
5. How are trees classified?
III. Vocabulary
A/ Find an appropriate word to fill the blank
1. He is a very famous……………. . (paragraph 1)
2. These trees do not………….leaves in the autumn. (paragraph 2)
3. In old time, people used to………to construct bridges. (paragraph 4)
4. ……………….….is often used to produce paper. (paragraph 4)
5. It is difficult to store the…………...of this tree, because their germination capacity is
decreased by the time. (paragraph 2)
6. To conserve valuable………..….resources is a task of great importance. (paragraph 1)
7. This kind of trees are often…………………on high mountains. (paragraph 4)
8. Names of trees………………with different regions. (paragraph 1)
9. The generic name always……………………first. (paragraph 1)
10. ………………..….do not shed all their leaves annually. (paragraph 2)
B/ Choose A, B, C or D.
1. Trees and plants have………… .
A. very few names B. many names
C. two names

D. one name

2. The scientific name of a tree has……….. .
A. only one part

B. two parts

C. four parts

D. many parts

C. last

D. anywhere

3. The specific name stands………….. .
A. first

B. in the middle

4. ……….is written or printed in capital letters.
A. the generic name B. the specific name
5. Trees are classified into………. .
A. three types

B. four types

C. two types

D. several types

6. Conifers are often……………… .
A. hardwood trees B. softwood trees
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7. Most of softwood trees do not change their leaves……… .

A. in autumn

B. in spring

C. in summer

D. in winter

8. The wood of………..hardwood trees is hard.
A. all

B. most of

C. some

D. many

C. Reading test
Complete the following text by filling in the blank spaces with the expressions given
below. A dotted line………requires a phrase to be added and a straight line ________
requires a word.
the leaf

of

the surrounding environment

very carefully

how

unfamiliar plant

plant groups

for example

functions

identifiable

grass

smell

some other plant

doing

If you want to identify an…………………, use your natural senses. Feel the texture of the
leaves. Then____________ the plant- crush the leaves and see if the scent reminds you
________other plants you know. All the mints are ____________by smell, and so are the
lavenders, eucalypts and citrus. Taste……………. and spit it out, and again see what it
reminds you of; ____________the oxalis family all have the same acidic taste, so do the
sorrels. (Notes: it is very hard to poison yourself by ___________simply a test taste and
then spitting the leaf out.)
Look at the plant……………… - all the thyme family have small hairy leaves;
other……………. can be similarly recognised by sight. Now you can probable see that this
plant is like……………………. you know. Think about it and then check its growing
place.

Examine ……………………- soil, aspect, slope- and the plant‟s habit- tree, shrub, herb
or____________. Identify its yields and ________________- mulch, groundcover, shelter
food, and so on.
Now tell yourself where and _____________you would use it in a permaculture design.

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FURTHER READING:

TREE IDENTIFICATION
There are many ways to identify a tree - the shape of the crown or leaves, the color of the
fruits and flowers, the shape or arrangement of twigs and buds, and the nature of the
bark. These characteristics are unique for each species and help in the identification
process. Knowing the characteristics of the leaves, twigs and buds is the most useful way
to identify a tree especially when using a botanical (dichotomous) key. The different parts
of a tree are described below. Illustrations for these characteristics are on the pages that
follow.
Types of Trees
There are two general types of trees based on leaf type - deciduous and coniferous.
Deciduous trees drop their leaves in the fall. Coniferous trees, such as hemlocks, pines and
spruce drop and replace their needles gradually. Each needle lives about one year. This
gives coniferous trees an evergreen appearance. Not all conifers are evergreen and not all
broadleaf trees are deciduous.
Leaves
Leaves are the easiest and most common way to identify trees. Leaf arrangement, form,
blade shape, and margin are different for every tree species. Knowledge of leaf
terminology is important when using summer identification keys.
Types
Broad leaf

Broad flat leaves mostly deciduous but not always.

Needlelike

Mostly evergreens, but some deciduous like larch.

Scale-like

Flat leaves that overlap like scales on a fish and are soft to
touch (cedars and junipers).

Leaf Form And Arrangement
Simple

One leaf blade per petiole (leaf stalk) with bud.

Compound

Many small leaflets on one petiole with bud.

Alternate

Leaves and stems alternately spaced along stem.

Opposite

Leaves and buds across from each other.

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Whorled

Three leaves and buds across from each other.

There are only four common opposite branching trees in our area. They are maple, ash,
dogwood and horse chestnut (or M-A-D-C-A-P). The "CAP" stands for caprifoliaceae, the
botanical name (genus) for horse chestnut.
Leaf Shape, Tips And Bases
The overall shape of the leaf and the shape at the tip and base are useful in tree I.D. For
example, willows have long and narrow (linear) leaves. Little Leaf Linden and Elms have
a oblique base (not symmetrical). Some leaves have pointy tips (ashes, elms, red oak)
while others are rounded at the tip (white oak). Some leaves have lobes like maples and
oak, while many do not.
Buds And Twigs
Buds are recognizable based on many things including their shape, arrangement and
scales. What color are the twigs? Are they hairy? Does the bud have overlapping scales?
Are they long? The American beech has a long, narrow, sharp and scale like bud.
Twigs also have distinct characteristics including whether they are opposite (maples) or
alternately arranged (oaks), stout (Tree of Heaven) or slender (honey locust), chambered
pith (butternut) or solid pith.
Fruit
Fruit is only useful when it is present on the tree or ground. Is the fruit fleshy or dry, a nut,
samara, or pod?
Bark
What color is the bark? Is it smooth? Does it have ridges or flakes?
Crown Form
There are six basic tree forms: columnar, ovate, pyramidal, rounded, "V" shaped, and
weeping. Crown form varies within species and cultivars of those species. Crown form is

an important factor in determining where to plant trees.

Columnar

Good for tight spaces like city streets and areas with
pavement. The 'Freeman' maple is columnar but grows
over 40'. Therefore, do not plant it under utility lines.
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Ovate

Narrow at the bottom and top, wide in the middle. Some
ashes, oaks and crab apple varieties are this shape and
grow between 20' to 50' tall.

Pyramidal

Cedars, pines and spruces are pyramidal.

Rounded

Maples, oaks and sycamores tend to be large and rounded,
providing shade for parks and wide streets.

V-Shaped

Japanese zelkova has this inverted triangle form.

Weeping

Willows have branches that seem to hang from the tree
giving it a weeping form.

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Unit 5:

TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text

Tree age and size can be
described in a general and
approximate way by use of
such words as seedling,
sapling, pole-size, mature,
and veteran. A stand of
trees can be even-aged or
all-aged.
A
forest
made
up
principally of one species is
a pure stand, while one
composed
of

several
species is a mixed stand.
Trees are also classified by
the positions of their
crowns relative to the
general level of the forest
canopy,
the
covering
created by the crowns
interweaving each other.
Dominant: A tree having a
well-developed crown that
extends above the general
level of the other crowns and is exposed to full light from above and partial light from the
sides.
Co-dominant: A tree with smaller crown than the dominants that helps form the general
level of the canopy and receives full light from above but limited amount from the sides.
Intermediate: A small-crowned tree crowded into the general level of the forest canopy,
receiving some light from above and virtually none from the sides.
Suppressed: A tree with poorly developed crown, beneath the level of the canopy
(overtopped), receiving very little light from above or the sides.
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