A course of english for student of forestry

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... Page 1
Unit 1: FORESTRY........................................................................................ Page 2-6
Unit 2: TREES AND FOREST .................................................................... Page 7-12
Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (Part I) ....................................... Page 13-17
Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (Part II) ...................................... Page 18-23
Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION .............................. Page 24-27
Unit 6: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (PART I) ..................................... Page 28-32
Unit 7: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (PART II) ................................... Page 33-36
Unit 8: TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (PART I) ....................... Page 37-42
Unit 9: TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (PART II)...................... Page 43-47
Unit 10: FOREST TREES DISEASES ...................................................... Page 48-53
Unit 11: CONTROL OF TREE DISEASES .............................................. Page 54-57
FURTHER READING 1 ............................................................................ Page 58-59
FURTHER READING 2 ................................................................................. Page 60
FURTHER READING 3 ............................................................................ Page 61-63
FURTHER READING 4 ............................................................................ Page 64-65
FURTHER READING 5 ............................................................................ Page 66-70
REFERENCES ......................................................................................... Page 71


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INTRODUCTION
This course has three purposes. It is intended:
To introduce students to the contents of Forestry
To provide examples of authentic texts written in the language typical of the subject.
To help students to practise the skills they will need in order to study the subject via

English and to use it when they have learned it.
In this course, the designer doesn‟t intend to give comprehensive coverage, but the
materials does embrace most of the basic concepts. It in sense is a basic course book of
Forestry.
All the texts in this course are selected from many different sources . They are not
simplified for students of English: the language the students encounter in these texts is exactly
what they will meet in real life.
The most important aim of this course is to help the students to acquire and develop the
skills they will need in order to learn their subject and when they have finished the course, to
use what they will have learned.


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Unit 1 :

FORESTRY

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text
1. Principle of Forestry
Since the primary task of the
forester is centered on producing trees,
understanding trees and their growth is
essential. Although certain special
terms may be used for convenience,
the principles underlying the growth,
development, and reproduction of trees
of the forest are the same as those for
other crop species. Thus, forestry must

be based on a sound understanding of
botanical principles. One critical point
to keep in mind is that trees are
generally
managed
for
wood
production, i.e., stem tissue. Compared
with most horticultural and agronomic
crops, forests represent long-lived,
perennial plants.
2. Classification
In United States forests, all
trees are spermatophytes, or seed
plants. They are classified formally as
either gymnosperms (cone-bearing
plants) or angiosperms (flowering
plants). This formal classification is accepted scientifically, but others are routinely used by
foresters. The most common general classification identifies a tree according to its leaf form
as a hardwood or softwood tree. Hardwoods are broad-leaved, generally deciduous, flowerbearing trees. Softwoods are needled-leaved, mostly ever-green, cone-bearing trees. This
broad classification is far from perfect: the southern long-needled pine is classified as a
softwood species although its wood is harder than that of many of the hardwoods, and several
deciduous broad-leaved species yield softwood, e.g., basswood, willow, and aspen. This leads
to the confusing terms hard hardwoods, and soft hardwoods. Some senses can be made from
this when it is remembered that the terms were established early, when the demand was for
the soft white pine and the very hard white oaks only. Later use of numerous species of
widely varying hardness or softness could not erase the old established usage.
3. Morphology and Anatomy

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Although a forest may contain annual, biennial, and short-lived perennial plant
species, trees are generally considered to be the major vegetation: they are long-lived
perennials that usually produce a single central stem and attain a height of 6 m or more.
Rarely does a forest tree maturity in less than 15 to 20 years: some trees may grow
continuously for centuries though generally very slowly after the five hundred years. In
considering the growth of trees, increases in both height and diameter, or girth, are important
in determining the yield of lumber or other products. In terms of gross morphology, as a rule,
tree growing in a typical forest environment are taller and have smaller root systems than
those growing separately or under widely spaced, ornamental-settings. The apical or top
portion of the tree, the crown, is also smaller under crowded conditions. Note that the word
crown has a different meaning in forestry than in horticulture and agronomy. In forestry, the
crown is that portion of the tree which has branches. Since shade decreases the ability of
branches to survive, the trees in crowded forests tend to shed their lower branches and thus
have less crown in proportion to clear stem.
4. Roots
Roots serve the same general function as for other plants: anchorage, absorption of
water and essential minerals, and storage of photosynthate. The storage function is less
important in forest trees than for most perennial field crops since stem tissue takes over much
of the storage function in trees.
5. Trees species differ markedly in the extent of their roots systems, differences that may
affect how the species are managed in a forest. For example, most oak, hickory, and walnut
trees have deep and extensive taproot systems which provide extremely solid anchorage.
Thus, these and other trees with similar roots systems are not prone to uprooting by severe
winds. In harvesting a forest, wind damage is a minor concern with these trees. Spruces and
balsam, on the other hand, have shallow roots system and can be uprooted even by moderate
winds. In planning the harvest, such trees must be removed or allowed to remain in a pattern
that will ensure adequate wind protection. Most forest trees fall somewhere between these
extremes. Generally, the root systems provide sound anchorage except in relatively extremely
conditions. Of course, even deep-rooted species can be up-rooted under severe conditions,

such as prolonged heavy rains before or during high winds. Hurricane conditions can level
extensive areas of forest. In addition, trees that normally produce taproots may develop
shallow root systems because of poor soil conditions, e.g., only a thin layer of a soil above the
bedrock. In such cases trees may be not only stunted but also easily blown over.
This text was taken from Barden et al., Plant Science, Mc Grav-Hill

II. Comprehension questions: Now read the text carefully, and try to answer the following
questions:
1.Why are forests usually managed?
2.What is the difference between an angiosperm and a gymnosperm?
3. How are hardwoods and softwoods differenciated?


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4. What kind of tree is the aspen?
5. How long does it take for a forest to mature?
6. How do you assess the amount of wood you will get from a tree?
7. What is a crown?
8. Why is the storage function of a tree‟s roots less important than those of a field crop?
9. Why is an oak less likely to be uprooted than a balsam?
10. When is the root system inadequate to anchor a tree?

III. Vocabulary
1. Look at the first paragraph again. What words have the same meaning as:
well-informed
main, most important
2. Look at paragraph 2 again. What words have the opposite meaning to:
straightforward; easy to understand
as an exception
3. Look at paragraph 2 again. Can you explain the words:

hard hardwood

hard softwood

4. Look at paragraph 3 again. What words have the same meaning as:
go on living
deciding
hundreds of years
part
all the time
seldom
5. Look at paragraph 4 and 5 again. Which words correspond to these definitions:
holding something down so that it is not blown over
liable or inclined to
going on for a long time
poorly developed
qualities which are as wide apart as possible

B. GRAMMAR
Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form:
He admitted taking my book.
Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”:
He agreed to lend me his book.


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Verbs followed by a particles like „in‟, „from‟, ect. are followed by the -ing form:
He insisted on going to a film last night.
Some verbs are followed by either gerunds or infinitives:
It began raining.

It began to rain.
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Enjoy: I enjoy working in my gardent

want

refuse

Finish: Bob finished studying at midnight.

need

appear

Stop: It stooped raining a few minutes ago.

would like

pretend

Quit: David quit smoking.

would love

forget

Mind: Would you mind opening the window?

hope

can’t afford

Postpone: I postponed doing my homework.

expect

Put off:I put off doing my homework.

plan

Keep: Keep working. Don’t stop.

intend

Keep on: Keep on working. Don’t stop.

mean

Consider: I’m considering going to Hawaii.

decide

Think about: I’m thinking about going to Hawaii.

promise

Discuss: They discussed getting a new hat.

offer

Talk about: They talked about getting a new car.

agree

1. Make sentences from the following notes. Think whether you should use the infinitive or
the – ing form after the verbs.
He/suggest/read/chapter 5/before/we/go/lecture
The rain/not stop/fall/until yesterday evening
He/wants/spend/more time/study.
A good farmer/try/set/objectives.
Peter/prevent/harvest/his crop/bad weather.
I enjoy/listen/music.
He/not mind/work/weekends.
He/forget/hand in/essay/ last night.
There/nothing/that shop/worth/buy.
It/no use/leave/your work/last minute.
I/miss/watch/college football match/last week.
He/ hope/get/ good results/his examination.


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I/expect/grow/more vegetables/next year.
I/not want/risk/fail/my exams.
2. Asking question You want to find out about the oil palm. Find out about the oil palm by
asking questions. Note down the answers. Asking about the following points:
Botanical name: ........................................................................................
Family:

....................................................................................................
Varieties: ..................................................................................................
Seed rate: ..................................................................................................
Planting
out:
............................................................................................
Spacing:
.....................................................................................................
Maturation:
................................................................................................
Harvest: .....................................................................................................
Yields:
.......................................................................................................
Composition percentage ...........................................................................
Diseases: ...................................................................................................
Processing: ................................................................................................
3. Paragraph Writing: Now write a short paragraph on the oil palm, using the information
you have noted above.

Unit 2:

TREES AND FORESTS

A. READING & COMPREHENSION


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I. Reading text
A mature forest cannot be precisely measured nor cost. However, it is clear that forests
have special functions. In addition to providing habitats for animals and contributing to

environmental stability, forests influence wind patterns, rainfall and nutrients turnover.

The Function Of A Forest
The waru
The trees are the fixed elements of a forest and the associates of trees- fungi, bacteria,
squirrels, possums, insects, birds, and other animals- can be seen as the mobile elements. The
whole- the tree and its associates- can be imagined as a guild or waru (the Australian
Aboriginal word waru expresses the sense of all organisms belonging together and working
co-operatively.) the tree provides habitat for the animals (shelter, food, nesting materials); in
return animals carry out the tree‟s needs for pollination, seed dispersal, pruning, cultivation
and fertilising.
In permaculture, you are aiming to create landscapes and ecosystems that function
with the wonder, diversity and efficiency of a waru.

Trees and wind
Trees are “pruned” or deformed by prevailing winds and from this you can predict
local wind direction and intensity, and assess the need for windbreaks.
Heavy trees with large canopies, such as oak trees, rely mainly on their weight to
withstand severe winds. Trees with lighter canopies insert roots deeply into the ground to
anchor themselves. It is important to use anchoring trees in cyclone areas.
Wind carries a “load”. It carries ice particles, sand, dust, bacteria, viruses and seed.
Trees with small fine leaves can “trap” the load and deposit the nutrients for their own
growth. Because fine-leaved trees are often found on the edges of forests, you will sometimes
find that the edge facing the prevailing wind has richer soils than the edge on the leeward side.
Typically, in a forest about 60% of the windstream is deflected up and over the trees.
The remaining 40% that enters the “edge” or forest closure is absorbed and warms the forest
with its energy. Within 100m the wind dies. At this point in the forest the air is clean, warm,
still and slightly humid. This is a perfect growing place.
The deflected wind is compressed in a region up to 20 times the height of the tree
canopy. If the air is humid, it will be compressed and cooled, and it will rain.

The forest edge is essential to the lift of the wind. The species growing on the edge are
dense, small-leaved and thick-stemmed, and can withstand the force of the wind. The edge


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must be kept intact because if it is destroyed the plants in the forest may suffer from windburn
and abrasion, and diseases and weeds can enter the forest and destroy its integrity.

Trees and temperature
Forests can be seen as nature‟s air conditioners because they clean the air and modify
extremes of humidity and temperature.
Trees absorb the sun‟s light energy and turn it into chemical energy.
If leaves are dark green or reddish in colour, as often found in the tropics, more light
as absorbed and local temperatures are reduced.
Trees transpire water into the atmosphere as humidity. (one medium-sized elm will
transpire 7000 litres of water on a clear day.) this evaporation is accompanied by cooling so
that by day it is cooler in and near a forest than it is in unvegetated areas. At night, in humid
conditions, water condenses on the leaves and warms the surrounding air.
In very dry areas, the evapotranspiration from trees will humidify air which is
uncomfortably dry; in very damp areas, water captured by trees dehumidifies the air by
absorbing water.
Trees and precipitation
Where the air stream is very humid (i.e. coasts and islands), air flows rapidly and
condenses on leaf surfaces. In these conditions dense rainforests will grow and the
condensation from leaf surface can be 80-86% of the total precipitation.
Trees pump moisture into the air as they transpire- up to 75% of precipitation is
returned to the atmosphere in this way. The Tasmanian Blue Gum, Eucalyptus globulus,
which averages about 60 trees to a hectare in a natural mixed forest, pumps 4000 litres/ day.
This is a huge return of moisture to the airstreams.
The environmental effects of forest removal are dramatic, both in the local area and

further field. It has been calculated that as much as 60% of inland water comes from forest
transpiration. Hence, forest removal in one area may relate directly to drought in another area.
Forests protect the soil from erosion. In one heavy deluge up to 80 tones/ hectare of
soil can be lost from bare earth. In addition, the topsoil and subsoil start to dry out if water
runs across the surface and off the land into waterways. Dams and rivers silt up and
eventually flood, carrying the valuable topsoil downstream.
When it rains………


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When it rains over a forest the impact of each rain drop on the soil is reduced and the
rain is spread as a film of water, bound by surface tension, over all the leaves of the trees. It is
caught in stems and bark, in webs, flowers and insect nests. The amount caught is influenced
by the crown thickness and density. For 100% of rain falling, 10- 15% is caught by the tree
canopy, branches and trunks of deciduous trees; more is caught in evergreen trees. This is
called interception.
The rest of the rain- the throughfall- drifts through the canopy as mist and droplets. It
contains organic salts, dust, plant exudates, insect droppings and sheddings. It is nutrient-rich
and is directed towards the outer plant canopy (also known as the drip line) and the
underlying feeding roots.
Before the water reaches the roots however, the organic humus layer of the soil acts
like a great water blotter and soaks up 1cm of rain for every 3cm of depth. This moisture is
held for later use, when the soil begins to dry out again.
In the underlying 40-60cm of soil, the throughfall is filtered into water and air
channels, nests and burrows, and is absorbed by soil fungi and bacteria, and of course, the tree
roots. This water is first bound by particles of clay and humus and then the excess percolates
slowly through the soil. At any time some of this water is valuable to soil organisms and plant roots.
Once all this has been accomplished, water starts to flow very slowly to rivers and the
sea. And when it does, it is clean.

II/ Comprehension questions
1. Can a mature forest be precisely measured or cost?
2. What is the definition of the term “waru”?
3. How can you predict local wind direction and intensity?
4. How can trees withstand severe wind?
5. Are fine-leaved trees benefit? Where can we find them in a forest?
6. What is the perfect growing place?
7. What tree species usually grow on the edge of a forest?
8. Why can forests be seen as nature‟s air conditioners?
9. When does air flow rapidly and condense on leaf surface?
10. Can trees pump moisture into the air? When?
11. How can trees help the soil?
12. Which acts like a great water blotter?

III. Vocabulary
1. In paragraph 3, line 1, the word “that” refers to:


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A. permaculture

B. landscapes

C. ecosystems

D. B & C

2. In paragraph 6, line 2 , the word “their” refers to:
A. trees‟

B. leaves‟

C. loads‟

D. nutrients‟

3. In paragraph 7, line 3, the word “its” refers to:
A. 40%

B. forest closure‟s

C. windstream‟s

D. forest‟s

C. height

D. air

4. In paragraph 8, line 2, the word “it” refers to:
A. tree

B. region

5. In paragraph 9, line 4, the word “its” refers to:
A. edge‟s

B. plant‟s

C. forest‟s

D. weed‟s

6. In paragraph 11, line 1, the word “it” refers to:
A. tree

B. sun

C. light

D. energy

7. In paragraph 14, line 1, the word “which” refers to:
A. areas

B. evatranspiration

C. air

D. trees

8. In paragraph 16, line 1, the word “they” refers to:
A. trees

B. moistures

C. air

D. precipitation

9. In paragraph 23, line 2, the word “it” refers to:
A. rain

B. GRAMMAR

B. throughfall

C. canopy

D. mist

COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are generally followed by specific prepositions. However,
there are many exceptions to any rule listing certain words which must appear with certain
prepositions. This is something that one must learn from constant contact with and attention
to the elements of a new language.

Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition
1. It‟ very nice ................... you to let me use your car. Thank you very much.
2. Why are you always so impolite ………….. your parents? Can‟t you be nice ……...…..
them?
3. It wasn‟t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you.
4. I can‟t understand people who are cruel to …………. animals.
5. Why do you always get so annoyed …………….. little thing?
6. We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….…. the hotel.
7. I was surprised ………….….. the way he behaved. It was out of character.
8. These days everybody is aware ……………….. the danger of smoking.
9. Mr. Davis spends a lot of time gardening. His garden is very well-kept, and he‟s very proud
………..…. it.

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10. Bill has been doing the same job for too long. He‟s bored ……..……… it.
Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank.
1. A sound understanding of trees and their growth should be important ………….. somebody
who participates in managing forests. (on / for / to / with)
2. Forestry must be based …………….. a sound understanding of botanical principles. (on /
for / to / with)
3. Considering the growth of tree is important …………… the determination of the yield of
lumber and other products. (in / on / for / with)
4. Some areas tend to be crowded ……………… bushes. (in / on / by / with)
5. Biophysical life processes of broad-leaved trees are different ……………. those of needlelike ones. (with / at / from / for)
6. The life cycle of trees, similar …………… that of most plant, begins with germination.
(with / to / as / by)
7. A tree may develop stunted roots if the soil is poor …………… nitrogen. (with / in / at / on)
8. If the tree is deficient (not enough) ……………. water, it is hard for nutrients to be carried
to different parts. (in / with / on / for)
9. The forest edge is essential ……………… the lift of the wind. (with / for / to / of)
10. In the soil, water may be valuable ……………..soil organisms and plant roots. (with / for
/ to / of)
11. The gross features of trees are more useful …………….. quick field identification. (with /
for / to / of)
12. The positions of tree crown are relative ……….. the general level of the forest canopy.
(with / for / to / of)
13. Some branches are capable …………. growing independently. (with / for / to / of)
14. Glucose is rich …………….. energy. (with / in / for/ of)
15. Some forests are free ……………. rotting diseases. (with / for / to / from)
16. Trees are vulnerable …………. various diseases. (with / for / to / of)
17. It is a good way to plant trees highly resistant …………….. diseases. (with / for / to / of)

18. Forest trees are prone …………… attacks by diseases. (with / for / to / of)
19. The fungus causing wilt diseases used to be native ………….the Orient. (with / for / to / of)
20. The rotting fungi are responsible ……….great volumes of wood worthless. (with / for / to / of)
21. Cellulose is high …………. energy content. (with / for / in / of)
Exercise 3 : Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank.
1. The American chestnut once accounted ………….. as much as one half of the trees in
many forest stands. (with / for / to / of)
2. Any tree consists ………. the roots, stem and leaves. (with / for / to / of)
3. The tree provides habitat ………….. the animals. (with / for / to / of)
4. The word „crown‟ refers ……………. the branches and leaves of a tree. (with / for / to / from)


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5. Four sections of layers make …………. the outer part of a tree trunk. (with / for / to / of)
6. The outer bark protects the tree ………….. radical changes in temperature, diseases, insects
and dying. (with / for / to / from)
7. Nature supplies the tree ………carbon dioxide from the air, minerals and water from the
soil and light energy from the sun. (with / for / to / of)
8. Metabolism is the process of building ………. and breaking ……… substances containing
carbon. (of-of / up-of / down-up / up-down)
9. The cycle including respiration and photosynthesis results …………… several net effects.
(with / for / in / from)
10. Biomass production should depend ……..the tree species and their spacing and age. (up /
on / upon / of)
11. Chemical substances can prevent trees ……….. being attacked by fungi. (with / for / from / of)


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Unit 3:

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I)

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text

Trees are woody plants, but not all woody plants are trees. A tree usually grows
upright to at least 20 feet (15.5 metres) at maturity and has a single stem, often called bole or
trunk. The stem supports limbs and leaves, forming the top or crown. Other woody plants are
vines and shrubs. Vines may have woody stems but do not have a distinct crown of upright
branches. Shrubs may have several woody stems growing from a clump, and they usually are
smaller than trees.
Trees generally develop a typical shape when they grow in an open area. Trees that
grow in crowded forests usually have trunks of greater clear length. Essentially, we have no
timberline resulting from high elevation in the East, but at timberline and at higher mountain
elevations in the West many trees are knurled, twisted, and sometimes prostrate. Such
tortuous form is the result of many factors, including thin soils, limited growth periods, deep
snows, and continuous exposure to strong winds. However, under favorable conditions, most
species develop characteristic shapes. Several field trips with a good identification manual
showing local species should enable an inexperienced person to become rather proficient in
identifying trees.
Identification features are also found in bud, flower, fruit, leaf, twig, and bark
structure. The precise botanical characteristics by which trees are classified (primarily flower
parts) are too small or fleeting to be useful in field identification for those with little
experience. The gross features (shape, leaf, and bark structure, buds and twigs) are more
useful for quick field identification.

II/ Comprehension questions
1. All woody plants are trees or not?
2. At maturity, how high is a tree?

3. How many stem does a tree have?
4. What does the stem support?
5. Do vines have distinct crowns?
6. How do trees develop when they grow in an open area?
7. What kind of trunk does a tree often have when it has to compete for light?
8. Why are some trees knurled or twisted?
9. In what conditions do most species develop characteristic shape?
10. In order to have quick field identification what should be used?


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III. Vocabulary
A. Put the appropriate word into the blank:
stem

light

crown

identification

shape

factors

branches

bark

characteristics

knurled

1. …………………..is very important for the growth of trees.
2. Trees…………………...is a subject that we are going to study next week.
3. The……………………………..of this tree is very thick.
4. Many………………………affect the growth of a tree.
5. After the flood, the………………………..of the river banks changed so much.
6. This kind of Pine has got a lot of………………….….. .
7. We used to play under the…………………………….of this old, big tree.
8. The…………………………....of this bamboo is 10 metres long.
9. Yesterday, a car run into that tree, but only the……………………….is damaged.
B. Comprehension check: Multiple-choice
1. A tree usually grows…………… .
A. vertically

B. horizontally

C. downward

2. A tree usually has…………… .
A. two stems

B. one stem

C. some stems

3. Vines has got……………… .
A. great crown

B. small crown

C. complex crown

D. indefinite crown

C. not upright

D. hard

4. The branches of a vine are…………… .
A. big

B. long and thin

5. When growing in an open area, trees often have a………… .
A. nice form

B. popular form

C. great form

D. dense form

6. The tree that has to compete for light often has …………. .
A. a long stem

B. many branches

C. thick bank

D. a beautiful crown

7. The tree that grows on very adverse place generally has…………. .
A. a long stem

B. a usual shape

C. an unusual shape

D. a dense brown


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B. GRAMMAR

COORDINATORS

You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS
FOR AND NOR BUT

OR

YET

SO

Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their health.

for

(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)
Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more often.

and

(The two clauses express equal, similar ideas.)
nor

Women don‟t smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much
alcohol. (Nor means „and not‟. It joins two negative independent
clauses. Notice that questions word order is used after nor.)

but

Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as
women do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)

or

Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, or
they risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express alternative
possibilities.)

yet

Women used to be known as the „weaker sex‟ yet in some ways, they
are stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected
contrast to the first clause.)

so

Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in accidents. (The
second clause is the result of the first clause.)

Exercise1:
A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form
compound sentences. Be sure to write a complete clause containing a subject and a verb.
Underline the coordinator and add punctuation.
Example:
The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very easy to do my
shopping.
1. Students can attend day classes and ……………………………………………. .
2. Students can live in dormitories or ……………………………………………….
3. I have finished my math homework but ………………………………………….
4. I have studied English for six years yet …………………………………………..
5. My adviser suggested a word processing class for ………………………………..
6. Some students do not like to write term paper nor ………………………………....
7. The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers yet ………………....


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8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor …………………………………….
9. The instructor was very upset for …………………………………………………..
10. My roommate scored very high on the English placement test so ………………..
B. For each pair of sentences below, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning, and
join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. Use each FAN BOYS
coordinator once. Write your new sentences on a separate sheet of paper, and punctuate
them correctly.
Example:

Nuclear accidents can happen. Nuclear power plants must have strict safety controls.
Nuclear accidents can happen, so nuclear power plans must have strict safety controls.
1. The accident at the nuclear power plant at three Mile Island in the United States created
fears about the safety of this energy source. The disaster at Chernobyl in the former Soviet
Union confirmed them.
2. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost of installation is very high.
3. Energy needs are not going to decrease. Energy sources are not going to increase. (Use nor
and question word order in the second clause, deleting the word not.)
4. Burning fossil fuels causes damage to our planet. We need to develop other sources of energy.
5. Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. People continue
to do it.
6. Poorer nations especially will continue this harmful practice. They don‟t have the money to
develop “clean” energy sources.
7. All nations of the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren will suffer the
consequences.
Notice: Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, or and but are written in parallel
form. Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following sentences:
The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobiles exhausts, and the
Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.
The States regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft.
Pesticides cannot be sold if they have an adverse effect on humans, on animal life, or on the
environment.
Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with and, so, because, then or but
1. We didn‟t have any money ……………… we couldn‟t go to a restaurant.
2. He closed all the doors and windows, and ……….. he left the house.
3. I was feeling very tired, …………… I went to bed very early.
4. Romano is usually on time, ……….. tonight she arrived half an hour late.
5. I couldn‟t sleep ………… there was a party next door.
6. It was very cold outside, ……….. I put on my warmest clothes.
7. I phoned my friends ………… invited them to come to my house.

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8. We couldn‟t go out ……….. the weather was so bad.
9. He looked through the window for a minute or two, …………. went inside.
Exercise 3: Paragraph writing
Match the following clauses together, using and, but, when, after, so and because.
a.

the next evening he needed them

Robert could not attend

b.

he arrived at the canteen

Robert finally arrived

c.

they did not please Andrew very much

e.

Andrew needed his notes immediately

Robert was not there

f.

He had waited for an hour

he decided to wait

he went to the canteen to look for
Robert
d.
Last night Andrew lend Robert his
lecture note
Robert has not returned them


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Unit 4:

IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)

A. READING & COMPREHENSION
I. Reading text

Trees and other plants often have several common names, which vary with locality or
local use. To make specific identities world-wide, botanists employ Latinized names, which
remain constant since Latin is a language that no longer changes. The scientific name consists
of two parts: the genus (a collection closely related species) and the specific epithet or species
(a collection of individuals so similar that they suggest common percentage and produce like
offspring). The generic name always appears first and is capitalized, while the specific name
follows and begins with a lowercase letter. Because general and regional guides to field
identification of trees and government publication that describe local or native trees are

readily available, only a few of the important commercially significant trees of the major
forest regions will be studied in this chapter. Most of these are valued for their wood products.
Prior to studying individual tree species, it is necessary to know that trees are divided
into two main groups. These are the conifers (gymnosperms) or softwood trees and the
broadleaf (angiosperms) or hardwood trees. Conifers have mostly needle-like or scale-like
leaves and bear their seeds in cones or cone-like structures. The conifers or evergreens do not
shed all their leaves annually, with the exception of larch and bald cypress. Deciduous trees,
those that shed all their leaves in the fall, generally are broad-leaved hardwoods.
The term hardwood and softwood can be misleading because the wood of some
hardwood trees is softer than that of some softwood trees. For example, the wood of yellow
poplar and basswood is much softer than that of the longleaf pine.
We will first study the conifers, which are very widely distributed in the various
regions and are very significant in the production of lumber and paper.
II/ Comprehension questions
1. How many names do trees and other plants have?
2. Why do they have many names?
3. Why do botanists have to use Latin to name trees?
4. How many parts does the scientific name consist of? What are they?
5. How are trees classified?

III. Vocabulary
A. Find word or combination of words that means:
1. some (paragraph 1)

6. types (paragraph 2)

2. definite (paragraph )

7. accurate (paragraph 1)

3. the same (paragraph 1)

8. sawn wood (paragraph 4)


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4. before (paragraph 2)

9. easily to be seen, bought (paragraph 1)

5. classified (paragraph 2)

10. different (paragraph 4)

B. Find an appropriate word to fill the blank
1. He is a very famous……………. . (paragraph 1)
2. These trees do not………….leaves in the autumn. (paragraph 2)
3. In old time, people used to………to construct bridges. (paragraph 4)
4. ……………….….is often used to produce paper. (paragraph 4)
5. It is difficult to store the…………...of this tree, because their germination capacity is
decreased by the time. (paragraph 2)
6. To conserve valuable………..….resources is a task of great importance. (paragraph 1)
7. This kind of trees are often…………………on high mountains. (paragraph 4)
8. Names of trees………………with different regions. (paragraph 1)
9. The generic name always……………………first. (paragraph 1)
10. ………………..….do not shed all their leaves annually. (paragraph 2)
C. Comprehension check: Multiple choice
1. Trees and plants have………… .
A. very few names B. many names

C. two names

D. one name

2. The scientific name of a tree has……….. .
A. only one part

B. two parts

C. four parts

D. many parts

C. last

D. anywhere

3. The specific name stands………….. .
A. first

B. in the middle

4. ……….is written or printed in capital letters.
A. the generic name B. the specific name
5. Trees are classified into………. .
A. three types

B. four types

C. two types

D. several types

6. Conifers are often……………… .
A. hardwood trees B. softwood trees
7. Most of softwood trees do not change their leaves……… .
A. in autumn

B. in spring

C. in summer

D. in winter

8. The wood of………..hardwood trees is hard.
A. all

B. most of

C. some

D. many

D/ Reading test
Complete the following text by filling in the blank spaces with the expressions given below.
A dotted line………requires a phrase to be added and a straight line ________ requires a
word.


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the leaf

of

the surrounding environment

very carefully

how

unfamiliar plant

plant groups

for example

functions

identifiable

grass

smell

some other plant

doing

If you want to identify an…………………, use your natural senses. Feel the texture of

the leaves. Then____________ the plant- crush the leaves and see if the scent reminds you
________other plants you know. All the mints are ____________by smell, and so are the
lavenders, eucalypts and citrus. Taste……………. and spit it out, and again see what it
reminds you of; ____________the oxalis family all have the same acidic taste, so do the
sorrels.
(Notes: it is very hard to poison yourself by ___________simply a test taste and then
spitting the leaf out.)
Look at the plant……………… - all the thyme family have small hairy leaves;
other……………. can be similarly recognised by sight. Now you can probable see that this
plant is like……………………. you know. Think about it and then check its growing place.
Examine ……………………- soil, aspect, slope- and the plant‟s habit- tree, shrub,
herb or____________. Identify its yields and ________________- mulch, groundcover,
shelter food, and so on.
Now tell yourself where and _____________you would use it in a permaculture
design.

B. GRAMMAR

TIME CONNJUNCTIONS
Use

when/ as soon
as/ the
moment/
immediately +
present simple

Example

To talk about two things

happening at the same
time in the future

The moment I see
Ian tonight I‟ll tell
him to call you.

Other
conjunctions used
with this tense
with a change in
meaning

Note: Do not use these
conjunctions with a future
form to talk about the
future.

NOT: The moment
I will see

Until / till
Until I go there, I
won‟t know what
it‟s like
Before
Before she begins
the race, she‟ll do
some warm-up
exercise.

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when/ as soon
as/ once/ the
moment/
immediately+
Present
perfect

To talk about one thing
happening before another
in the future

Once you‟ve seen
him, will you call
me?

Until / till
Until they moved
house they won‟t
have any free time.
Before/ after
After we‟ve been
on holiday, we‟ll
fell much better

when/ as soon
as/ once/ the
moment/

immediately+
Past simple

To talk about two things
happening at the same
time in the past

When I saw Ian
last night, I said
hello.

Until / till
Until I saw it for
myself, I didn‟t
believe it.
Before
Before she left the
office, she closed
all the windows.

when/ as soon
as/ once/ the
moment/
immediately+
Past perfect

To talk about one thing
happening before another
in the past

As soon as I‟d
spoken to him, I
understood the
situation better.

Until / till
Until you‟d
worked there for a
while, it was hard
to make friends
Before/After
After they‟d been
to the zoo, they
went home to bed.

AFTER+ -ing
- Use to talk about the past, present or future and to say that one thing happens and then
another thing happens.
- Can only be used if the subject of both verbs is the same.
Example: After arriving at the hotel, guests will be invited to a special welcome party.
Note: if the verbs have different subjects, the second subject and the appropriate verb tense
must be used.
Example: After guests have arrived at the hotel, a special welcome party will be held.
THEN/ AFTERWARDS/ AFTER THAT
- After can not be used alone as a linking word to join one thing that happens with
another thing that happens after it. Instead, use (and) then (and) afterwards,
or(afterwards), or(and) after that.
Example: We went to a restaurant and after we went to a night club.
 BEFORE+-Ing

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- To talk about the past event, present or future
- can only be used if the subjects of both verbs are the same
Example: I finished all my work before leaving.
Note: if the verbs have different subjects, the second subject and the appropriate verb tense
must be used.
Example: I finished all my work before she got back.
EXERCISE: Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first, using the
word given
1. Make up your mind and then tell me what your decision is.
ONCE
Tell me what your decision is ………………….. your mind.
2. The judges will hear all the evidence and then they will decide.
AFTER
The judges will decide ………………………………….. all the evidence.
3. Answer all the questions and then check your answers.
BEFORE
Don‟t check your answers …………………. all the questions.
4. I‟m going to her party next week but I won‟t see her before then.
UNTIL
I …………………………………….. to go to her party next week.
5. I made sure she wasn‟t badly injured and then I called a doctor.
AFTER
I called a doctor ……………… she wasn‟t badly injured.
6. I‟m going to think about this carefully and then give an opinion.
BEFORE
I won‟t give an opinion ……………………… about this carefully.
7. I‟m going to save enough money and then I‟ll be able to have a holiday.
UNTIL

I won‟t be able to have a holiday ……………….. enough money.
8. He said that he had worked extremely hard and he hoped he would be successful.
AFTER
He said that ………………………………, he hoped that he would be successful.
9. She spoke to me and then I found out that she had an accent.
UNTIL
I didn‟t find out that she had she had …………………… to me.
10. The train was still moving when she opened the door.


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BEFORE
He opened the door ………………. moving.