Thinking and study skills g10

Thinking and Study Skills
Grade 10

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Contents
Defining Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Setting Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Observing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Formulating Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Using Prior Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Using a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Using Reference Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Taking Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Outlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Classifying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Using Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Identifying Attributes and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Using Organizational Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Using Metaphorical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Identifying Main Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Identifying Logical Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Inferring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Predicting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Elaborating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Restructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Drawing Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Establishing, Verifying, and Assessing Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Using Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Solving Problems I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Solving Problems II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Making Decisions I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Making Decisions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Using Creative Thinking I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Using Creative Thinking II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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Contents
Taking Notes While Listening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Managing Study Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Studying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Learning from Graphics I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Learning from Graphics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Taking Tests I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Taking Tests II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

1

Defining Problems
People spend much time and energy in solving problems. Often, however, they fail to notice
that a problem exists, or they may try to solve a problem that does not exist. At other times,
two or more people might look at the same situation and discover different problems in it.
The first step in solving a problem is to define it. For example, Tammy is not achieving the
grades everyone thinks she should be achieving, especially on her writing assignments. She
needs to improve her grade-point average to be admitted to the college of her choice. Should
she sign up for an elective course in which she can easily earn an A but will not improve her

writing skill? Or should she take a tough composition course in which students rarely earn A’s
but usually become excellent writers? Tammy’s decision depends on how she defines her
problem.
The questions in the box are useful in defining problems.
Defining Problems
1. What is the exact problem?

4. Why is it a problem?

2. Whose problem is it?

5. Why must it be solved?

3. What are some examples of the problem?

6. When must the problem be solved?

■ Activities
A. Imagine you are on a committee to solve the following solid-waste problem in your town or
city. On a separate sheet of paper, define the problem by answering the questions in the box.
Your answers will depend upon how you decide to define and limit the problem you are
willing to tackle.

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Note that the passage describes more than one problem. Within a larger problem affecting
millions of people, a smaller one exists for a smaller number of people. Before solving one of
these problems, the solvers must define the problem they will attempt to solve.
In the United States garbage trucks collect about 133 million tons of garbage each year. You
could build a mile-high mountain with the yearly trash from New York City alone. Burning

garbage and trash pollutes the air. Dumping it in the ocean pollutes the ocean. Burying it in
a landfill uses up land and may allow poisonous wastes to seep into the ground and from
there into rivers, lakes, and other water supplies.
Existing landfills are filling up, and most people don’t want to allow new ones in their
community. Yet every year the list of disposable items grows—dishes, diapers, razors,
batteries, hospital supplies, and more.
One state passed a law in 1989 to help ease the demand on landfills. The law requires each
town or city to reduce its solid waste by 25 percent before 1995 and by 50 percent before
2000. Otherwise, the community will face heavy fines.

B. Identify a problem in your school, city, state, country, or the world. Define that problem by
answering the questions in the box.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

1


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

2

Setting Goals
When you set a goal, you decide what you want to achieve or attain. You may, for example,
want to win a race, finish a book, or learn to surf. Perhaps you have a long-term goal, such as
becoming a doctor. Setting goals gives you direction and purpose.
Certain goals are common to most students. They want to pass their tests. They want to finish
their assignments and satisfy teachers so they can achieve good grades. Sometimes students set
goals for completing their assignments. For example, one student might decide to finish

studying a chapter before she takes a break. Another might decide to work until he has
completed an outline.
However, students are not necessarily setting their own learning goals when they complete
assignments given to them or attempt to pass a test about what a teacher considers important.
The best learning takes place when students set their own learning goals. The following box
shows one procedure for setting learning goals. The K-W-L strategy allows you to set goals
before a learning activity and monitor your progress.
K (Know)

Think about what you already know about the topic.

W (Want to Know)

Decide what you want to know about the topic.

L (Learned)

After the learning activity, asses (evaluate) what you have learned.
Set additional goals for what you still want to know.

■ Activities
A. Read each of the following items. On a separate sheet of paper, write R if the item is, in
your opinion, a realistic study goal. Write U if the item is an unrealistic study goal. Give one
reason to support each of your opinions.
1. Review a science chapter in one hour.
3. Memorize ten definitions in ten minutes.
4. From a complete outline, write a one-page rough draft in forty minutes.
5. Research a topic, and write a term paper in an evening.
6. Choose a good book to write a report on.
7. Learn all about the Constitution before tomorrow’s test.

8. Organize your notes for a short speech in an hour.
9. Memorize the spellings of ten words in twenty minutes.
10. Edit and revise a rough draft of a ten-page paper in one hour.
B. Choose one of the topics below or another topic of your own choice. Using the K-W-L
strategy, list five things that you know about the topic. Then list five things that you would like
to know about it.
fitness programs

the Olympic games

a famous person

animal communication

air or water pollution

allergies

popular music (any type)

the Super Bowl

the Vietnam War

2 Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. Read The Yearling in an evening.

Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

3

Observing
Have you ever studied a painting and wondered how the artist “saw” all of the color and detail
displayed in the picture? Have you ever read a description of a character in a story and
wondered how the author “saw” all the details that brought the character to life for you? Good
artists and good writers are masters of observation. Artists are trained to see things in the
objects or people they draw or paint that most other people do not ordinarily see. Writers
observe people, places, and things carefully and draw on these observations when they write.
Other people are good at observing, too. Experienced bird watchers can identify a bird by the
color of its wing tips or the shape of its beak. Psychologists are good at observing people’s
behavior. They can tell by watching when a person is angry, worried, or uncomfortable.
Observing requires careful attention. You can learn things about yourself, other people, art,
sports, nature, places, objects, and so on by watching carefully and taking notice of what you
see. Depending upon what you are observing, you might also bring other senses into play—
hearing, touching, smelling, or tasting.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Examples of Observation
1. Observing a Speaker
The speaker is quite a bit older than most of the audience. She stands in front of a small wooden
stand held up by a narrow metal post. She appears to know the material very well. She uses notes
but looks down at them only occasionally. She appears quite comfortable in front of an audience
and is evidently quite experienced at speaking. She speaks with an air of authority, sometimes
moving from one foot to the other and gesturing often with her hands.

2. Observing Nature
The path twines between two overhanging bushes and then suddenly plunges down onto a
narrow, sandy beach stretching between a thick forest and the wide lake. Rocks, small plants,
seaweed, and twigs dot the beach. The presence of many small animals is also evident. Ants,
beetles, flies, mosquitoes, spiders, frogs, and lizards repeat the everyday duties that make up their
lives, ignoring the world around them. Some of the grains of sand sparkle in the sun, creating an
intricate pattern with the splotches of shade from the trees.

■ Activities
A. Read the descriptions above and, on a separate sheet of paper, make a list of the things each
author observed.
B. Choose something or someone you can observe from where you are sitting right now. It
might, for example, be a classmate, the room you are in, a display on the wall, a single desk, or
the view out a window. Observe your chosen subject carefully, and list at least ten observable
facts about it.
C. Write a letter to a pen pal who has never seen your home, your school, your locker, or your
neighborhood. Carefully observe one of these, and then describe it to your pen pal in a letter.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

4

Formulating Questions
Before going on a field trip, you would probably ask several questions: What time are we

leaving? What time will we get back? How are we getting there? What should I wear? How
much does it cost? Should I bring money? A lunch? Formulating such questions helps you
prepare for and learn more about the field trip. Formulating questions is a helpful way to learn
about other subjects, too.
Before you read a novel, you might ask questions such as, What is this book about? Will I like
this book? When and where does the story take place? What kinds of characters are in the
story? What will happen to the main character? How does the story end?
Scientists are good at asking questions. They ask such things as, What makes the weather turn
colder in winter? Why do leaves change color in autumn? How does copper conduct
electricity? Formulating such questions is essential to the work of a scientist. The scientist first
formulates questions and then searches for answers.
Newspaper reporters must formulate good questions in order to get a news story. Following
are some questions a reporter asked a lifeguard who had just rescued a drowning girl from a
lake. These questions will help the reporter answer the who, what, when, where, why, and how
questions that every good news story answers.
Who are you? Who is the girl?
What happened? What training have you had?
When did you first know that the girl was in trouble?
Where do you work as a lifeguard? Where in the lake was the girl swimming?
Why do you think the girl got into trouble? Why were you able to rescue her?
How did you pull the girl from the water? How long have you been a lifeguard?
The following box contains some subjects you might formulate questions about.
classical music

the environment

a recent movie

the space program

a sport or an athlete

your ancestors

the new car models

a friend’s trip

■ Activities
A. Formulate three questions you would want to ask in each of the following situations. Write
your questions on a separate sheet of paper.
1. after being given an assignment in a class
2. when you look at an ad in a newspaper or magazine
3. when you read a newspaper article
B. Choose one of the subjects in the box above or a subject of your own that you would like to
know more about. Then formulate ten questions about the subject, writing them on a separate
sheet of paper.
C. Pretend you are about to be left to baby-sit for a three-year-old and a one-year-old. List at
least five questions you would ask the parents before they leave.

4

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

a recent book


Thinking and Study Skills

Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

5

Using Prior Knowledge
An experienced rock climber faced a steep ledge. Carefully she examined the cracks, grooves,
and small shelves that could be used as handholds and footholds. Using what she already knew
about rock climbing, the climber selected a route and began climbing. When she reached a
difficult ledge along her route, she paused. Could jamming her left shoe into such a small
groove hold her weight on the rock? The climber had much climbing experience. She knew
that she could balance on the groove until she found another foothold farther up the steep
ledge. Her plan worked. Using techniques she had learned earlier, she moved quickly up the
ledge until she reached the top.
Most people would not think that they could stand in the groove of a rock. But this climber
had prior knowledge; she had climbed rocks many times before. She knew it could be done,
and she knew she could do it. Using prior knowledge helped her successfully and efficiently
bypass the steep ledge.
People use prior knowledge daily. A car driver, for example, knows how his car handles in
traffic. He knows how fast he must accelerate to enter the freeway. He can estimate how long it
will take him to drive from home to work. His prior knowledge gives him an advantage over
someone who has not driven a car often or who has not driven the same route daily.
You yourself use prior knowledge every day without even thinking about it. You probably
know how to go from your home to your school, a friend’s house, a movie theater, a shopping
mall or supermarket, or any other place that you visit frequently. You learned the directions a
long time ago, and now your prior knowledge enables you to travel to such places without even
thinking about your route.
You also use prior knowledge when you write. Without prior knowledge of how to hold a
pencil and how to form letters, you could not write at all. Without prior knowledge you would
not know how to prewrite or write a draft or write an expository or persuasive article. And if
you had no prior knowledge, you would have few things to write about.

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Possible Topics for Using Prior Knowledge
swimming

riding a bicycle

ice-skating

playing softball (or another sport)

snowmobiling

baking cookies

reading a book

walking to school

using crutches

raking leaves

baby-sitting

doing math problems

■ Activities
A. Choose an activity, possibly one of those listed in the box above. Then, on a separate sheet

of paper, make a list of all the things you already know about that activity.
B. Write a paragraph in which you tell how using prior knowledge would help you perform
the activity you selected for Part A.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

6

Using a Library
A library is an essential resource for a student or a researcher. Libraries are most useful to
people who know how to find the information they want. For example, if you wanted to learn
about the artist Vincent van Gogh, you could check first in a general encyclopedia in the
reference section of the library. Next, you could try the card catalog or computer catalog to see
whether the library has any books about Vincent van Gogh. You could also look in the catalog
under Artists for other books that might contain information about van Gogh. Magazine
articles about the painter would be available in the periodicals section of the library.
Basic Library Resources
card or computer catalog

Lists nonfiction books by author, title, and subject and fiction
books by author and title only. Unit 23 of your text will tell you
more about library catalogs and about using call numbers to
locate books in the library.

reference section

Contains dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, atlases, and other
general and specialized reference works

newspapers and
periodicals section

Contains newspapers (with microfilm or microfiche of back issues),
magazines, and journals, many of them indexed in the Readers’
Guide to Periodical Literature

audio-visual section

Contains records, CDs, audio tapes, videocassettes, slides and
filmstrips, and other nonbook materials

■ Activities
A. Of the sections or resources listed in the box, which would be most useful for quickly
locating the following items of information? Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
2. a book about Jackie Robinson
3. batting averages of top baseball players over a ten-year period
4. the record holder for major league career hits
5. a brief history of baseball
6. details about the recent firing of a ballplayer
7. a movie about baseball
8. the location of the Baseball Hall of Fame
9. the distance between bases on a major league diamond
10. when the Brooklyn Dodgers moved to Los Angeles
B. On a separate sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

1. How many cards would the card catalog contain for The Natural by Bernard Malamud, a
novel about baseball?
2. If you wanted to browse through all the nonfiction books about baseball in your library,
what could you do to begin?
3. Where should you look if you want some general information about baseball?
6

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. recent interviews with famous baseball stars


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

7

Using Reference Books
You probably are familiar with such reference works as general dictionaries and encyclopedias.
There are also hundreds of specialized dictionaries and encyclopedias. These are works limited
to a particular field of knowledge, such as art, science, or history, or works that contain a
specific kind of information, such as quotations or biographies. Such works may be in a single
volume or in many volumes.
If you are seeking information in a specific field or are looking for a particular kind of
information, these specialized sources may be the best ones to use. A few examples of them are
shown in the box.
Some Specialized Reference Books
Concise Dictionary of American History—brief articles about topics in American history

Dictionary of Foreign Terms in the English Language—translations of foreign words and phrases often
used in English writing
Encyclopedia of World Art—entries on artists, art movements, and other art-related topics
Familiar Quotations—quotations by famous people, indexed by subject and key words
Halliwell’s Filmgoer’s Companion—dictionary-style entries on films, actors, directors, and other movierelated topics
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology—multivolume reference on topics in science and technology
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians—articles on all aspects of music
Notable American Women—biographies of both famous and lesser-known American women
Webster’s Biographical Dictionary—biographical sketches of more than 40,000 important people
Famous First Facts—listing of famous “firsts,” including descriptions of the events involved

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Who’s Who in America—basic biographical facts about notable living Americans

■ Activities
A. Using a separate sheet of paper, tell which reference named in the box would be the best
source for finding each of the following items of information.
1. the origins of rock and roll
2. the date and place of birth of the current chief justice of the United States
3. whether Elizabeth I or Victoria reigned longer as Queen of England
4. the person who said, “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere”
5. which artists worked in the style known as Pop Art
6. the names of the three known types of hydrogen
7. the name of the first movie directed by Steven Spielberg
8. the meaning of deja vu
B. Go to the library to find the information specified in any four of the items in Part A. Use
the references named in the box or similar works. Write each answer and the title of the source
you used to find it.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

7


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

8

Taking Notes
Jane Goodall, who spent many years studying the chimpanzees in Gombe, Africa, noticed that
baby chimps continue to live with their mothers from year to year. Once she watched a chimp
being attacked by a wild pig while another chimp threw rocks and beat the pig with sticks until
it let go. From this she learned that chimpanzee family members are protective of one another.
Perhaps Jane Goodall’s greatest discovery was that chimps use tools. She once watched and
took notes as a chimpanzee stuck a long piece of grass into a termite hole and then pulled out
the grass and ate all the termites that were hanging onto it, as if it were a spoon. Before that
time people had thought that humans were the only animals that used tools.
Goodall’s notes helped her remember what she saw and enabled her to compare her
observations from various years. It was because she took careful notes on everything she
observed that she was able to write about her findings and publish articles in science journals.
Taking notes is a good way to collect information. Magazine and newspaper writers take notes
when they interview someone. They also jot down ideas and observations for articles they
might write in the future. Personal journals exemplify another form of taking notes. Many
people find that putting their thoughts and reflections into writing helps them learn more
about themselves. Writers often keep personal journals in which they write about themselves.
They use their notes as resources for their writing activities.
Learning good note-taking skills can help you develop good study habits. Taking good notes
will help you read and remember what you read. Your notes also will give you something to

review before you take a test.
Pointers on Taking Notes
1. Look for main ideas. They will help you identify key points and the relationship between main
ideas and supporting details.

3. Sentences need not be complete. Write only enough key words and phrases to communicate the
information and establish relationships.
4. Highlight particularly important ideas with stars or underlining.
5. Think about the information, and make a note of any remaining questions you may have.
■ Activities
A. Look again at the first two paragraphs on this page. On a separate sheet of paper, take notes
on the important facts about Jane Goodall’s research. Use the tips on taking notes in Units 7
and 27 of your textbook.
B. Use your notes as a source to write a paragraph that summarizes the information about
Jane Goodall. Look only at your notes, not at the two paragraphs at the top of this sheet.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. Choose a format or an organizing principle for your notes. The main idea may suggest such a
principle. So may the writer’s pattern of organization. You may classify, note comparisons or
contrasts, or relate causes to effects, problems to solutions, or main ideas to details.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Outlining

9

Outlining is a good way to organize material. Many writers organize their ideas into an outline
before they begin to write. Public speakers often organize their notes into an outline and then
use their outline in place of notes when they speak.
Outlining is a good way to take notes on a book, especially a textbook. Good outlining skills
can help students read and remember what they read. An outline also provides something to
review before taking a test.
Before reading and outlining a chapter, it’s a good idea to page through the chapter and read
the headings and subheadings. Also study any illustrations. This preview will give you an idea
of what your outline will look like.
To outline a textbook chapter, write down each subhead. Then list the main idea of each
paragraph in that section. Under each main idea, you may also list any important details that
you wish to remember.
Study the outline below. Notice how the information is numbered and indented.
Pitcher Plants
I.

Characteristics of Pitcher Plants

A. Have leaves shaped like pitchers
B.

Attract insects, small animals into pitcher

C.

Digest animal life

II. Kinds of pitcher plants

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

A. Sarracenia purpurea (northern or purple pitcher plant)
1. Found along Atlantic Ocean coast or midwestern U.S.
2. Is evergreen
3. Is green with red veins and velvety flowers
B.

Nepenthes rajah (King Monkey Cup)
1. Found in tropical regions of Asia and Australia
2. Large; can capture animals as large as rats

C.

Darlingtonia california (cobra lily)
1. Found in Oregon and northern California
2. Has “fish tail” that looks like cobra’s fangs

D. Sarracenia psittacina (parrot pitcher)
1. Opening looks similar to a parrot’s beak
2. Has transparent “windows” out of which prey try unsuccessfully to fly
■ Activities
A. Using only the outline above as a source, write two paragraphs about pitcher plants.
B. Practice outlining by creating an outline from a magazine article or a chapter or section
from one of your textbooks.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

9


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

10

Comparing and Contrasting
Suppose you had to decide whether to eat a fast-food hamburger, french fries, and a malt or a
large homemade salad, homemade bread, and milk. To help yourself make the decision, you
could compare and contrast the two meals.
To compare means to examine in order to identify similarities. To contrast means to examine
in order to identify differences. It is possible to compare things that are very similar (tulips and
roses) or to compare things that are very different (a tiger and a poodle). For any comparison
to be possible, however, you must find significant ways in which the two (or more than two)
things can be compared and contrasted. Tulips and roses are both flowers; so you could
compare them on the basis of such floral characteristics as color, odor, and size and shape of
flower.
Comparing and contrasting may or may not involve evaluating the worth of the things being
compared or deciding which one is better. No judgments need be made; however, you might
use the information gathered by comparing and contrasting to make judgments or to draw
conclusions.
Comparing and Contrasting Two Items
Step 1 Ask: What is being compared and contrasted?
a fast-food hamburger meal and a homemade salad meal

Step 2 Ask: How do the two things compare (how are they alike)?
1. Both are full meals that I would enjoy eating.

2. Both meals cost about the same amount of money.
Step 3 Ask: How do the two things contrast (how are they different)?
1. The hamburger meal has more calories, more cholesterol.
3. The salad meal includes more vegetables, more vitamins, and more fiber.
4. The salad meal takes time to prepare.
■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper follow steps 1, 2, and 3 in the box above to compare and
contrast the items in any two of the following groups of things.
1. two novels or short stories you have read recently
2. two movies you have seen recently
3. your school and another school
4. your opinion on a particular topic and the opinion of someone who disagrees with you
5. several advertisements
B. On the basis of your comparisons, make a value judgment about the things you compared
and contrasted. That is, decide which is better than the other or others. Explain your choices.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. The hamburger meal involves going out to eat.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

11

Classifying
To classify means to arrange in, or assign to, classes or categories. Students, for example, are
divided into various grades based on their age and level of educational development. You and
your classmates have been put into the category of tenth-graders. You can also be classified by
such things as gender, hair color, or height.
Whenever you describe or define something, you generally begin by classifying it—putting it
into a class or category. “A pencil is a writing tool made of. . . . ” “Mumps is a disease that. . . . ”
Anything can be classified in one way or another. Expository writing, for example, is classified
into six different kinds in the chart on page 221 of your textbook. Details can be classified as
relevant or irrelevant to a certain topic. All animals are classified into categories of various
types, some of them broad categories, such as vertebrates (animals with backbones) and
invertebrates (animals without backbones), and other more specific categories, such as those in
the box below.
Some Categories of Animals
Mollusks are “soft bodied,” and although most of them have shells, they do not have backbones.
Crustaceans, often called “shellfish,” are animals without backbones that have a hard outer covering.
Insects have six legs, three parts to their jointed bodies (head, thorax, and abdomen), and usually two
sets of wings.
Birds are a class of animals with backbones. They all have feathers and wings, although some of them
cannot fly.
Reptiles are coldblooded, egg-laying animals with backbones and a covering of scales or hard plates.
Some live partly in water, but they breathe through lungs.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Amphibians have backbones, are coldblooded, and have smooth, moist skin without scales. They lay
their eggs in water, but the hatched young later develop lungs.
Fish have backbones, live in water, breathe with gills instead of lungs, have fins instead of arms or
legs, and are usually covered with scales.
Mammals are animals with backbones. Their most distinguishing characteristic is that they have milk

glands with which to feed their young.

■ Activities
A. Study the categories of animals in the box above. On a separate sheet of paper, make a chart
divided into eight parts, each part headed by the name of one of the categories. Classify the
following list of animals by writing their names in the proper part of your chart.
ant

crayfish

frog

moth

parrot

termite

bat

dog

horse

mouse

salamander

toad

clam

duck

human

mussel

salmon

trout

cod

eagle

lobster

ostrich

shrimp

tuna

crab

fly

mackerel

oyster

snake

whale

B. Choose another group of things (for example, sports, songs, foods) that can be classified.
Name your group at the top of a sheet of paper. Then divide the members of the group into
classes, and list some examples of each class.
Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

11


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

12

Using Graphic Organizers
Some information is easier to read when it is presented in graphic, or pictorial, form. For
example, information containing a great many figures is easier to absorb if you see it in graphs
or tables. The stages of a butterfly’s life cycle can be read more quickly in a flow chart diagram.
Dates in the process of building St. Peter’s dome show best on a time line. The box shows some
of the major types of graphic organizers.

circle
graphs

time lines

line
graphs

Graphic
Organizers

clustering

flowcharts

bar
graphs

graphs

maps

diagrams
organization
charts
tables

Venn
diagrams

You can create graphic organizers for your own use. Some people use them to take notes. If
you are trying to show steps in a process, your notes may be easier to study later if you show
the information on a flow chart. The use of graphic organizers helps you relate facts and ideas
and allows you to take in and relate the information more quickly when you study your notes

in the future.

■ Activities
A. Study the types of graphic organizers listed in the box. Think about how you have seen
them used. Then, on a separate sheet of paper, tell which type of graphic organizer would be
best for presenting each of the following types of information.
1. the percentage of male artists versus the percentage of female artists represented in major
art galleries in 1999
2. a comparison of the work of two artists from the Impressionist school
3. the process of producing a collage
4. the yearly earnings of a famous artist during the period 1990–2000
5. important events in the life of a famous artist
6. the way the personnel of a major art museum are organized
B. Search textbooks, newspapers, and magazines for examples of graphic organizers. List at
least five different types of graphic organizers and the kind of information each presents.
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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

You can also use graphic organizers to present information in a report. People can grasp
certain types of information better if it is organized visually. Tables and graphs present
numbers and quantities effectively. Circle graphs (pie charts) are good for showing how two or
more parts of something are related. Line graphs show comparisons and trends in numbers
and quantities over a period of time. Diagrams show structures or processes. Maps show
distribution over a geographical area.


Thinking and Study Skills

Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

13

Identifying Attributes and Components
Granite is a crystalline rock formed from hardened lava. It is made up of minerals of various
colors: quartz (transparent), feldspar (dull pink or gray), mica, and hornblende (dark colored).
The attributes of granite include its crystalline structure, its hardness, and the fact that it is
made up of minerals. The components of granite are the various minerals themselves: quartz,
feldspar, mica, and hornblende. Digging deeper, the components would be the individual
elements (silicon, oxygen, and so on) that make up each mineral.
Attributes are inherent characteristics of an object, a person, a place, or a process. Components
are the ingredients, elements, or factors that make up the object, person, place, or process. The
box contains some additional examples of attributes and components.
Your Textbook
Components: text, illustrations, chapters, index, binding
Attributes: educational, readable, portable, colorful

The United States Government
Components: legislative, executive, and judicial branches
Attributes: republicanism, democracy, checks and balances

A Computer
Components: keyboard, mouse, screen, hard disk, program
Attributes: functional, speedy, versatile

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, list the attributes of the audience described in the following

paragraph.
The students are dressed casually and are talking among themselves, although their behavior is
subdued, probably because of the impressive-looking school hall in which they are gathered. The
students sit alone or in small groups with friends or acquaintances. They assume a variety of
postures—arms outstretched on the backs of other chairs, hunched over with their legs crossed—
which they change from time to time. In this manner the students wait for the speaker, a wellknown philosopher, to begin.

B. Choose one of the following or an object, a person, a place, or a process of your own choice.
List as many of its attributes and components as you can.
your community

persuasive writing

a job, hobby, or sport

a stereo system

your classroom

an automobile

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

13


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

14

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships
As the sun shines on the earth’s surface, the surface begins to warm. This is an example of a
cause-and-effect relationship. The first event, the sun’s shining on the earth, causes the second
event, the warming of the earth’s surface.
After the moon rose at 5:00 P.M., the air began to cool. This example does not show a true causeand-effect relationship. The moon cannot cause the earth to cool. People often make errors
when they assume that a cause-and-effect relationship exists simply because one event follows
another.
Some scientists believe that the earth’s average temperature is rising, not only because of the
greenhouse effect, but because the earth is still coming out of the last ice age. This statement
connects an effect with two causes. Many effects have more than one cause.
The greenhouse effect can lead to warmer temperatures and higher water levels in the ocean. This
statement connects one cause with two effects. Many causes create multiple effects.
Explanations of causes and effects may use transition words such as those in the box. However,
the presence of these words does not necessarily mean that a valid cause-and-effect
relationship exists. A writer or speaker may use them in stating a faulty cause-and-effect
connection.
Transition Words in Cause-and-Effect Statements
because

for this reason

if . . . then

so

since

therefore

consequently

as a result

hence

thus

■ Activities
A. Read each sentence. On a separate piece of paper, tell what kind of cause-and-effect
relationship the sentence states. Use the following marks.
One cause is connected with one effect.

CCE

Two causes are connected to one effect.

CEE

One cause is connected to two effects.

1. Greenhouses can keep plants warm during cold weather because their glass traps the
sun’s heat.
2. In the atmosphere carbon dioxide can slow the escape of heat to outer space, causing
temperatures to rise on the earth.
3. As more and more forests are cut down, there are fewer trees to help eliminate the
buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that results from the burning of fossil fuels.
4. When fossil fuels are burned, the carbon in them combines with oxygen to make
carbon dioxide.
5. Humans use certain chemicals that rise to the ozone layer and destroy ozone.

6. When ultraviolet rays reach the earth, they can cause skin cancer and eye damage.
B. Now write some examples of your own. Write five sentences that show cause-and-effect
relationships. If any of your sentences have multiple causes or multiple effects, mark them as
above.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

CE


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

15

Using Organizational Patterns
An organizational pattern is the format or way in which something is organized. When
organizing, you can choose to follow any one of several different organizational patterns. For
example, dishes in a cupboard could be organized by color, design, kind (cups, bowls, plates)
or by use (most used in front or breakfast dishes on one shelf and dinner dishes on another).
Lists of friends could be organized by closest to less close or in alphabetical order.
Good writing follows distinct organizational patterns. A popular organizational pattern for
narrative writing is to tell the details in the order in which they happened. Most popular
fiction, biographies, and autobiographies are organized in this manner.
Journalists often organize articles by putting the most important details first. As the article
continues, the details become less and less important. Journalists refer to this organizational

pattern as an inverted pyramid. They use this pattern so that their first paragraph or two will
grab a reader’s attention and give the reader the heart of the story. Another reason for using
the inverted pyramid is to allow the editor to cut easily from the end to fit the story, into a
limited amount of space without losing any of the most important details.
Paragraphs usually follow an organizational pattern that consists of a main idea and
supporting details. Variations on this organizational pattern for paragraphs include stating the
main idea first, stating the main idea last, or having the reader infer the main idea.
The box names several frequently used organizational patterns found in writing. Try to think
of instances in which you might use each of them.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Some Organizational Patterns in Writing
numerical order

spatial order

order of occurence

alphabetical order

main idea/details

order of importance

comparison and contrast

problem/solution

classification

■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, tell which of the organizational patterns listed in the box
would work best for each of the following writing assignments.
1. a description of a classroom
2. a glossary for a term paper
3. a single entry for that glossary
4. a letter telling about a recent trip
5. a paper about the differences between hurricanes and tornadoes
B. Make a list of all your personal skills (reading, playing sports, writing, playing a musical
instrument, telling jokes, and so on). Then revise your list, using whatever organizational
pattern best fits it.
C. Read and examine a newspaper article. Then list the details of the article from most
important to least important.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

15


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

16

Using Metaphorical Relationships
Metaphors are comparisons in which two unlike things or ideas are linked in order to create a
meaningful, and sometimes startling, effect. When William Least Heat-Moon writes (on page
35 of your text) of the “rough, nasty wind that bullied me about the slick road,” he is using a
metaphor. He is comparing the terrible wind that pushes his little truck around the road to the

actions of a bully. The metaphor makes it clear that Heat-Moon is not fond of the storm that
strands him on a mountain road.
In City Notebook, McCandlish Phillips (page 137 of your text) writes of a very different wind,
one that “stirs up scraps and creates a funnel of newspaper that swirls up in a mad ballet.” To
Phillips the wind is not a bully but something more like a ballet master, arranging a wild dance
of swirling newspaper scraps.
Metaphors can make writing more vivid. They can make comparisons much stronger. Before
using metaphors, however, a writer must search for and recognize metaphorical relationships—
that is, the relationship between the actual thing being written of and the thing to which it is
being compared. Some examples of such relationships are identified in the box.
He has a heart of stone. (His behavior is hard, or unfeeling, as a stone is hard.)
The rain drummed against the ambulance. (The sound of the rain beating on the ambulance was like
the pounding of a drummer.)
Schools are marketplaces for ideas. (Schools deal with ideas, as a market deals in products.)

■ Activities
A. Study the situations described below. Then decide which metaphor from the column at the
right best fits each situation. Establish the metaphorical relationships by identifying the items
that share common characteristics. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

2. This person enhances his own self-esteem at
the expense of the self-esteem of others.
3. A top official, having lost office due to a
scandal in the administration, is unable to
find other employment.
4. A powerful nation decides to engage in a
conflict after a smaller nation launches a
daring surprise attack.

a. We have awakened a sleeping giant, and filled

him with a terrible resolve.
b. My murderous seas of rage by night
Quiescent lie by dawn-shed light.
c. Jackals come to pick the bones of friends cast
down and heaped with blame.
d. The mighty fallen eagle, grounded now and
lame . . .
e. He has a cannibalistic ego.

5. An angry person calms down after
understanding a situation better.
B. Explain the metaphorical relationship in each of the following metaphors.
1. His face bore an expression like an overcast sky.
2. Her poem was a dance with words.
3. She emerged from the cocoon of her room a butterfly.
4. Under the cloud of factory smoke, the forest became a cemetery of stripped trees.
16

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. When people lose their reputations, they
sometimes become targets of gloating,
taunts, and gossip.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

17

Identifying Main Ideas
Any piece of good writing contains a main idea. Depending on the kind of writing, this main
idea may be given another name, for example, principal focus, theme, thesis, topic, message,
purpose, subject. A reader can identify the main idea of an entire piece of writing as well as the
main idea of each paragraph in that piece of writing. In either case, the writer established, or
had in mind, the main ideas before writing.
Identifying the main idea is helpful when:

1. finding a writing topic and determining purpose and audience
2. writing and organizing a paragraph
3. composing a plot summary
4. stating a thesis
5. analyzing an essay question on a test

The main idea of a paragraph states the principal focus of that paragraph. The rest of the
sentences in the paragraph explain, give details about, or support the main idea. The main idea
may be stated in a topic sentence, often at the beginning of the paragraph, but possibly at the
end or in the middle, or implied rather than directly stated.
Use these steps to identify the main idea of a paragraph:
1. Read the paragraph carefully, and determine the general focus or subject.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. Read the paragraph again, sentence by sentence. For each sentence ask: “What would
happen if this sentence were not in the paragraph? Would the rest of the sentences tie
together and make sense?” If the answer to your question is no, you probably have found
the sentence that contains the main idea.
3. Check the remaining sentences to determine whether they support the main idea. Ask:

“Do they describe, explain, or give details about what I have identified as the main idea?”
■ Activities
A. Read the following paragraph. On a separate sheet of paper, tell what its main idea is.
The rain forest is an unusual place, full of exotic plants and animals. Many of the world’s
medicines are made from rain-forest products. Rain forests also provide the earth with much
of the plant life it needs to remove carbon dioxide from the air and restore oxygen. For these
reasons it is important that the earth’s rain forests be preserved.

B. Choose three paragraphs from one of your textbooks. Apply the three steps above to
determine each paragraph’s main idea.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

17


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Identifying Logical Errors

18

Logical errors are errors resulting from faulty thinking. If you concluded, for example, that
every school in the country had the exact same characteristics as your school, you would be
guilty of a logical error. You would be making a generalization based on just one example out
of the many thousands of schools in the country.
Being aware of logical errors is especially important when you read something or listen to
someone who is trying to persuade you. It is equally important when you are trying to argue a
point or persuade someone to agree with your opinions. You should certainly watch for logical

errors in your persuasive writing. Asking the following questions as you write and revise your
writing will help you identify logical errors.
•

Did I include any irrelevant information (that is, information that is not needed or that does not
support a main idea or argument)?

•

Have I provided insufficient support (or proof) for an argument?

•

Did I include any hasty generalizations (for example, making a generalization about a whole
class of people on the basis of the example of one person)?

•

Have I included information or arguments that are the result of faulty cause-and-effect
relationships (for example, assuming that because one event followed another, the first event
caused the second to occur)

•

Did I base an argument on the ideas of someone who is an unqualified authority on the subject
(for example, citing the star of a science fiction movie as an authority on the space program)?

■ Activity

1. “The Mudville Monkeys are the best small-town baseball team in the world. End of

discussion.”
2. “I get depressed when it rains. That’s why I wrote such a bad paper last night. I should
never write when it rains.”
3. “I don’t think Lee is concerned about the environment. Just yesterday I saw him drop a
candy wrapper in the park.”
4. “Potatoes were grown in the Americas long before they were grown in Europe.”
5. “My father, who is a policeman, says that subatomic particle engineering will never be a
possibility because subatomic particles are too small to work with.”
6. “Magda’s performance in the school play was the best we’ve seen this year. Her mother
studied acting in college; so it’s not surprising that Magda has talent.”
B. Describe an incident in which you made, or you witnessed someone else make, one of the
logical errors listed in the box. Describe clearly the logical error and how it could have been
avoided.

18

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

A. Read the following statements to determine whether they contain logical errors. If the
statement does contain a logical error, identify the item or items from the box above that
describe the error. (There may be more than one error.) If the statement does not contain a
logical error, write no error. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

19

Inferring
Often people go beyond known facts to infer what may logically be true. For example, you are
inferring when you decide that a smiling person is happy, a wilting plant needs water, a
smoking house is on fire, or a bleeding cat has been fighting.
Inferring is the process of using known facts to hypothesize what might be true. You may, for
example, make an inference to draw a conclusion, make a prediction, relate causes and effects,
or evaluate a situation. Inferences are drawn by connecting new information with prior
knowledge and experience.
People often make inferences based on the information available at the moment and then
modify them when new information surfaces. You may have heard people say, “I thought you
didn’t like me, because you never called,” or “I thought this movie would be good, because
everyone was talking about it.” Those people obviously have learned that their previous
inferences had to be revised or discarded.
Steps for Making Logical Inferences
1. Begin with the known facts pertaining to the situation at hand.
2. Recall personal experiences or generalizations that could fill in gaps in information.
3. Make an inference.
■ Activities
A. Examine the situations described below. On a separate sheet of paper, make an inference
about each situation by applying the steps listed in the box.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. A football player is tackled, and a dozen players end up in a pile. After the players
untangle themselves, one player remains lying on the field.
2. You have arrived late for a city-wide swim competition in which your best friend is a
participant. You arrive just as the competition has ended. Your best friend runs toward
you grinning, a gold cup in her hand.
3. Although you have purchased a ticket to see a comedienne, you don’t know much about

her. Arriving early for the 8:00 show, you must wait for the 6:00 show to end. Every
minute or so, you hear hysterical laughter from the audience inside.
4. From down the block, you see heavy smoke rising from your house. You race home. The
smoke is thick and heavy, but you do not see any flames. Then you notice that all the
smoke is coming from the kitchen windows.
B. Find an opinion piece, such as an editorial, in a newspaper or magazine. List the name of
the article and the name and date of the publication. Then answer these questions.
1. What inferences, if any, does the writer appear to have made? On what facts are the
inferences based?
2. What inferences of your own can you make about the situation or topic described in the
opinion piece or about the writer’s bias?

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

19


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

20

Predicting
Charlene’s parents had recently bought skis for themselves, and they had said that they wished
Charlene could join them for a skiing trip during her Christmas vacation from college. When
Charlene arrived home, she saw a very long box with her name on it under the Christmas tree.
She predicted that she was going to get skis as a Christmas present.
A prediction is a statement of anticipation. Based on knowledge of how similar situations have
worked out in the past, a predictor states the outcome of an event or a situation before the
outcome occurs. A prediction can be found to be correct, partially correct, or incorrect. It also

can be changed as new information is acquired.
Making an incorrect prediction is not a sign of failure. Scientists often use predictions to help
them in their research. They gain useful information from their research whether or not their
predictions turn out to be correct. You, too, can learn from making wrong predictions.
To make a prediction
1. Examine the situation and the known facts.
2. Think about your prior knowledge of what has happened in similar situations.
3. Make a prediction.
4. If a prediction turns out to be wrong, think about why it was wrong so you can improve your
future predictions.
■ Activities
A. Consider the following situation.

1. Predict what will happen to the restaurant’s business as a result of the factory’s staff cuts.
Explain your prediction and how you made it.
2. Predict what will happen to the students hired as summer help at Maxine’s. Explain your
prediction and how you made it.
B. Read the following news bulletin. Then write a paragraph predicting how the news will
affect the general public.
The Dow Jones averages dropped more today than in any previous fall since the stock
market crash of 1929, which resulted in a decade of depression. Stockbrokers reported that
customers called in record numbers to request that their stocks be sold. Business leaders
throughout the nation have voiced concern that the public will lose confidence in the
economy. The president has announced a special television address to the nation tonight to
speak about the grave situation on Wall Street.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Maxine’s, a restaurant near a lake, recently hired several students as waiters for the summer.
The restaurant has taken on extra help because business picks up in the summer, when
many people come to enjoy the lake. Most of the restaurant’s business comes from people
who work at a nearby factory that employs 10,000 workers. The factory has just announced
that it plans on reducing its work force by 25 percent within the next month.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

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Elaborating
Coming across the word pseudomorph in his reading, a reader observes that he should look up
the word in a dictionary and find out exactly what it means.
When people draw on prior knowledge for details, explanations, examples, pictures, or
questions as an aid to understanding, they are elaborating. Writers sometimes elaborate by
freewriting their associations with topics or by brainstorming and clustering. Effective readers
often elaborate as they read. Reading about a disagreeable character, a reader suddenly thinks,
“This character is just like that crabby clerk at the hardware store.” Reading about the
Revolutionary War, another reader wonders, “If Patrick Henry lived today, would he be
considered a hero or a kook?”
Elaboration is not necessarily systematic or orderly. Some elaborations may be irrelevant or
absurd. If you think about it, you will realize that you elaborate all the time. You may call it
free association, mental linking, or even daydreaming. The important thing is to focus your
thinking to produce ideas that will broaden your perspective and deepen your understanding
of the new information you encounter.
Some examples of the many types of elaboration are listed in the box below.

Some Types of Elaboration
recalled events

analogies

explanations

visual images

comparisons

examples

■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, write two elaborations each about any five of the following
statements. Use the types of elaboration shown in the box.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. Following an earthquake in Armenia, Armenian Americans tensely awaited word about
relatives.
2. The Persian Gulf War shattered traditional alliances and united former enemies.
3. Clouds result when water vapor condenses to form tiny droplets.
4. The Supreme Court affirmed that states have the right to make their own decisions about
capital punishment.
5. Negative numbers have practical uses.
6. Even young children who do not understand fractions in math books refer to them
constantly in daily life.
7. A preposition shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the
sentence.

8. Do you want to read the novel The Kitchen God’s Wife?
9. Acid rain has damaged many forests in Eastern Europe.
10. Ozone will reach dangerous levels in the Los Angeles area tomorrow.
B. Now freewrite or cluster your elaborations on one of the following topics.
1. local government

3. holiday celebrations

5. a favorite person or animal

2. hazardous waste

4. a vacation spot of your choice

6. a topic of your choice

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 10

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