Writers choice thinking and study skills grade 8

Thinking and Study Skills
Grade 8

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Contents
Defining Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Setting Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Observing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Formulating Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Using Prior Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Comparing and Contrasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Classifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Using Graphic Organizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Identifying Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Using Organizational Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Using Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Identifying Main Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Identifying Errors in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Inferring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Predicting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Elaborating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Drawing Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Using Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Thinking Creatively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Using a Library I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Using a Library II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Using a Dictionary I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Using a Dictionary II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Using a Dictionary III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Using a Thesaurus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Using a Thesaurus II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Studying I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Studying II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Managing Study Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

iii


Contents
Taking Notes While Listening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Taking Notes from Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Outlining from Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Taking Notes from Films and Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Learning from Graphics I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Learning from Graphics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Taking Tests I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Taking Tests II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

iv


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Defining Problems

1

Your shoelace breaks as you are walking from one classroom to another. Your shoelace
breaks during a basketball game as you are leading a fast break. The first situation is an
inconvenience, but the second is a problem—something (a broken shoelace, in this
case) that keeps you from getting what you want to have or from doing what you want

to do (scoring an easy basket before an opponent can stop you).
Problems can be hard to define. A person who often turns in assignments late has a
problem. But is the problem having too many chores around the house, spending too
much time watching TV, or forgetting to put homework into the school bag? Defining
a problem clearly can help lead you to a good solution.
Knowing how to define problems can help you with your school work, too. Clearly
defining a problem in math will help you find the right solution. Clearly defining a
problem you are exploring in a history essay can help you write a well-thought-out
paper. The following questions can help you define a problem and find a solution.
•

What makes the situation a problem?

•

Does this problem need to be solved? Why?

•

When should this problem be solved?

•

How can this problem be solved?

■ Activities
A. Apply the five questions in the box to the situations listed below. Define each probCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

lem, and suggest a possible solution.
1. You and a friend are going to a classmate’s birthday party. On the way to the

party, you and your friend discover that you both bought the same birthday
gift.
2. The choir director asks you to sing a solo in the school concert. This is an

honor, and you want to do it, but you worry that you will forget the music
when you get on stage.
B. Think about a problem you or a friend has faced recently. Apply the boxed questions
to this problem. Write down possible solutions that come to mind after answering the
five questions. If you or your friend has already solved the problem, include your solution.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

1


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Setting Goals

2

Making the track team, learning a new song on the guitar, buying a special pair of
shoes, getting an A on the next history test—all of these are goals you may have set for
yourself at some point. Having a goal allows you to direct your actions toward a specific purpose. For example, homework can be easier if you set goals for yourself. You
could study until your favorite television show comes on. Or take a break for every two
paragraphs of a paper that you write. You achieve a sense of satisfaction when you
reach a goal.
The most important part of setting goals is making sure that they are realistic. If you

set a goal to write a three-page paper in one night, you may finish the paper, but it
probably won’t be very well written. You may decide to become a ballet dancer, but
don’t expect to become the best dancer in the group within six months. You should
always challenge yourself, but only you know whether your goal is realistic. When you
set a goal, it is important to think clearly and to plan well. The following questions can
help you set a goal.
•

What exactly do I want to accomplish?

•

Is this goal realistic?

•

How much time will it take to reach my goal?

•

How can I best accomplish my goal?

■ Activities

______ 1. Write a novel in Russian.
______ 2. Learn how to ride a horse.
______ 3. Learn fifty new words each day.
______ 4. Write a poem, and have it published.
______ 5. Buy a pet guinea pig.
______ 6. Run in a marathon.

______ 7. Invent a new form of environmentally safe energy.
______ 8. Learn how to play guitar.
______ 9. Knit a sweater for your grandfather’s birthday next week.
______ 10. Volunteer time for a local charity.
B. Choose a goal from Part A or a goal of your own. Write out a plan for accomplishing

the goal. Be sure to include the amount of time you think it will take to reach that goal.

2

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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A. In the blank next to each item in the list write yes or no to tell whether the stated
goal is realistic or not. If it is not realistic, tell why, and explain how the goal could be
changed to make it attainable. Write on a separate sheet of paper.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

3

Observing
The murmur of the crowd fills my ears as I lean back in my seat and feel the warmth of the
sun in a cloudless sky soak into my skin. The fans are happy. The home team is ahead by
three runs in the bottom of the sixth inning, and they are well on their way to winning their
division. A family two rows down is on its second round of hot dogs. The spicy sweet smell
of the meat drifts up to me, making my stomach grumble. I savor another bite of my mustard-covered soft pretzel.

Observing can help you turn any experience into a writing opportunity. But observing
takes practice. Writer Julia Alvarez plays word-association games to keep her senses and
her observational skills sharp. (See page 110 in your textbook.) You can keep your
observational skills sharp by taking five minutes during the day to focus on what your
senses are picking up. Remember to use all five senses—sight, touch, smell, hearing,
and taste. Describe your impressions in detail.
Writers are not the only careful observers. Scientists observe reactions in experiments.
Doctors observe the symptoms of their patients. Teachers observe their students. You
can learn about the world around you by observing people, sports, animals, art, places,
and even objects.
■ Activities
A. With which senses does the writer of the first paragraph above observe events in

the stands during a baseball game?
B. Take a moment now to observe everything that is within a five-foot circle of where

you are. Carefully observe your area, and list at least one fact that you observe with
each of your five senses.

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C. A cousin of yours who has never been to your city before is going to visit you.

Write a note of welcome describing an area you enjoy near your house, such as a
park or playground, a shopping area, or a video arcade. Use descriptions that
appeal to several senses.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

3


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Formulating Questions

4

Have you ever played twenty questions? One person in a group thinks of an animal, a
plant, or an object. The rest of the group then asks the person questions about his or
her chosen item. The person can answer only yes or no. If the group can’t guess the
identity of the item within twenty questions, the person wins. Playing the game well
requires learning how to ask the right questions.
Many people ask questions for a living. Detectives must know the right questions to
ask witnesses or suspects. Doctors must ask questions to determine what is wrong with
a patient. Journalists ask a series of questions to fully report any news story. Most of
these questions begin with the words who, what, when, where, why, and how. This list
of questions is also called the five Ws and H.
Like detectives, doctors, and journalists, students can use these questions to complete a
math problem, write a paper for English or social studies, or understand an experiment in science. The following questions are ones formulated by a student writing a
report on the history of aviation.
Who built the first airplane?

•

What was the first airplane like? When was it built? Where was it built?

•

How fast did the early planes fly?

•

How were the early planes powered?

•

What kinds of problems developed with the early airplanes?

•

When were passengers first transported on airplanes?

•

Where was the first commercial airport?

■ Activities
A. Using each of the question words in the second paragraph above, choose three of

the following topics, and write six different questions for each of them.
computers

veterinary medicine

Cajun cooking

King Tut

black holes in space

cave paintings

a favorite TV show

a friend’s trip

surfing

B. You have just gotten a job delivering papers. List five questions that you would ask
your supervisor before setting out for your first day on the job.

4

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

•


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Using Prior Knowledge

5

Are you studying a new language? Much of it will be difficult and new, but your
knowledge of your native language may help you tremendously. You already know that
verbs have tenses and nouns can be plural or singular. You will not have to learn that
important information again as you did when you were a young child. Your prior
knowledge will help you master this new task. Similarly, a musician who knows how to
play the clarinet can use her or his prior knowledge in learning to play the saxophone.
A downhill skier can use prior knowledge to learn to ski cross-country.
Using what you already know is part of the process of learning. Once you have assessed
your prior knowledge, you can move on to the next step—acquiring new knowledge.
The questions in the box below can help you identify and apply prior knowledge.
•

What is familiar about this situation?

•

How is the situation like something I already know?

•

What skills or information do I have that can help me?

•

How can I use what I know in this situation?

■ Activities

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A. Choose any three of the following activities. Using prior knowledge, list all the
things you already know about each activity that will help you perform or learn to perform the activity. The questions in the box can help you recognize prior knowledge
that relates to the activity.

riding a unicycle

making paper

playing the harmonica

writing a play

playing raquetball

keeping goldfish

making a cake

juggling

using a computer

B. Choose one of the topics for which you created a list in Part A. Write a paragraph

that explains how prior knowledge would help you perform the activity.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

5

Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Comparing and Contrasting

6

You need to earn some extra money. Should you get a paper route or baby-sit for children in your neighborhood? Both jobs have pros and cons. To help you decide which is
right for you, try comparing and contrasting the two jobs. You can use the following
guidelines to help you.
Guidelines for Comparing and Contrasting
•

To compare is to examine in order to identify similarities.
Some clue words: both, equal to, alike, same as, similar, also
Example: Both paper delivery and baby-sitting would bring in money.

•

To contrast is to examine in order to identify differences.
Some clue words: but, by contrast, different, more than, less than, unlike
Example: Paper delivery would be an everyday job, unlike baby sitting, which
would be less regular.

The most important part of comparing and contrasting two items is selecting the characteristics you will examine. Make sure that the characteristics you select for comparing and contrasting apply to both items. Without common ground on which to build
your comparison, you can’t learn how the items relate to each other. For example, the
question “When would you need to complete your tasks for each job?” would work
well for a comparison-contrast. Having a paper route would mean getting up very
early in the morning, while baby-sitting might mean staying up late at night.

■ Activities
A. Choose one of the following pairs of items, and make a list of characteristics you

could use to compare and contrast the items.
two kinds of food

two stories

two cities

two animals

two rock bands

two pieces of art

two movies

two sports teams

a pair of your choice

B. Use the list of characteristics you created in Part A to write a paragraph or two in
which you compare and contrast the two items.

6

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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Remember that comparing and contrasting are not simply means to judge the worth of
one item in relation to another. You can also use comparing and contrasting to draw
conclusions or to make informed judgements. Many people use comparison-contrast
when deciding whom to vote for. Comparison and contrast also can be used to
describe something. For example, “My bike is as big as Mom’s, and it has more gears
than Dad’s.”


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

7

Classifying
Imagine that you are the manager of a discount store that will be opening in one week.
The merchandise will be delivered tomorrow, and you must decide where to put everything. Your store has seven main sections: clothing, cosmetics, electronics, kitchenware,
linens, toys, and hardware. When the pots and pans are delivered, where will you put
them? What about the televisions, the dolls, and the towels? Obviously, you will sort
the products and put them in the appropriate sections—pots and pans in kitchenware,
televisions in electronics, dolls in toys, and towels in linens. You will classify the products by grouping them in categories.
Classifying is a common way to organize information. It involves sorting and grouping
items according to general or specific common features such as size, color, or use.
Nearly everything can be classified: animals, ideas, stars, trees, cities. Classifying helps
us manage large amounts of information.
Many items can be classified or sorted in more than one way. When you are faced with
a large list or group of items, think about the different sets of common features that
are present—size and color; age and interests; speed, style, and gas mileage. The box
shows two examples of sorting by different categories.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classifying and Reclassifying
Sweaters

by
by
by
by

color:
size:
style:
material:

Books

by type:
by subject:
by author:

red, green, blue, black, white
small, medium, large
pullover, cardigan
cotton, wool, acrylic, silk
prose, poetry, fiction, nonfiction
history, mystery, cooking, pets
James Herriot, Alice Walker, Agatha Christie

■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet, sort the items below into two categories: ball games and sports
that do not use a ball. Then sort them into three further categories: team sports, oneon-one sports, and individual sports.

baseball

skiing

soccer

fencing

golf

volleyball

swimming

basketball

speed skating

boxing

tennis

weight lifting

hockey

wrestling

cycling

B. Pick one of the following topics and list six or more items that fit into that topic.

Then classify your list into two or more categories.
weather conditions

vegetables

reading material

countries of the world

furniture

clothing

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

7


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

8

Using Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers can help you arrange information so that it is easy to understand at
a glance. Charts, diagrams, and maps allow you to explain processes, compare items,
and show locations quickly and easily. Visual formats let you see your facts and ideas as
you do research for a report, study for a test, plan your schedule, or try to solve a problem. To keep track of important dates in the Civil War, try arranging the dates in a
time line. To show how a bill is made into a law, draw a flow chart. The chart below
shows how one busy student scheduled her class assignments and extracurricular activities for one week.
Time
during
school

Monday
math quiz

Tuesday
Spanish test

Wednesday
Thursday
history paper science lab
due
due

Friday
novel quiz,
science

after
school

soccer

practice

go to Laura’s
house

choir and
soccer game
soccer practice

see movie
with Laura

evening

revise history history paper read novel,
paper
due, read novel read science
for English

review novel,
read science

stay overnight
at Laura’s

You can use many different kinds of graphic organizers depending on how you want to
arrange your information.
Types of Graphic Organizers

■ Activities

A. Study the types of graphic organizers in the list above. On another sheet of paper,

identify which graphic organizer would work best for each topic listed below.
1. Battles of the Civil War
2. Percentage of eligible voters in the United States who do not vote
3. Locations of nuclear reactors in the United States
4. Number of students graduating from your school each year for the last ten

years
5. Parts of a flower
B. Find information about one of the topics above or about a similar topic of your
own. Use the information to create a graphic organizer.
8

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Diagrams show structures, physical arrangements, or processes.
Time lines show the sequence of events and dates.
Maps show geographic information.
Graphs use lines or symbols to show a relationship between two or more things.
Circle graphs show how parts of something relate to one another and to the whole.
Bar graphs compare quantities, such as urban versus rural population.
Line graphs show trends in numbers over time.
Tables use a grid to clearly show an orderly arrangement of information.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Identifying Characteristics

9

Characteristics are elements of an object or idea that allow you to distinguish it from
other objects or ideas. Below are some characteristics that can be used to distinguish
different dogs.
Characteristics of Dogs
height
weight
color of coat

color of eyes
kind of hair
length of tail

kind of ears
job (hunting, guiding, herding)
disposition or personality

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Within the category or group of dogs, there are breeds that have similar characteristics.
For example, the characteristic weight of Great Danes can range from 120 pounds to
170 pounds. Each individual dog, of course, has a specific set of characteristics. Below
is a chart that compares the characteristics of Ted the Great Dane and Biff the miniature poodle.
Characteristics

Ted the Great Dane

Biff the Miniature Poodle

height

thirty inches at the shoulder

eleven inches at the shoulder

weight

145 pounds

20 pounds

color of coat

tan with black mask

white

color of eyes

brown

brown

kind of hair

short and straight

short and curly

length of tail

long

medium

kind of ears

pointy and standing up

soft and floppy

job

pet

pet

personality

laid-back and lovable

smart and energetic

■ Activities
A. Think of three general categories for which you can brainstorm a list of characteristics, (cats, games, or cars, for example). Make a list of at least five characteristics that
could distinguish individuals within each category.

B. Choose one of the general categories you came up with in Part A to create a chart
of characteristics, similar to the one above. Think of two individuals within your category. For example, if your category is flowers, two individuals might be daisy and dandelion. Then, for each individual, fill in the characteristics.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

9


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

10

Using Cause-and-Effect Relationships
• Because this is the final game of the season, tickets to tonight’s game sold out early.

This sentence states a cause-and-effect relationship. The first fact, that the season’s
final game plays tonight, causes the second fact, that tickets sold out early. Tickets
selling out early is the effect.
• Maria forgot to set her alarm clock, so her brother ate his own breakfast and hers.

This example does not show a true cause-and-effect relationship. Maria’s forgetting to set her alarm clock cannot directly cause her brother to eat more than his
share of breakfast. People often assume mistakenly that a cause-and-effect relationship exists simply because one event follows another. This is not always the
case.
• The thinning of our ozone layer leads to increased risk of skin cancer. This example

does state a cause-and-effect relationship that many scientists accept as true. Can
you point out which event is the cause? What is its effect?
The first two examples above make use of transition words. Cause-and-effect relationships are often signaled by transition terms. The box below contains many common
transition terms.

Transition Terms That Signal Cause and Effect
because
therefore
so

and
if. . .then
as a result

since
thus
for this reason

hence
then
after

■ Activities
A. In the blank next to each statement, write yes or no to tell whether the statement

shows a cause-and-effect relationship or not. Then circle each cause statement, and
underline each effect statement.
_____1. Earthquakes result from the sudden vertical or horizontal movement of rock.
_____2. The dictator imposed strict laws; as a result, the citizens rebelled.
_____3. In order to stop the rebellion, the dictator imposed a curfew.
_____4. I need to borrow a pencil because I forgot mine.
_____5. The school play was a big success and had a very large cast.
B. Write five examples of cause-and-effect relationships. In some sentences use transition

terms; in others show relationships without using transition terms.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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Cause-and-effect relationships can exist without the presence of a transition term in
the sentence; therefore, do not expect transitions in every case. Similarly, the presence
of a transition does not guarantee a cause-and-effect relationship. As you can see in the
second example above, the transition term so does not indicate cause and effect. The
best way to positively determine a cause-and-effect relationship is to ask yourself,
“Does one event come about only because of the other?”


Thinking and Study Skills
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11

Using Organizational Patterns
Whenever you want your writing to present information in an ordered and logical way,
it is helpful to use an organizational pattern. An account of something that happened
to you on your way home from school could be organized in time order—what happened first, second, third, and so on. A description of a new library might be most
clearly conveyed by organizing the details spatially, for example, by describing close
objects first, then those that are farther away. An article favoring a new neighborhood
recycling program could present the issues in order of importance.

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When organizing information, use a pattern that suits both the information you’re

presenting and the manner in which you are writing. It would be logical to organize
the events of a story in time order. However, a comparison-and-contrast organizational
pattern probably would not be an effective way to organize the story. You may need to
experiment with several different methods of organization before you find the one that
makes the most sense. Below is a list of various organizational patterns along with suggested kinds of writing where each pattern might make sense.
Organizational Pattern

Kind of Writing

Time order

Reports, stories, narratives, descriptions of historical events

Order of importance

Reports to persuade or inform; descriptions of people, things, or events

Spatial order

Descriptions of scenes

Comparison and contrast

Reports about two or more persons, places, or things

Problem-solution

Narratives and reports that describe problems and offer solutions

Cause and effect

Narratives, reports and processes, persuasive articles

■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, identify the organizational pattern that would work

best for each of the following presentations.
1. an explanation of why you were late for school
2. a report on the similarities and differences between soccer and football
3. a letter to a friend describing a camping trip
4. a description of your neighborhood
5. a report about three facts you learned from a magazine article you’ve just read
6. a newspaper editorial telling how each cause of air pollution can be corrected
7. a report describing several different regions of the United States
8. a story about a dog who broke her leash and ran away and how her owner found

her
B. Read a chapter or a section of a chapter in one of your textbooks. Describe the pat-

tern of organization, and determine whether the information could be successfully
organized in a different pattern.
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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Using Metaphors

12

In practically everything you read and hear, you find metaphors. “She is a songbird.”
“His anger was a lightning bolt.” “He’s a tiger under the backboards.” Metaphors are
comparisons in which two unlike things or ideas are linked in order to create a meaningful effect. A metaphor makes a comparison without using like or as or other words
that state a comparison. A metaphor says that one thing is another thing. “You’re a
goldfinch in that bright yellow dress.”
Metaphors compare two dissimilar things to create a vivid impression. For example,
anger has very little resemblance to a bolt of lightning. The comparison emphasizes the
suddenness and intensity of the person’s anger, and it creates a more vivid impression
than a nonmetaphorical statement with a similar meaning, such as “His anger was sudden and intense.”
When you use a metaphor, be careful to find a meaningful relationship that is based on
recognizable common features. Ask yourself what is the similarity between the two
unlike things you are comparing. Ask a friend what the metaphor suggests to him or
her. If readers do not see the sense of your metaphor, look for another comparison. A
nonsensical metaphor will confuse the reader, but a true one can give your reader the
exact image you want to communicate.
■ Activities
A. Explain what each of the metaphors below means. How do the two dissimilar

images taken together provide new meaning?
The headache was a jackhammer in my skull.
Writing this history paper is pushing a big rock up a steep hill.
When it comes to getting his way, my brother is a bulldog.
My one fist is iron; the other is steel.
Your phone call was a drink of water for a thirsty man.
My two-year-old cousin is a perpetual-motion machine.
The basketball game was a nonstop fireworks display.
If life is a river, my part is a swamp.

My legs were limp noodles after running that race.
Your argument is a house of cards.

B. Write five metaphors. You might experiment by combining a topic from Column A

below with a comparison from column B, or you may prefer to choose your own
metaphors.
Column A
The forest
The archaeological site
The frozen waterfall
The fog
His patriotic speech
His voice
Your bedroom
The vacant lot
The hot summer day
12

Column B
a desolate moonscape
a federal disaster area
a chain saw
a silent cathedral
a layer cake built during thousands of years
delicate glassware
a stifling blanket
a trumpet call
a book that records ancient life

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.


Thinking and Study Skills
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Identifying Main Ideas
Every piece of good writing contains a main idea. The main idea answers the question
“What is this writing about?” Writers of newspaper and magazine articles, essays, and
nonfiction books all have main ideas in mind as they write. Every chapter in the textbooks you read has a main idea. Titles and headings usually reveal the main idea.
Individual paragraphs are built around a main idea that focuses the content of the
paragraph. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph explain, give details about, or
support the main idea. The main idea often is stated in a topic sentence. Topic sentences may appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph. The best way to
find the topic sentence is to ask yourself, “What is this paragraph about?” Then look
for a sentence that expresses that idea. That is your topic sentence.

Sometimes main ideas are implied rather than stated. If you do not find a topic sentence, quite likely the main idea is implied. A well-written paragraph may not need to
have its main idea stated.
Steps for Identifying the Main Idea of a Paragraph
1. Read the paragraph carefully.
2. Determine the specific topic of the paragraph, and write it down in a few words or in a
sentence.
3. Look for the same idea in a topic sentence. If there is no topic sentence, the main idea
may be implied.
4. Reread the paragraph to see whether the other sentences support the main idea.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

■ Activities
A. Read the following paragraphs. On a separate sheet of paper, write the topic sentence or main idea of each one.
1. After falling to the ground as rain, some water soaks into the ground where it falls.

The rest of the water—the runoff—seeks the lowest point. The runoff travels gradually downhill in rivulets—tiny flowing streams—which eventually come together
as larger streams. Farther downhill, as more and more streams combine, the water
forms rivers that run toward lakes and seas. Runoff is the most important source of
water for rivers and lakes.
2. There are many ways to become aware of current events. Reading a good news-

paper on a regular basis will provide you with a wealth of news. You also can
learn more about the world around you by watching local or national TV news
programs. You can even catch bits and pieces of news without setting aside time
to do so. If you listen to a radio with headphones on your way to and from
school, you’re likely to hear some news. By glancing at the headlines when you
pass a newstand, you get an idea of what the big events are.
B. Compose a paragraph about a topic of your choice. Your paragraph should contain
a main-idea statement and statements that support the main idea. Exchange your paragraphs with a partner, so that he or she can identify the main-idea statement of your

paragraph while you identify the main-idea statement of your partner’s paragraph.
Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

14

Identifying Errors in Logic
Errors in logic result from faulty thinking. Being aware of errors in logic is especially
important when you read or listen to something that is trying to persuade you. Every
time you turn on the television or radio, you are bombarded with advertising messages
that try to persuade you to buy products. Many of these ads use techniques designed to
catch you off guard or to confuse you with faulty thinking.
For example, you may hear an ad with the message “Wear Hamster basketball shoes—
you’ll be unstoppable.” The Hamster shoes ad conveys a faulty cause-and-effect relationship. The ad implies that wearing the shoes (cause) will make you a superior basketball
player (effect). In truth, shoes are a small part of being a good player. The ad contains an
error in logic. Nonetheless, some people believe the claims of such advertisements.
Be Aware of These Errors in Logic
Faulty cause-and-effect relationship An effect seems to result from an inappropriate
cause: “I didn’t finish the book because the weather was so nice.”
Hasty generalizations Forming an opinion about an issue, based on just one example out
of the thousands of possibilities: “I saw a play once, and I hated it. Plays are boring and silly.”
Either/or reasoning Reducing a complex issue to a choice between one of two extreme positions: “Anyone who opposes these raises for our police force is promoting crime in the streets.”
Unqualified authority Basing an argument on the knowledge or opinion of someone not
qualified to give information on the subject being addressed: “I know who will win the presidency, because my younger brother told me.”

To avoid making these errors in logic when you argue a point or write to persuade others, check your statements and facts against the list above.
■ Activities
A. Identify the kinds of errors in logic made in the following statements.
1. If you don’t recycle bottles, cans, and newspapers, you obviously don’t care about

the environment.
2. That movie was great! I’ll bet Whoopi Goldberg wins an Oscar.
3. I know I’m late, but did you hear what Janet said?
4. A basketball star says that this is a terrific video game.
5. He’s on the football team, so he must be responsible.
B. Write five sentences of your own, each of which contains an error in logic. Then
trade your sentences for those of a classmate, and try to identify each other’s errors
in logic.

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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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Red herring A red herring is something that distracts from the real issue: “When the teacher
asked Ricky for his math paper, Ricky complimented her on the dress she was wearing.”


Thinking and Study Skills
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15

Inferring

When you infer, you make an assumption about what is happening or will happen,
based on your prior knowledge, logic, or other clues. You are inferring when you
decide that a smiling person is happy, a quiet person is sad, a wilting plant needs water,
or a bleeding cat has been fighting. Inferring can help you draw a conclusion, make a
prediction, relate causes and effects, or evaluate a situation. To make a logical inference, follow these steps:
1. Begin with the facts known about the current situation.
2. Recall personal experiences or generalizations that could fill gaps in your knowledge of
the situation.
3. Make an inference, using all the information you have.
4. Revise your inference as necessary to accommodate new information.

Even when the inferring process leads you to what is apparently a logical inference,
inferences do not always turn out to be correct. You could have inferred that a store
was closed for a holiday, only to find out later that the store was closed because the
owner was injured in an accident.
■ Activities
A. Read about the following situations. On a separate sheet of paper, make an inference about each one.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. Your mother stayed home today because she was ill. After school you ate some

leftovers she had brought home from the restaurant where she had eaten the
night before. In the middle of the night, you wake up feeling sick.
2. The teacher returns all papers but one to the students and then stands in front

of the class with the remaining paper in his hand. “I would like to read aloud
an outstanding paper,” he says. You are the only student in the class whose
paper was not returned.
3. Kenny turned the thermostat higher, but his house remained cool. When he went

into the basement to examine the furnace, he noticed that the burners were not
working.
B. Choose one of the situations from Part A, and imagine that your inference about it
was wrong. Make a new inference based on the stated facts and the assumption that
your first inference was incorrect.

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Predicting

16

Many people read novels or watch movies because they like to get caught up in the unfolding of a story. Many people make predictions about the endings of stories. Mysteries in particular are designed to appeal to people who enjoy trying to predict events.
People also use predicting in everyday interactions with other people. Our predictions
usually grow from a combination of our past experiences, facts we know, and our emotions. In choosing a gift for a friend, for example, you think about things she enjoys
doing, such as playing computer games (past experience). You might also know that
she doesn’t subscribe to a computer magazine (known fact), and you are confident she
would enjoy a magazine you know about (emotion). The cost of the subscription falls
within your budget for the gift, so you make the decision. Whenever we decide on a
gift for someone we know well, we are predicting that the recipient will be pleased.
The questions in the box can help you make reasonable predictions.
•

What is the situation?

•

What has happened in the past that is the same or similar?

•

Based on past events and the facts of the present situation, what is likely to happen next?

Some of your predictions may turn out to be incorrect. However, as any scientist knows,
a prediction doesn’t need to be correct to be useful. If a scientific prediction turns out to
be inaccurate, scientists can evaluate why they were mistaken and use this information to
help them make further predictions—and to design further experiments to test those
new predictions. The following guidelines can help you make predictions.
■ Making Predictions

can improve your future predictions.
■ Activities
A. Think about the following situations, and predict what will happen next.
1. A volunteer firefighter is called to a fire and forgets that she left the water run-

ning in the bathtub.
2. Your term paper is due on Friday. You decide to do your research and write
your paper on Thursday night.
3. A person carrying three cartons of eggs has left the grocery store and is walking
home on an icy sidewalk.
B. Select a story you haven’t read. After reading the title and the first paragraph or
two, write a prediction about the story—about what will happen next, how a character
will act, or how the story will conclude. Read the rest of the story to determine how

accurate your prediction is. What led you to make that prediction?
16

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. Examine the situation and the facts you know about it.
2. Use your prior knowledge to think about what usually happens in similar situations.
3. Make a prediction based on the present situation and past events.
4. Continue to monitor the situation to find out whether your prediction was correct.
5. If your prediction was incorrect, think about where you made an error, so that you


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

17

Elaborating
Elaborating involves using examples, explanations, questions, comparisons, and past
experiences to make a description clearer or more vivid. When you elaborate, you might
say, “This experience is just like that time Kim wouldn’t speak to me and I felt so lonely”
rather than simply “I feel lonely.” You might also write, “Louisa May Alcott’s books were
popular because they depicted the thoughts of young people so well” rather than
“Louisa May Alcott’s books were popular.” You might write a report comparing and
contrasting kinds of pets. Whenever you expand on a subject, you are elaborating.
Brainstorming and freewriting are ways of elaborating. When you let your mind roam
around a subject, and you write down associations and ideas, you are elaborating.
When you need to solve a problem or think of a topic for a report, elaborating can be a

useful aid in generating ideas.
Some Types of Elaboration
Examples Many people suffer major illnesses after stressful events such as the death of a
family member, the experience of a natural disaster, or the loss of a job.
Explanations Many immigrants came to America seeking new jobs and hoping for a better life.
Comparisons and contrasts The pronghorn, wildebeest, and lion can run surprisingly fast,
but none can beat the cheetah’s amazing seventy miles per hour.
Recalled events Remember when we were small and we made forts out of cardboard
boxes? I’ll never forget that feeling of adventure.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Analogies He’s only criticizing the drama club because he didn’t qualify to join. It’s like the
fox and the grapes.

■ Activities
A. On a separate sheet of paper, elaborate on one or two of the following topics. Try to
use all five kinds of elaboration as you work.
1. tall tales

6. democracy

2. table manners

7. potato chips

3. garbage

8. the future of rain forests

4. money

9. a great vacation

5. the Arctic

10. zebras

B. Choose a research topic, a problem you are trying to solve, a subject you want to
explore, a news item, or some other topic of your choice. Explore the topic, using some
of the methods of elaboration you have learned.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

18

Summarizing
“I read a great book over the weekend!” said Kira.
“Really? What was it about?” asked Tai.
Later, Tai fought back a yawn and looked at his watch. Kira had been describing every scene
of the book for nearly forty-five minutes. He was sorry he had asked about the book at all.
Obviously, Kira didn’t know how to summarize.

A summary is a brief account that includes only main points and the most important

details of a story, event, film, program, or incident. You summarize information when
you do research or study for a test. You sometimes read plot summaries on the back
cover of a book or on the back of a videotape package. If you miss a club meeting, a
newsletter will provide a meeting summary.
Since summaries are such a common part of life, the ability to summarize is a valuable
skill. Use the questions in the box to help you develop summaries.
Summarizing Questions
1. What is the main idea? (Try to state it in one sentence.)
2. What are the major details?
3. Does each detail support the main idea?
4. Does each detail present new information?
5. Have you eliminated details that are repetitious or unnecessary?

■ Activities

Determine the main idea, and eliminate details that are not essential to the story. Write
your summary on a separate sheet of paper.
An attempt by Russian space officials to flash a beam of sunlight across Europe before
dawn was thwarted by cloud cover. Reports from Switzerland stated that thick cloud cover
prevented any of the sunbeams from lighting up the night. By using a giant mirror in space,
officials hoped to light up parts of several European countries for seven minutes. The space
mirror is a sixty-five-foot-diameter reflective plastic sheet that was unfurled from a Russian
spacecraft. The mirror was constructed by a small optics company. The mirror was intended
to reflect sunlight back to earth and, in defiance of nature, to illuminate the night with sunlight. This idea was the brainchild of a special team of Russian agricultural scientists interested in establishing alternative light sources to moderate the lengthy darkness during the
winter months.
Officials in the cities the sunbeam was intended to fall upon were not notified of the
Russian experiment. Russian authorities did not believe the seven minutes of light would
cause any alarm.
B. Select a textbook chapter or a newspaper article, and write a short summary of its

content.
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Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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A. Summarize the following news story so that you can tell a friend about it.


Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

19

Drawing Conclusions
Frank saw Leila, his new girlfriend, at the store with a good-looking young man. They
were talking and laughing together as if they knew and liked each other. Leila saw
Frank and smiled and waved. Frank, jealous and humiliated, turned and ran away.
Frank’s conclusion that Leila’s companion was her new boyfriend was not based on
facts. The young man could have been Leila’s brother. Frank’s situation shows that
drawing a conclusion without knowing all the facts can be tricky.
Whether you are reading a book, reading or listening to the news, or analyzing a situation in your life, try to look at all the angles. Ask questions. Gather more facts. Then
you can attempt to draw a conclusion.
Steps for Drawing a Conclusion
1. Examine the facts.
Leila is with a handsome young man.
2. Ask what more needs to be known.
Who is the young man? Is he Leila’s boyfriend? Brother? Cousin?
3. Gather more facts if necessary, and organize them.

Ask Leila to introduce her companion. Find out what his relationship to Leila is.
4. Draw a conclusion.
The young man is not a rival.

■ Activities

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

A. Examine each conclusion below to determine whether it is supported by the facts.
On a separate sheet of paper, write yes if the conclusion is supported or no if it is not
supported. For weak conclusions, tell what additional facts are needed.
1. Jenny studied hard for her math test. The test was difficult, but Jenny felt confi-

dent of her answers. Later, Mark showed her an answer sheet he said he had
found in a wastebasket near the teacher’s desk. Nearly all the answers differed
from Jenny’s. “I’ve flunked the test,” she thought.
2. Cameron wasn’t sure that his new stepbrother and stepsister would like his spe-

cial spaghetti, but he decided to give it a try. “I’m making dinner tonight,” he
announced, and he thought they looked a bit worried. All through dinner he
kept hearing, “I’ll have more” and “Could I have another helping?” Soon the
pot was empty. “I guess they liked it,” Cameron said to himself.
3. Last month several people in our town saw bright lights and strange objects

moving in the sky. Their descriptions were so vivid that investigators from the
U.S. Air Force came to interview them. If the air force is interested, Nikki
thought, it must be true that the people saw UFOs.
B. Find an unsupported conclusion in a newspaper, a book, or a magazine. Describe
and explain the conclusion.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

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Thinking and Study Skills
Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

Using Criteria

20

Roger plans to write about the three most important inventions in history. Of the
many, many inventions, how will Roger choose only three? He will establish criteria, or
standards for making judgments. Roger begins compiling a list of criteria for important inventions:
•

Each invention must have changed people’s lives significantly.

•

Each invention must have been a major technological advance.

•

Each invention must have had a widespread impact.

•

Each invention must have had long-term effects.

Roger’s job is still going to be difficult, but his list of criteria will help. For example, the
mechanical pencil sharpener probably does not meet the criteria, but the telephone
does. You use criteria on a regular basis in your life. For example, you look for certain
qualities in the clothing you buy. You watch certain television programs because they
meet your standards for comedy, drama, or action. When you use criteria in your studies—for choosing a topic to write about or for developing an opinion about an issue,
for example—be careful to use appropriate criteria. Look again at Roger’s criteria for
inventions. Are they appropriate? Since the main characteristics of inventions are
change and technological advance, these criteria probably are appropriate. They will
help Roger judge each invention according to meaningful standards.
Guidelines for Using Criteria
Decide what you want to know about a topic.

•

List some criteria (standards) for judging the topic. (It must be. . .It must have. . .)

•

Check the list, and remove any criteria that do not relate directly to what you want to know.

■ Activities
A. One student made the following list for a report on changing laws. Think about the

topic, the purpose of the report, and the criteria you would select. Then study the list,
and cross out any criterion that is inappropriate.
Title: When Should a Law Be Changed?
Criteria:
1. The law is no longer working.
2. People, animals, or structures are being harmed by the law.

3. The governor does not like the law.
4. Many citizens have expressed confusion about the law.
5. For a long time, citizens have repeatedly complained to officials about the law.
6. Citizens are willing to vote for or against lawmakers to get the law changed.
7. Most people do not know the law exists.
8. Public opinion is increasingly in favor of changing the law.
B. List criteria for one of the following topics or for a topic of your choice.

20

the perfect teacher

a curbside recycling plan

an action movie

a perfect world

a teen magazine

a good book

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

•


Thinking and Study Skills

Name ...................................................................................... Class .................................................. Date ................................

21

Making Decisions
Situations often force you into making decisions. Some decisions are easy to make. For
example, if you were standing on a railroad track and a train were approaching, you
would probably make your decision pretty quickly. Other situations require more
thought. Should you get braces? Is this the year to try out for the basketball team?
Should you commit yourself to that baby-sitting job every Saturday?
Learning to make decisions requires practice. With practice, you’ll be able to act when
a decision is needed, and you’ll feel comfortable that your decision is the best one you
could make at the time. The next time you’re faced with a decision, ask yourself the
questions in the box.
Guidelines for Making a Decision
1. What are the facts?
2. Do I need more information before I can make an informed decision?
3. What are my options?
4. What are the consequences of each option?
5. When must I decide?

■ Activities
A. Imagine that you must make a decision in each of the following situations. On a
separate sheet of paper, list all your options and what you think might be the consequences of each option. Then explain the decision you would make.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. Your science teacher has asked you to be a tutor to some seventh-graders who

need extra help. You are pleased that your teacher asked you, but the tutoring

might interfere with rehearsals for a show you are in. You recently won a coveted part in a local musical show, and the rehearsals are time consuming and
physically tiring. It’s all you can do to keep up with your schoolwork right now.
2. You are President Lincoln’s chief adviser. As he takes office, tensions between

the North and the South have reached a crisis level. Several states have already
withdrawn from the Union. Lincoln vows to keep the country together. Then
the Confederates attack Fort Sumter. The situation forces Lincoln to make a
decision. Should he defend the fort and start a war, or should he give in to the
Confederacy? He asks for your advice.
B. Write about a decision you have made. List the options you considered and the reasons for your decision.

Writer’s Choice: Thinking and Study Skills, Grade 8

21