DESIGNING AN ESP READING SYLLABUS FOR THIRD YEAR STUDENTS OF SECURITY INVESTIGATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI UNIVERSITY

NGUYỄN THỊ THU TRANG

DESIGNING AN ESP READING SYLLABUS FOR THIRD-YEAR
STUDENTS OF SECURITY INVESTIGATION

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN TESOL

SUPERVISOR: Assoc. Dr. NGÔ HỮU HOÀNG

Hanoi, 2015


Table of Contents
Table of Contents...................................................................................................................................i
DECLARATIONS...............................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................................vi
This study entitled “Designing an ESP reading syllabus for third-year students of security
investigation”isconcerned withconstructing an ESP reading syllabus for third year students of
security investigation of the People’s Security College I and gives recommendations for teachers
and students to use the syllabus. ........................................................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES................................................................................................viii
Figure 1: Tree diagram of ESP given by Robinson........................................................................viii
Figure 2: A language-centered approach........................................................................................viii
Figure 3: A skill-centered approach................................................................................................viii
2.1.2. Types of ESP........................................................................................................................4

2.1.3. Characteristics of ESP...........................................................................................................6
2.2.4. Needs analysis....................................................................................................................13
2.3. An overview of reading.............................................................................................................14
2.3.1. Reading redefined...............................................................................................................14
2.3.2.Reasons for reading.............................................................................................................15
2.3.3. Classification of reading.....................................................................................................15
2.4. Reading in ESP..........................................................................................................................20
3.3.2. Questionnaires(See appendices 1 & 2)................................................................................26
3.3.3. Interviews (See appendices 3, 4, 5 & 6)..............................................................................26
3.5. Data collection procedures.....................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 4.......................................................................................................................................29
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.........................................................................................................29
4.1. Document analysis.................................................................................................................29
4.2. Major findingsfrom questionnaires (See appendices 1 & 2)..................................................33
4.3. Major findings from interviews with ex-students (See appendix 3 & 4)................................38
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4.4. Major findings from interviews with English teachers at PSC I (See appendix 5 & 6)..........39
4.5. Discussion..............................................................................................................................41
CHAPTER 5.......................................................................................................................................44
A PROPOSED SYLLABUS...............................................................................................................44
5.1. The chosen syllabus type...........................................................................................................44
5.2. The syllabus goals and objectives..............................................................................................44
5.3. The syllabus components...........................................................................................................44
5.4. Suggested topics for the syllabus...............................................................................................45
5.5. Reading skills and strategies included in the syllabus................................................................45
5.6. Vocabulary................................................................................................................................46
5.7. Grammatical issues....................................................................................................................47
5.8. Tasks/activities..........................................................................................................................47

5.9. Organisation and duration of the syllabus..................................................................................49
CHAPTER 6.......................................................................................................................................54
SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION............................................................................................54
6.1. Suggestions for teaching............................................................................................................54
6.2. Suggestions for learning............................................................................................................55
6.3. Suggestions for assessment and evaluation................................................................................55
6.4. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................56
6.5. Limitations and suggestion for further studies...........................................................................56
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................57
Appendix 1..........................................................................................................................................61
Appendix 2..........................................................................................................................................64
Appendix3...........................................................................................................................................67
Appendix 4..........................................................................................................................................67
Appendix5...........................................................................................................................................68
Appendix 6..........................................................................................................................................69
Appendix 7..........................................................................................................................................70

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iii


DECLARATIONS

I hereby certify that the thesis “Designing an ESP reading syllabus for
third-year students of security investigation” is my own study in the
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts at Hanoi
University. I have fully provided all documented references to the work of others. The

material in this research has not been submitted for assessment in any other formal course
of study.

iv


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis has, in many senses, been accomplished with the help and
encouragement of many people. Therefore, I hereby wish to send my application to all of
them.
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc.Dr.
Ngô Hữu Hoàng for his valuable support, guid ance, and encouragement he gave
me during the time I tried to do the research. This thesis would not be
completed without his great help from the beginning when this study was
only in its formative stage.
My sincere thanks also go to all lecturers and staffs of Postgraduate
Studies for their valuable lessons and precious help. Thanks to their
lessons as well as needed help, I could overcome enormous obstacles
when doing the research.
In addition, I am also grateful to my colleagues and my students who
helped me collect the necessary data.
Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my beloved family whose
support and encouragement have always been the great source of
inspiration for me in bringing this study to a success.

v


ABSTRACT

This study entitled “Designing an ESP reading syllabus for thirdyear students of security investigation”isconcerned withconstructing
an ESP reading syllabus for third year students of security investigation of
the People’s Security College I and gives recommendations for teachers
and students to use the syllabus.

The study consists of six chapters. The first chapter states the problem, aims and
research questions and gives an overview of the thesis. The second chapter revises
literature of ESP, syllabus design and reading to establish theoretical orientation. The third
chapter shows the methodology and the process of conducting surveys. The fourth chapter
analyses needs to determine necessary factors for designing an ESP syllabus. The fifth
chapter demonstrates the final outcome of the research, and a proposed syllabus is
introduced. The last chapter concludes the whole thesis, states results and limitations as
well as suggests further studies.
A proposed syllabus has been reached on the base of results of need analysis and
under theoretical guidance. Hopefully, the syllabus meets students and teachers’ needs as
well as training objectives.

vi


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EAP:

English for academic purpose

EBE:

English for Business and Economics

EFL:

English as foreign language

ELT:

English language teaching

EOP:

English for occupational purposes

ESL:

English as second language

ESP:

English for specific purpose

ESS:

English for Social Studies

EST:

English for Science and Technology

GE:

General English

MOET: Ministry of Education and Training
PSC I: People’s Security College I

vii


LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1: Tree diagram of ESP given by Robinson
Figure 2: A language-centered approach
Figure 3: A skill-centered approach
Figure 4: A learning-centered approach to course deign
Table 1: ESP syllabus of the People’s Security Academy
Table 2: ESP reading syllabus of the People’s Security College II
Table 3: Students’ response about their English profile
Table 4: Students’belief about the importance of reading skill
Table 5: Students’ expectations
Table 6: Chosen reading activities by students
Table 7: Chosen topics by students
Table 8: Chosen terminologies by students
Table 9: Chosen types of exercise by students
Table 10: Chosen vocabulary in accordance with chosen topics
Table 11: Contents of language focus section in accordance with chosen topics

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1.Rationale of the research

Foreign languages in general and English in particular are indispensable for security
officers as transnational crimes take the chance of international assimilation to enter the
country and Vietnam cannot solve these problems without international experience
sharing and cooperation. Being aware of the importance of English in their future career,
it is the policy of Vietnam Ministry of Education and Vietnam Ministry of Public Security
to require all future security officers to accomplish GE and ESP courses.
The People’s Security College I (PSC I) is the second largest educational institution
training security officers in the North of Vietnam. It formerly is a junior college training
students in only two years before graduation. In 2013, it became a college, and it awards
both junior college and college degree by 2016. At its very beginning, college degree has
only one major- security investigation and its syllabi are now still under construction and
completion. Towards English subject, a lot of GE textbooks are accessible on the market
and GE syllabus can be based on one of those. The ESP syllabus, on the contrary, must be
specifically tailored for future security officers.
According to the college degree’s general curriculum approved by the General
Department of Building up Force- Ministry of Public Security, students will attend their
ESP course, which length is 30 periods, in the fifth semester. That means ESP syllabus is
solely for third-year students and it must be completed by May 2015 in order to be used in
the 2015-2016 school year.
In the process of acquiring English as a whole, students must learn the four language
skills among which reading plays an important role. With future security officers, who are
restricted to communicate with foreigners, reading is even more important because it is
the main way to learn from the wide world and broaden their knowledge. As mentioned
above, the ESP course lasts 30 periods, which is too short to acquire all four language
skills. As a result, reading skill will be focused on.
As the need for an ESP syllabus is urgent and for being conscious of the importance
of reading skill for future security officers, I have chosen the topic “Designing an ESP
reading syllabus for third-year students at The People’s Security College I” for my thesis.

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1.2. Aims of the research
This study aims at designing an ESPreading syllabus for the students in The
People’s Security College I. To achieve this aim, the following objectives are established:
- To identify the target situations and the required reading sub-skills and strategies.
- To identify the needs of teachers and the third-year students.
- To propose a reading syllabus based on relevant theories and needs analysis.
1.3. Research questions
To achieve its aims, the study is going to answer two questions:
1. What are learning needs and target needs of third-year students at PSC I?
2. What should be included in the ESP reading syllabus for third-year students at
PSC I?
1.4. Scope of the research
This study should present the basic theories relating to ESP syllabus designing, such
as designing, implementing, teaching method and evaluating. However, this study cannot
cover all four skills of an ESP syllabus for all learners, but it only focuses on a reading
syllabus for the third-year students in The People’s Security College Iin accordance with
the objectives of the training program for students and their needs.
In this study, the research will only investigate second year students who are going
to become third-year students about their needs and interests in learning English in
general and in readingas ESP in particular in The People’s Security College I. And then an
ESP reading syllabus will be suggested basing on their needs analysis and goal setting.
1.5. Design of the study
The thesis consists of six chapters
Chapter 1:Introduction
This chapter states rationale, aims, research questions, scope and design of the
research.
Chapter 2: Literature review
Literature of ESP, syllabus design and reading is revised in this chapter to establish

a theoretical orientation.
Chapter 3: Methodology
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In this chapter, the procedure of the study is shown with chosen research methods
and subjects.
Chapter 4: Results and discussion
Data from the study will be analyzed to determine necessary factors for designing an
ESP syllabus.
Chapter 5: A proposed syllabus
After identifying necessary factors for designing an ESP syllabus, the final outcome
of the research, a proposed syllabus, is introduced.
Chapter 6: Conclusion and suggestions
The last chapter concludes the whole thesis, states results, and limitations as well as
suggests further studies.
A list of references and appendixes are added at the end of the thesis.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. An overview of ESP
2.1.1. Definitions of ESP
It is not easy to define ESP. Linguistics and scholars give ESP definitions from
variousapproaches. Hutchinson and Water (1987)define ESP as one important branch of
the EFL/ESL (English as a Foreign Language/Second Language) system that functions as
the main branch of English Language Teaching (ELT). These authors consider ESP as not
a particular kind of language or methodology, but rather an approach to language learning

whereby the content and method are based on the learners’ particular needs to learn the
language. They state as follows:
“ESP, like any form of language teaching, is primarily concerned with learning. But
it is our view in its development up to now, ESP has paid scant attention to the question of
how people learn, focusing instead on the question of what people learns”.
(Hutchinson & Water, 1987, p.2)
Sharing the same view with these above authors, Richard, Platt, and Webber (1985)
affirm that ESP course is fixed by the specific needs for a particular group of learners.
2.1.2. Types of ESP
There are many types of ESP which are classified in different ways. Traditionally,
ESP has been divided into two main areas: English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) and
English for Academic Purposes (EAP).
Kennedy and Bolitho (1984,p.4) explain the two areas quite early: “EOP is taught in
a situation in which learners need to use English as part of their work or profession.
Instances of EOP students would be doctors in casualty or technicians servicing
equipment. They need English, in the first case, to talk and respond to patients and other
staff, and, in the second, to read technical manuals.” And, “EAP is taught generally within
educational institutions to students needing English in their studies. The language taught
may be based in particular disciplines at higher levels of education when the student is
specializing (in-study) or intends to specialize (pre-study) in a particular subject”.
Robinson (1991, p.3) shares the same view of dividing ESP into EOP and EAP by
giving the following tree diagram:
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Pre-experience
Simultaneous/ In-service

EOP

Post-experience
Pre-study

ESP
For study in a specific discipline

In-study
Post-study

EAP
Independent

As a school subject
Integrated

Figure 1: Tree diagram of ESP given by Robinson (1991)
This diagram shows a useful division of courses according to when they take place.
These distinctions will affect the degree of specificity that is appropriate to the course. A
pre-experience or pre-study course will probably rule out any specific work related to the
actual discipline or work as students do not have required familiarity with the content,
while courses of in-service or in-study will be provide the opportunity for specific or
integrated work.
According to David Carver (1983), he identifies such three types of ESP as English
as a restricted language, English for Academic and Occupational Purposes/ English with
specific topics.
In the “Tree of ELT” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three
branches, namely English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business and
Economics (EBE), and English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is
further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for
Occupational Purposes (EOP). Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p.16) do note that there is

not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP because “people can work and study
5


simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use
in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to a job”.
In short, studying various types of ESP is an important step for ESP teachers
because it provides them with an overall picture of the group of learners they are going to
work with. Accordingly, it is helpful for ESP teachers to choose teaching materials as well
as to design or adapt an appropriate ESP course for their target students. I myself agree
with Hutchinson and Water that there is not a clear border between EAP and EOP. My
students learn ESP as a subject at school and what they learn should be useful for their
future career as well as helpful for their future studies.
2.1.3. Characteristics of ESP
According to Dudley-Evans and St John (1998), there are three absolute
characteristics and four variable characteristics.
Absolute characteristics:
- ESP is designed to meet specific needs of learners;
- ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it
serves;
- ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourse
and genres appropriate to these activities.
Variable characteristics:
- ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
- ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of
general English;
- ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at tertiary level institution or
in a professional work situation. IT could, however, be used for learners at secondary
school levels;
- ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP

courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with
beginners.
The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics is very helpful in
defining what is and is not ESP. We can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned
6


with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability
range. ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans and St.
John (1998, p.4) describe as an 'attitude of mind'.
2.2. An overview of syllabus design
2.2.1. Definition of syllabus
Lee (1980, p.108) defines “Syllabus is essentially a statement ofwhat should be
taught, year by year– through language – syllabuses often alsocontain points about the
method of teaching and the time to be taken” while Dubin and Olshtain (1997, p.28) claim
that “syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning
elements which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps
leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level”. Another definition
belongs to Bodegas (2007, p.277) “Syllabuses are more localized and are based on
accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level. It is possible to see
syllabus design as part of course design, which in turn, forms part of the design of the
curriculum as a whole”.
2.2.2. Types of syllabus
Basing on structure (Ellis, 1997), words (Willis, 1990), skills (Johnson, 1996), or
notions and functions (Wilkins, 1976), syllabi are organized into various types. Up to
now, the most common classification of syllabus types is: content-based syllabus, skillbased syllabus, and method-based syllabus (Robinson, 1991).
2.2.2.1. Content-based syllabus
Structural syllabus
Structural syllabus is considered as the most prevalent type in language teaching in
which the selection and grading of the content is from the simple to the complex. It

focuses on the product, therefore each structural step is expected to master and add to
students’ grammar collection. However, the structural syllabus focuses only on grammar
while there are many other aspects that students need to learn in language learning. Nunan
(1988) mentionsan earlier criticism who claimed that structurally-graded syllabuses
misrepresented the nature of that complex phenomenon, language. They did so in tending
to focus on only one aspect of language, that is, formal grammar. In reality, there is more
than one aspect to language”. It can be said that this type of syllabus is infeasible.
Situational syllabus
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This type of syllabus “is always used in social context and cannot be understood
without reference to that context” (Wilkins, 1976, p.16). Hence, basing on situations in
which language is used, the designers are able to choose and present language content.
This feature of the situational syllabus brings it into use in context practically. In addition,
because it is “leaner rather than subject-centered”, it will motivate learners (Wilkins,
1976, p.16). However, language used in specific situations may not transfer to other
situations. This is one limitation of this type of syllabus. Moreover, it is effective only if
the designer can predict accurately the situation in which learners might find themselves.
Furthermore, gaps in students’ grammatical knowledge may appear incidentally when
using a situational syllabus.
Notional/Functional syllabus
Wilkins (1976) suggests that this kind of syllabus has a main concern about the
teaching of meaning and the communicative use of patterns. That means it expresses what
people communicate through language and its contents is selected from an analysis of
learners’ needs to show certain meaning. As a result, the content of this type of syllabus is
a list of the functions or notions that are performed when language is used. The
notional/functional syllabus takes the communicative facts of language into account
without losing grammatical and situational factors, but the lack of clear criteria causes
many issues in choosing and grading function and form.

Topic syllabus
This kind of syllabus is designed basing on the content rather than grammar,
functions, or situations. The syllabus designer selects the topic or themes on the basic of
the perception on their importance of target students. Topic syllabus motivates students
and it is the starting point for the “real syllabus” of the language forms, tasks, or whatever
the course designers wish to focus on (Robinson, 1991). This kind of syllabus has
advantage of serving the multiple interests of students in a classroom and offering a focus
on content while still adhering to institutional needs for offering a language course
(Brown, 1994). Besides, topic syllabus also reveals its drawbacks in balance, grading, and
defining the semantic construct.
2.2.2.2. Skill-based syllabus
Robinson (1991) states that skill-based syllabus focuses exclusively or principally
on one of the four traditional skills. It means the content of language teaching in this kind
of syllabus is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language
including reading, speaking, listening, and writing. The organization of the materials is
around the language or academic skills that students are most need in order to learn the
8


language. The selection of the skills is based on the author’s perception of their
usefulness; and the sequence of the skills is based on some senses of chronology,
frequency, or relative usefulness of the skills.
2.2.2.3. Method-based syllabus
Task-based syllabus
Task-based syllabus can be given another name of procedural syllabus (Long &
Crookes, 1993; Rabbini, 2002), in which the teaching content is collection of a complex
and purposeful tasks and activities that learners want or need to perform with the language
they are learning in order to fulfill the task given by their teachers. Students are involved
in real communication and are provided clear and immediate need for language learning.
Therefore, this kind of syllabus can develop students’ cognitive cultural and necessary

skills to cope with real life situations.
Process syllabus
The process syllabus is defined as “a context within which any syllabus of subjectmatter is made workable” (Breen, 1987, p.196). In area of ELT, learner contribution and
planning for teaching and learning this kind of syllabus shows many differences. It is the
only syllabus that not pre-set but rather constructed as the course is taught. The designer
no longer pre-selects learning content, but provide framework for teacher and learners to
create their own on-going syllabus. Process syllabus is also seen as an innovative one
because it is largely focused on project work and problem-solving tasks and activities.
In summary, there are many types of syllabus; all of them have advantages and
disadvantages. However, “which syllabus type or types to employ will result from a
judicious consideration of the students’ needs and objectives of the course, together with
the institutional bias of the teaching institutional” (Robinson, 1991, p.41).
After considering the curriculum and reviewing types of syllabus, I believe that
integration between topic-based and skill-based syllabus is a reasonable choice because
reading is our target skill and interesting topics motivate learners. Reading sub-skills will
be focusedin the context of thoughtful chosen topics.
2.2.3. Approaches to ESP syllabus design
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state that there are three main types of approaches to
ESP syllabus design including language-centered, skill-centered, and learning-centered approach.
2.2.3.1. Language-centered approach to course design
Language-centered approach is the simplest and most popular approach. The
purpose of language-centered approach isto draw as direct a connection as possible
between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course (Hutchinson
and Waters, 1987). This approach starts from the learners in their learning situation and

9


theoretical perspectives on language learning to the choice of linguistic items, syllabus,
material and evaluation.

This approach is widely used in ESP; however there are some undeniable
disadvantages. First, although this approach starts from learner in learning situation,
learner is simply a mean to identify the target situation so it is not a learner-centered, it is
learner-restricted. Second, language-centered approach does not take learner’s motivation
into consideration and there are no feedback channels and error tolerance. As a result, this
approach is a static and inflexible procedure. Wilkins (1976) argues that a languagefocused syllabus is linear and does not give the chance for remedial work or revision.
Third, language-centered approach seems to be systematic but actually it bases on a
misconception that learning is an externally-imposed system, not an internally-generated
system. Fourth, in this approach, an analysis of a particular situation is used to determine
the content of syllabus and materials without giving any acknowledgements to other
important factors such as learner’s motivation, attitude and interests. Fifth, the languagecentered analysis of target situation data is only at the surface level. It reveals very little
about the competence that underlies the performance.

Identify learners’ target situation

Select theoretical views of language

Identify linguistic features of target situation

Create syllabus
Design
materials
to exemplify syllabusapproach
Figure
2: A language-centered
items

2.2.3.2. Skills-centered approach
Establish evaluation procedures to test acquisition of syllabus items

Skills-centered approach is widely used in a number of countries and it is founded
on theoretical and pragmatic principles.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) believe that there are certain skills and strategies
underlying any language behaviors. A skills-centered course aims at reachingthese skills
and strategies so it presents its learning objectives in term of both performance and
competence.

10


The pragmatic principle is that goal-oriented courses are different from processoriented courses. Considering constrains such as time limit and learner’s experience, goaloriented courses may fail to reach their targets. On the contrary, process-oriented courses
do not focus on achieving particular set of goals, but on enabling the learners to achieve
what they can within the given constrains. The process-oriented approach helps learners to
be aware of their own abilities and potential, encourage further improvement after the end
of the course.
The skills-centered model bases on the identification of target situation, constrains
of teaching and learning situation and theoretical views of language to build up the
syllabus that help learners develop skills and strategies. In this approach, need analysis not
only gather information of learners’ target competence but also discover learners’
potential knowledge and abilities. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) states that this approach
takes learner in to account in three perspectives:
- It views language in terms of how the mind of the learner processes it rather than
as an entity in itself.
- It tries to build on the positive factors that the learners bring to the course, rather
than just on the negative idea of ‘lacks’.
- It frames its objectives in open-ended terms, so enabling learners to achieve at least
something.

11

Theoretical view
of language

Identify
target
situation

Analyze skills/
strategies required to
cope in target situation

Write
syllabus

Theoretical view
of language

Select texts
and write
exercises
to focus on
skills or
strategies
in syllabus

Establishing
evaluation
procedures
which require

the use of
skills/strategies
in sylabus

Figure 3: A skill-centered approach
2.2.3.3. Learning-centered approach
Learning-centered approach goes one step further in comparison with skills-centered
approach. Beside the competence that enables students to perform, it also considers how
students acquire that competence. Through this approach, course design is a negotiated
and dynamic process. It is a negotiated process because both learning situation and target
situation influence the nature of syllabus, methodology and evaluation and these two
factors also influence each other. It is a dynamic process because it does not goes in a
linear sequence. As needs and resources change, feedbacks will be given and these
responds will lead to adaptations.
Considering all of these advantages, it is for certain that learning-centered approach
is the best choice to design a syllabus in general and to design an ESP reading syllabus for
third-year students of security investigation at the People’s Security College in particular.

Identify learners
12

Theoretical views
of language


Identify skills and
knowledge needed to
function in the target
situation

Write syllabus/ materials to
exploit the potential of the
learning situation in the
acquisition of the skills and
knowledge required by the
target situation

Evaluation

Figure 4: A learning-centered approach to course deign
2.2.4. Needs analysis
Needs analysis plays a vital role in the process of designing and carrying out any
language course, whether it is ESP or GE course. There are various definitions of needs
13


analysis. Iwai (1999) states that the term needs analysis generally refers to the activities
that are involved in collecting information that will serve as the basis for developing a
curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular group of students. Besides, needs
analysis is seen as “the process of determining the needs for which a learner or a group of
learner requires a language and arranging the needs according to priority” (Richards, Platt,
and Webber, 1985, p.189).
For Johns (1991), needs analysis is the first step in course design and it provides
validity and relevancy for all subsequent course design activities, especially in the context
of ESP. By identifying, elements of students’ target English situation and using them as
the basic of ESP instructions, teacher will be able to provide students with the specific
language they need to succeed in their courses and future careers. It seems to be the most
careful concern to establish workable syllabus design learning because it can have a great
influence on the shape of the syllabus on which the course is based.
Being aware of the significance of needs analysis, the author of this thesis uses

surveys to carefully identify learners’ needs and target needs and uses the data as a
fundamental to design the syllabus. Hopefully, the syllabus meets learners’ expectations.
2.3. An overview of reading
2.3.1. Reading redefined
As teacher’s belief has a great influence on the way she teaches in the classroom, a
careful look at definitions of reading is very important. However, it is not an easy task
because different people define the term reading in different ways and each definition
reflects a different viewpoint. According to Robinson and Good (1987, p.9), “Reading is
much more than just pronouncing words correctly or simply knowing that the author
intends; it is the process whereby the printed page stimulates ideas, experiences and
responses that are unique to an individual”
Petty and Salzer (1989, p.323) hold a similar point of view and emphasize that “The
resulting meanings are organized into thought processes according to the purposes that are
operating in the reader.”
Both of the above definitions indicate that reading is not only an interaction between
the reader and the author but also between the reader and the text. Hence, the reading
outcome varies according to the purpose and the way the reader process the text.

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Gould, DiYanni, Smith and Standford (1990) define reading from a broader
viewpoint. They believe that reading is not only a creative act, interaction, interpretation
but also a social act and responding.
2.3.2.Reasons for reading
Nuttall (1989, p.3) writes: “You read because you wanted to get something from the
writing: facts, ideas, enjoyment, even feelings of family community (from a
letter).”Sharing the same opinion, Johnson and Morrow (1981) state that we read in order
to obtain information which is presented in written form. By "information" I mean content
which is cognitive (or intellectual), referential (or factual) or affective (or emotional).”

All of the above opinions agreed that reading is carried out for, at least, a reason
other than reading the language itself. When reading, readers are not concerned with the
language but with the message and its applications. In other words, they have authentic
reasons for reading. Therefore, writers of a reading syllabus should bear these reasons in
mind to make the syllabus content relevant and interesting to readers.
2.3.3. Classification of reading
Although there are different ways to classify reading, the most popular one is to base
on manners and purposes of reading (or reasons for reading).
2.3.3.1.Classification according to manners of reading
Based on manners of reading, reading can be divided into reading aloud and silent
reading.
Reading aloud
According to Doff (1995, p.67), “obviously, reading aloud involves looking at a
text, understanding it and also saying it”. When we read aloud, our purpose is not just to
understand a text but to convey the information to someone else. As a result,
“readingaloud can be useful at the earliest stage of reading (recognising letters and
words); it can help students to make the connection between sound and spelling”.
However, Doff (1995, p.58) also points out that "for reading a text, it is not a very
useful technique" because it is not a natural activity – most people do not read aloud in
real life. In addition, reading aloud takes time and students only pay attention to
pronunciation, not understanding the text.

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Silent reading
Silent reading is a normal and natural activity that most students do in classroom as
well as in real life. “Normally, reading is a silent and individual activity since the writer's
expectation was that the text would be read, not heard” (Abbott and Wingard, 1985, p.81).
Doff (1995, p.67) adds that “it involves looking at sentences and understanding the

message they convey, in other words, "making sense" of a written text.” When we read,
we activate our background knowledge and our linguistic knowledge at the same time for
a better understanding.In addition, in silent reading, the student can read at his own speed
and can go back and read whatever he wants to understand more.
2.3.3.2. Classification according to purposes of reading
As mentioned above, people read for various reasons or, in other words, different
purposes. Accordingly, the ways they read also vary. Most methodologists have agreed
that the main kinds of reading according to purposes of reading are skimming, scanning,
extensive reading and intensive reading.
Skimming
Nuttall (1989, p.34) states that “By skimming... we mean glancing rapidly through a
text to determine its gist, for example in order to decide whether a research paper is
relevant to our own work..., or in order to keep ourselves superficially informed about
matters that are not of great importance to us”. When skimming, we read quickly to get
general idea or the gist of the text without being concerned with the details. Therefore,
skimming should be treated as a useful skill in teaching and learning reading and can be
applied at the first stage of a reading lesson with the aim that the student can have an
overview of what he is going to read.
Scanning
Scanning is also a necessary technique in reading efficiently. Nuttall (1989,
p.34) believed that“by scanning we mean glancing rapidly through a text either to search
for a specific piece of information... or to get an initial impression of whether the text is
suitable for a given purpose...”
Unlike skimming, scanning is reading rapidly for particular item of information, and
thenconcentrating on it. When scanning, we only try to find target information. Therefore, this
kind of reading can be very useful in reading selectively.
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