Academic writing

ACADEMIC WRITING – TÀI LIỆU ÔN THI
TÔ MINH THANH – CHU THỊ LÊ HOÀNG
TỐT NGHIỆP ĐẠI HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH NGỮ VĂN ANH
TUYỂN SINH SAU ĐẠI HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH
NHÀ XUẤT BẢN ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH - 2009

MỤC LỤC

LỜI NÓI ĐẦU
Thực tế không phải là sách dạy tiếng của tác giả người nước ngoài nào
cũng Đáp ứng đúng và đủ nội dung ôn tập thi tốt nghiệp đại học chuyên ngành
Ngữ văn Anh và thi tuyển sinh sau đại học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng
Anh Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) theo quy định của
Trường đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn - Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ
Chí Minh.
Tài liệu này ra đời nhằm (1) đáp ứng nhu cầu ôn tập thi tốt nghiệp đại học
của sinh viên hệ tại chức và hệ chính quy bằng 1 và bằng 2 theo chuyên
ngành ngữ văn Anh và (2) giúp các anh chị cựu sinh viên ôn tập tuyển sinh
sau đại học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh.
Ngoài ra, tài liệu này cũng có thể nằm trong thư mục sách tham khảo giúp
(1) học viên cao học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh và (2) các thầy cô
theo: khóa Bồi dưỡng giáo viên tại Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã và Nhân văn đại
học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh học thành công môn Writing PG trong
chương trình chính khóa của cả hai hệ đào tạo sau đại học này.
Để giúp các đối tượng dự thi làm quen và chuẩn bị tốt kỳ thi của mình, tài
liệu này được trình bày thành bốn phần:
1) Phần ôn tập các thành phần câu ( components) thường dùng
trong văn viết tiếng Anh trang trọng;
2) Phần ôn tập cấu trúc cơ bản của một đoạn văn (a paragraph);
3) Phần ôn tập cấu trúc cơ bản của một bài luận văn (an essay);
4) Phần giải một số đề thi dựa trên các đề thi đã thực tế được dùng

trong các kỳ thi gần đây.
Hy vọng rằng bốn phần trình bày này cùng với khá nhiều bài tập đa dạng
về độ khó và phong phú về chủng loại có gợi ý hoặc có lời giải đính kèm để
minh họa cho phần lý thuyết được trình bày sẽ giúp các đối tượng dự thi tự luyện


tốt hơn dù có điều kiện hay không thể trực tiếp theo học các lớp luyện thi chính
thức.
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, ngày 10 tháng 1 năm 2005.
Tô Minh Thanh và Chu Thị Lê Hoàng 

SECTION 1:SENTENCE COMPONENTS
THE PHRASE
'A phrase is a group of words used as a single part of speech and not containing
a verb and its subject.’ [Warriner, 1958: 59] These groups of words may be used
not only as verbs but also as adjectives, adverbs and nouns.

Prepositions - Prepositional phrases
1. Prepositions:
1.1. Definition: A preposition is a word that shows the relation
between a noun or a pronoun and other words in a sentence.
I walked to the house/ around the house/ through the house the book by him/
for him/ about him.
In the above examples, prepositions make great differences in meaning
when they link the house with walked, and him with the book.
1.2. Characteristics:
1.2.1. English prepositions may be in different forms.
1.2.1.1. one – word prepositions:
aboard
about

above
across
after
against
along
among
around
at
before
behind

below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
down
during
for
from

in
inside
into
like
of
off

except
on
outside
over
since
through

- I am tired of them
- George sat between the two deans.
- He objected to the last paragraph.
- The car stopped at the station.
- The lad stood on a barrel.

throughout
to
toward
under
underneath
until
up
upon
with
within
without


- The car coasted into the garage with lights on.
- The girl was sitting against the wall.
- These roses are for you.
1.2.1.2. -ing prepositions:

In addition to the prepositions already mentioned, there is in English a
group of -ing preposition which have a verb as a stem. Here are some of the
most common: barring, concerning, regarding, considering, following,
including, pending, during, etc.:
- He was vague concerning the details.
- Assuming the accuracy of the report, action must be taken at once.
- We WILL DELAY the papers, pending the of arrival of the contract.
Distinguish the -ing preposition from THE -ING VERB.
- ing prep 1. Barring accidents the picnic will begin at eleven.
- ing prep 2. There will be a smoker following the dining car
- ING VERB 3. She IS only FOLLOWING her orders after all.
- ing prep 4. May I have a conference regarding my examination!
- ING VERB 5. He WAS REGARDING the newcomer with curiosity.
- ING VERB 6. CONSIDERING the time, we HAD BETTER STOP now.
- ing prep 7. Considering your loss, the bill WILL NOT BE SENT.
- ING VERB 8. I AM INCLUDING damage to my window on the bill.
- ing prep 9. The entire squad, including the water boy WILL MAKE the trip.
- ing prep 10. This IS the letter concerning their complaint.
1.2.1.3. compound prepositions:
The final group is composed of compound prepositions. These are
relatively numerous and various types. Often it is difficult to say whether a word
group should be considered a preposition or not. Here is a short list of two
types.
Two-word prepositions
together with
up at
contrary to
as for
ahead of
inside of

due to
aside from
apart from
as concerns
up to
because of
out of
owing to
away from
instead of

Prepositions with Noun
on account of
By way of
in spite of
In comparison with
with rega to
In reference to
in advance of
With respect to
in addition to
In event of
on behal of
For the sake of
in place of
In case of
in I ieu of
By means of

Recognize the compound preposition in the following sentences:
1. We arrived ahead of time.
2. The game was cancelled on account of rain.
3. The oldest daughter is up at the camp.
4. Contrary to our expectations, the movie was a delightful spoof.
5. The hoard had a meeting with reference to the new building
6. I want to thank you on behaif_of these refugee
7 .They served rice in lieu of potatoes.
8. I can answer all the questions except for the last
9. In spite of her protestations, Harriet was persuaded to join the guild.
10. The foreman received a letter with respect to alleged violations.
1.2.2. As far as their meaning is concerned, English prepositions are of
two main kinds:
1.2.2.1. Prepositions that have specific meanings, namely the meanings
of the relations that they represent or refer to. Below are a number of their
common meanings:
a. Space may be subdivided into:
+ Location: in the kitchen, under the ground, behind the wall
+ Direction: towards the town, from Leeds to Manchester
b. Time may be subdivided into:
+ Point of time: before the wedding, at nine o'clock
+ Extent of time: for several days, since January
c. Topic: (chilling stories) about ghosts
d. Purpose: (a key) for the opening of the safe 
e. Similarity: (a boy) like his father
f. Instrument: with an axe
g. Accompaniment: with a bowler hat
1.2.2.2. Prepositions used without any specific meaning, when they are
attached to particular VERBS, adjectives or nouns.
- They BLAMED the mess on Jim.

- They BLAMED Jim for the mess.
- I am interested in your_offer.
- She is proud of her children.


- He’s anxious about/for her_safetỵ.
- There is great anxiety about his future
- We have a lot of sympathy for you.
- During the occupation, we had to live in total ubmission to the invaders.
In all these cases the preposition has a purely syntactic relational function
in relating a VERB, adjective or noun to a following object or complement. The
preposition is predictable (i.e. it cannot be replaced by any other preposition),
and so lacking in specific meaning.

2. Prepositional Phrases:
Do not confuse prepositions with adverbs. Prepositions, which introduce
prepositional phrases, are always followed by a nominal.
Compare:
Adverb: She looked up.
Preposition: She looked up the stairs
Adverb: They went inside.
Preposition: They went inside the house
Distinguish prepositions from adverbs.
1. The swimmer waited below
2. The swimmer waited below the dam
3. She liked to sit near
4. She sat near the window.
5. the paint bucket fell off
6. The paint bucket fell off the porch
7. I haven’t seen him since

8. I haven’t seen him since yesterday
9. The refreshments came after
10. The refreshments came after the program
2.1. Definition: A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with
a preposition and ending with nominal. The nominal which ends the prepositional
phrase is the complement of the preposition that begins the phrase.
- He answered the question with (great) care [prep + noun (phrase)]
- I am interested in swimming. [prep + gerund]/ in learning a foreign language
[prep + gerund phrase]
- Do it for me. [prep + pronoun]


- One can see the airport from upstairs.[prep + adverb]
2.2. Use:
2.2.1. A preposition phrase can be used as an adjectival to modify a noun
or a pronoun.
EX: - the lady in the green dress
- two identical girls with long blond hair
- some of the most common methods
- one of tine two possibly solutions
2.2.2. A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial to modify:
2.2.2.1. A VERB (when this prepositional phrase tells when, where,how,
how etc. the action of the verb takes place):
- He LIVES in the suburbs.( Where does he live?)
- The train ARRIVED at two o 'clock. ( did the train arrive?)
- The reproduction TAKES PLACE by budding (How does the reproduction take
place?)
- He MISSED the target by a foot. ( How far did he miss the target?)
2.2.2.2. AN ADJECTIVE.
- These shoes ARE too small for comfort.

- If you ARE susceptible to colds, vitamin c helps you resist them.
- She IS very clever at dealing with strangers.
2.2.2.3. ANOTHER ADVERB.
- Never in mililion years WILL he ADMIT defeat.
- Later in the afternoon,the sun WAS NOT so bright, and the sky WAS NOT SO
blue.
2.2.2.4. A WHOLE CLAUSE OR SENTENCE:
- According to me, you'RE quite right.
- In fact the contract IS invalid.
2.2.3. A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial after the verb BE.
It is called the subjective complement in the sentence:
- The books ARE under the desk-lamp.
- She IS in the kitchen preparing dinner.
- Jack WAS on top of the car.
- HAVE you ever BEEN to Cairo


EXERCISE 1: Underline the prepositional phrases in the given paragraph.
Vitamins are necessary for good health. Vitamin A promotes the
growth of young animals and is essential to the proper development of their
eyes. If you CANNOT SEE in the dard, perhaps you should drink more milk,
which is rich in vitamins. Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin
A. If you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal,
you may need vitamin B. Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs,
green vegetables, and meals. According to my druggist; liver, which contains
vitamin B, IS a safeguard against anaemia. For an adequate supply of this
vitamin, eat plenty of tomatoes. If you are susceptible to colds, vitamin C may
help you resist them. In the spring or during the summer, you CAN GET
vitamin D by a trip to a sunny beach. Vitamin D, derived from sunshine and
found In fish-liver oils, PREVENTS rickets. When you look at a menu, DECIDE

upon a well-balanced meal fortified with vitamins.

PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
1. Definition:
1.1. A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or
an adverb.
Participles may occur in different forms:
Present Participle
Past Participle
Perfect Participle

Active
Writing
Having written

Passive
Being written
Written
Having been written

1.2. A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifier
(s)and/or its object (s):
Tới đây
- The man standing (active present participle) near the front door (adjunct of
place) is Mr. Snow.
of their eyes. If you CANNOT SEE in the perhaps you should drink more milk,
which is rich in vitamins. Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin A. If
you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal, you may
need vitamin B. Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs, green
vegetables, and meals. According to my druggist, liver, which contains vitamin B,

IS a
safeguard against anaemia. For an adequate supply of this eat plenty of
tomatoes. If you are susceptible to , vitamin c may help you resist them. In the
spring or during the summer, you CAN GET vitamin D by ứ trip to a sunny beach.
Vitamin D, derived from
sunshine and found in fish-liver oils,PREVENTS rickets. When you look
at a menu, DECIDE upon a well-balanced fortified with vitamins.


PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
1. Definition:
1.1. A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or an
adverb.
Participles may occur in different forms:
1.2. A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifieris)
and/or Itsobieciis):
- The man standing near the is Mr. Snow.
tJ
active present participle adjunct of place
- Having translated the, text with great I copied it down.
T7 ' I
active perfect participle do adjunct of manner 
2. Usage:
2.1. A present or past participle can be used as an adjective to modify a noun or
pronoun,or to subjective complement in a
sentence, following A LINKING VERB.
ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES a liv/>7ỹthing a burn/>7ỹ
approach/Ạỹstranger the \eering manager the preced/>7ỹ
melt/>7ỹsnow taWing leaves the leapÁr^/dropp/Ạỹđicks

house a
statement

- Thẹ cup GOT broken.
- Some plants are erect, others ARE tracing or
2.2. We use a present participle after VERBS OF PERCEPTION to show something
in occurrence:
- DO you HEAR her s\r\qingfl
- We SAW the enemy approach/>7ỹ.
-1 FEEL my heart beating.
2.3. We also use a present participle to show an action happening at the same
time with the action illustrated by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence:
- The children RAN crying in the street.
- Step by step, they FOLLOWED danc/>7<7.
- Be/>K7 described os an example of gymnosperms. the pines ARE abundant
plants, particularly in colder regions of the world.
In these cases, 'when’and may be added before the


present participle: 
Wherjspeak/nợ about the new project,the lecturer SHOWED a map.
- Whffe working a\ the. farm,the students HELPED the farmers.
2.4. To express an action which has already finished before the one illustrated by
THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence, we use either a past or a perfect
participle.
- Translat ecjinto many_ languages,this book BECAME well-known all over the
world.
- Hav/>7<7 finish ecjmy work,I SAT down to rest.
- Hav/>7<7 been cqrefu[Ịỵ_repai rthe elevator RAN well.
2.5. A participial phrase may be a modifier of a noun or a pronoun:

- The stem ly/>7<7 between two nodes IS an inter-node.
- Frank, tack I go' hard on the fifty-yard line, WAS seriously INJURED.
- He JUMPED over the rope extended across
In most cases, participial phrases are more related to THE PREDICATIVE VERB of
the sentences in which they occur, expressing , time, manner, condition ox
means.
- Being a careless fellow,he FORGOT all about it.
(CAUSE: Why did he forget all about it?)
- Hav/Wff had my breakfast,I WENT to school.
(TIME: When did you go to school?)
- He STOOD on the veranda, listen/>7<7 to the wind.
(MANNER: How did he stand on the veranda?)
- Joking morning_ exercises every day*you CAN IMPROVE your health.
(CONDITION: Under what condition can I improve my health?)
- Runn/>7<7 q!Lthe way, I CAUGHT the express.
(MEANS: How/Bywhat means did you catch the express?) 
EXERCISE 2: Number from 1 to 10 on your paper. Make a list of the participles in
the following sentences. After the participle, write the (group) word modified. Be
prepared to tell whether each is a present or a past participle.
1. The radio announcer spoke sadly to the listening audience.
2. His trained voice held them in its spell.
3. T have a distressing news to relate,’ he told them.
4. ‘Mudville has lost the game; the defeatedieom is in deep disgrace.’


5. Pausing briefly, he went on.
6. ‘Overconfident and swaggering,our proud players made one mistake after
another.’
7. They swung their bats so recklessly that the opposing pitcher easily struck
them out.’

8. ‘ Angered,\the few men who tried to reach base never succeeded.’
9. Therefore, our fanned victory celebration will not take place.’
10. ‘And now,’ he concluded, ‘an excit word from our sponsor.’
GERUNDS - GERUND PHRASES 1. Gerunds:
1.1. Definition: A gerund is a word formed from a verb and used as a noun.
1.2. Usage: Like a noun, a gerund can be:
a. The subject.
Studying certainly KEEPS low grades away. Thesweei singing of birds DELIGHTS
US.
The loud knockingof the door FRIGHTENED him.
b. The subject ivecomplement.
Seeing IS believ/>7ỹ.
His favourite pastime IS swimm/>7ỹ.
Jack ENJOYS hunt/>7ỹ.
You MUST CONTINUE work/>7ỹ.
d. The complement of a preposition:
That tool IS USED for drilling.
/ARE computers capableot Tnink/>7<7?
Ill his youth, Henry V W/AS givedrink/Ạỹand gambl/>7^.
1.3. Notes:
a. Gerunds always end in - ing:hut not all words ending in -ing are gerunds:
they may he present participles or a part of A PREDICATIVE VERB. For instance,
there are three words ending in -ing in the following sentence, hut only one of
them, is a gerund:
Watch/>7<7 the judges in the balcony, Gwen WAS TRYING to win the contest
with her loud singing.
h. A gerund can also he used as an adjective to modify a noun. But it should he
carefully distinguished from a participle:
ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES I i V ingorganisms the sleeping guard

a drinking horse
The combination of gerund and head noun is also referred to as a
compound noun (ComN, for short). Sleeping car for example.
should he dominated in ComN as in (2):
NP

V-Ger headN
II
(2) the sleeping car
c. A gerund can he a part noun and part verb.
The noun feature is clearly illustrated in the two following cases:
• A gerund can be used with a posses
- You MAY RELY ON my coming.
- We DON'T LIKE your qoing away.
- Our working on a collective farm in summer HELPS US in studying many
subjects.
• A gerund may be modified by a
case-.
- The problem IS the stud regularly.
- 1 INSIST ON my brother's coming in time.
The verb feature is shown in the two following cases:
• A gerund may have a direct object.
-1 LIKE reading books.
-My friend IS veryquickm
• A gerund may be modified by an
- 1 LIKE walk ingslowly.
- We CONTINUE doing morning regularly.
2. Gerund Phrases
2.1. Definition: A gerund phrase is a phrase containing a gerund.

2.2.Usage: Like a gerund, a gerund phrase can be used as:
a. The subject.


- Learn/>7ff rules without examplesis useless.
- LiV ing far.from home IS NOT always easy.
b. The sub iect ivecomplement
- His bad habit IS teWina lies.
- The basic job of computers IS process forma
c. The direct object- I ENJOY listen/Wffto Ịheụv
- It BEGAN rain/>7<7 early m the morning. 
d. The complement oi a preposition:
- The farmers -ARE sure of harvest/no pood
- I -AM devoted to brinq//7<7 up my children.
- The idea of breed ing cattle in this region IS progressive.
- He DEVISED a mechanical way of multiply//7ffand dividing.
- The answer IS OBTAINED
by examin/>7<7 the characteristics of various -This equipment WAS USED many
without repaired.
- The abacus CAN BE UNDERSTOOD without know/>7<7 how to
e. The appositive.
- My favourite exercise,play/>7q tennis,IS very beneficial to my health.
EXERCISE 3: After you have listed each gerund in the sentences below, w rile
how each is used: subject (S), direct object (dO), subject/Ve implement(sC),
complement of a preposition (pC).
Many students ENJOY play/>7 g basketball. (play/WydO of The first requirement
of the game IS fast think/>7<7.
(think/W^sC of
Rhythm IS NEEDED for skilful dribbl//7<7- (dribbl/>7- Smooth iump/>7<7often HELPS in scoring.

(jump/i^S of ‘hepis’) {scoring/pC of
- ■ Precisetim//7ff IS one of the most important abilities
of a good basketball player. (tim/W^S of
INFINITIVES - INFINITIVE PHRASES
1. Definition:


1.1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of “to” followed by a verb. Infinitives may
occur in different forms: 
1.2. An infinitive phrase is a phrase beginning with an infinitive.
to study a foreign language
I
active present infinitive noun phrase/dO
to go to the movies with some
I
tI
active present infinitive pp/adjunct of placepp/adjunct of accompanime to be in
good spirits
t
active present infinitive PP/complement
to have been built for a lonq
+

I

passive perfect infinitive pp/adjunct of time
2. Usage: Infinitives or infinitive phrases may be used as nouns,
adjectives or qdverbs_.
2.1. As a noun, an infinitive (phrase) can be:
a. The subject.

- To err IS human, to forgive IS divine.
- To travel to Italy by boat WILL BE interesting.
b. The real subject.
- It WILL BE interesting to travel to Italy by
c. The sub ject ive complement (idler A LINKING VERB):
- To question IS to learn.
- He SEEMED to be angry.
- They APPEAR to be in pood spirits.
- The house SEEMED to have been built for
d. Th edirect object.
- They soon AGREED to follow.
- I WANT to master English c. The complement of a preposition:


- Betty WAS about to faint/to fall down the stairs.
1 2 As tin adjective, an infinitive (phrase) can moil'I'v a noun.
- This IS one way to go.
- We NEEDED a guide to lead through the
- This IS a pleasant win drink in hot weather.
z:As an adverb, an infinitive (phrase) can modify: a An adjective:
- My dot! IS too oldtojegrn.
-M i s s J a n e w A s pleased to receive
- They WERE loath to leave this district.
b. A VERB
- She PUT the cake in the oven to bake.
- Sara HAS GONE to invite her aunt
Infinitive phrases are also commonly found in the expressions: TOO + adjective
I + 1 for (pro)noun| + infinitive phrase adjective + ENOUGH I
TOO difficult
[for us/the students] to translate without

easy ENOUGH
EXERCISE 4: In the space beside each sentence, identify the italicized word as a
participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G).
_p_ 1. Carmen PREFERRED the reclining chair lor his bad back.
_G_ 2. Doctors BELIEVE that walking IS one of the most beneficial forms. _/_ 3.
The quiet night and bright campfire INSPIRE US to tell ghost stories. _G_ 4. It
ISN’T flying that MAKES Elsa anxious but the airline food.
_p_ 5. Scratching\\sback against a tree, the bear LOOKED deceptively harmless.
_/_ 6. To make.the room more cheerful, Alice PAINTED the dark cabinets yellow.
_G_ 7. Observinggorillas’ mating behaviour IS part of that zookeeper’s
job.
_/_ 8. During the movie, Bert CONTINUED crunch loudly on his popcorn.
_p_ 9. My brother’s receding hairline MAKES him LOOKoXácv than he really is.
_p_ 10. In the drainage ditch, the boys FOUND a wooden crate
dozens of spiders.
EXERCISE 5: Identify the italicized wo in the following paragraph as


a participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G).
(1) Having Hephzibah Schleirbech for a name, I HAVE CONE through life as a
kind of handicapped person.(2) Knowing that my name is unusual, I AM patient
with strangers. (3) After all, or
Spelling Hephzibah Schleirbech IS NOT easy. (4) One day ,
excited about a new family car, TRIED to me about it by making a long-distance
telephone call. (5) Not remembering my number, she SPELLED my name over
and over again for the operator. (6) Exhausted by efforts to understand.\ the
operator remarked, ‘It seems to me the number would be easier to remember
than the name.’ (7) When I AM calling \he dentist, I sometimes get a quick
appointment by my
name to Mary Smith or Jane Jones. (8) Occasionally, however, I FORCET to

answer to Mary or Jane. (9) When this happens, the embarrassed dentist looks
at me strangely. (10) He seems to I’m a criminal
using an alias. (11)1 must find another way to change my name. (12) My one
desire is to marry‘à man named John Henry.
I HE CLAUSE
4 A group of words containing a verb and its subject and used as a part of a
sentence is called a clause.’ [Warriner, 1958: 71]
DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
‘A main (or independent) clause expresses a complete thought _nd can stand by
itself as a sentence.’ [Warriner, 1958: 72]
SENTENCES: - My neighbours HAVE SOLO their home.
- They WILL MOVE to Denver next week.
When combined into one long sentence, these main clauses "ccomc parts of the
sentence:
MAIN CLAUSES: My neighbours HAVE SOLD their home, they WILL MOVE to
Denver next week.
4 A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not express a complete 'nought and
can’t stand alone.’ [Warriner, 1958: 72] A subordinate clause depends on a main
clause to make the meaning complete. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: Ifshe BAKES a
cake... [What then?]
Subordinate Main Clause
SENTENCE: If she BAKES a cake, we CAN HAVE a party.
' BORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
An Adjective Clause is a group of words (containing A FINITE EBB) doing the
work of an adjective. It is usually introduced by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative
Adverb. That is why it is also called a


Relative Clause. Compare:
- He ate the biggest apple. (

- He ate the apple on the green, plate.(
- He ate the apple which he FOUND.
- He is a clever boy. ( )
He is a boy with a love of sport. ( >
-He is a boy who SHOULD DO gregt_ things^some daỵ.
{Adjective
1. The Relative Pronoun agrees in Gender. Number, and Person with its
antecedent, but does not agree in Case. That is, is subject or object of its own
clause. ,
- I saw the man who DID it.
- The mail whom you MET was here yesterday.
- There is the man whose book you FOUND.
- The house which you ASKED for is over there.
- That is the house the top of which CAN BE SEEN over the trees.
2. The clause joined to a previous clause by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative
Adverb may be restrictive or non-restrictive.
2.1. A Restrictive Clause restricts the meaning of the noun qualifies:
- The boy who SITS next to me came late this morning.
- The village which you CAN SEE over there is very old.
2.2. A Non-restrictive Clause does not restrict the meaning of the noun
it qualifies, but only adds some description to the meaning:
- My father, who IS an old sailor',often tells me stories about the sea.
- The boy next to me, who IS very clever, has a brother in another class.
3. 7775/may be used about either persons or things but can only be used
in Restrictive Clauses. The usage of as follows:
3.1. Use that only in Restrictive Clauses. For example, do not say
The island of Hong Kong, that WAS a British colony, lies off the coast of China.’
Use which.
3.2. Do not use that too near another ‘that’. For example, do not say T think that
that man //75/ asked YOU the question is a politician.’ Use who.

3.3. Do not use that after a preposition.


For example, do not say ‘I saw the house in that he used to live.’ Say either: ‘I
saw the house in he used to live.’
or: "I saw the house that he used to live in.’ - The Relative Pronoun when
objective can be omitted:
- Last niíĩhl I heard that piece of music, > LIKE so much .
- He is the most interesting man IVE ever MET.
\ERC1SE 6: Supply the correct relative pronoun where necessary,
explaining why you use each one or why you do not put one in.
The house over there is the one I like best.
I I am sure that he is the youngest president

we have ever

had.
The mail came over in the Queen Mary was delivered in
London yesterday.
I never again met the man gave US so much help in Paris.
The tennis racquet,

I bought last week, has got one of its

strings broken.
The biggest crowd I ever saw was at the Coronation of King
George VI.
The picture

fetched the highest price was painted by a

famous artists.
He was the man painted the picture in the new city hall.
The men he interviewed seemed to have little knowledge of the work he wanted
them to do.
10. He said that he wanted to buy that car he had tried out the
day before.
11. He spent a great deal of time in his garden was four miles
outside the town.
12. All over the country the ground a few days before had been
bare was now bright with flowers.
13. The hills lie to the north are volcanic while those in the south
are limestone.
14. Those proposals you are putting up, are little different from


the ones

we turned down last year.

15. He never developed patience _____ is necessary in dealing with
people are slow to understand something.
16. He came of a family prided itself on its age and position.
17. Those wanted to come had to fill in a card they had
to have signed by a Justice of the Peace.
18. Those to

invitations were sent were asked to be in their

places by 7 o’clock so as to make sure that all would be ready by 8 was the

time _ the procession was due to pass.
19. According to all I have heard, the concert is being
held on Monday should be the best has ever been here.
20. The ship is due to sail tomorrow has the most valuable cargo
on board has ever been sent from this port.
EXERCISE 7: Fill in each blank with a relative pronoun. And rewrite the
given sentences by moving the preposition to the position before the
relative pronoun. For example,
-1 think I know the man whom spoke to.
-1 think I know the man _ to _ you spoke.
1. He is the officer everyone relies on.
2. The subject Professor Moore wrote about is interesting.
3. The speaker _____ we listened to mentioned that matter.
4. The woman you are talking about is here now.
5. The apartment we live in is on the twelfth floor.
6. The paper you wrapped the with was very pretty.
7. The man Alice spoke about teaches English here.
8. The person Mr. Green to answer his questions.
9. The house he was going to in had been bought for him
by an agent.
10.1 disagree with the fact your argument based on.
SUBORDINATE NOUN CLAUSES


A Noun Clause is a group of words (containing /4 FINITE VERB) doing the work
of a noun. It is usually introduced by <3 Conjunctionof which the most common
is .Noun Clauses may be used as the of a verb, usually of the
verb ‘to be.’ Usually, too, it follows the verb and the pronoun ‘it’ is used as a
dummy subject:
- It is clear that he IS wrong.

- It is a strange thing that he always COMES late.
- It is unknown whether/if it IS CAUSED by rain or wind.
- It is one of the first axioms of Euclid
that the shortest distance between two points IS a straight When the Noun
Clause comes first, there is no need for the dummy 'Ubject:
- What 's DONE IS DONE.
- What you HAVE iustSAID IS quite true.
- Where he SOES IS no business of yours.
- When I GO DEPENDS on when the train leaves.
- That the problems ARE immense IS obvious.
- That rain MA y FALL in deserts IS true.
- That Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.
- That a depression OCCURRED WAS attributable partly to psychological factors.
- That he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.
- That Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.
- That a tenth p/anet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED by discrepancies in the motions
of Uranus and Neptune.
- That the computer revolution IS infancy
frequently ESCAPES c mment.
2. Noun Clauses may be used as the Indirect Object (iO, for short) of A DITRANSITIVE VERB:
- LEND whoever CALLS the bicycle pump in the shed.
- SAVE whoever COMES the trouble of ringing.
- GIVE whatever you THINK best priority.
- She GAVE whomever she MET a warm greeting.
- Jack MADE whoever CAME there the same offer.


3. Noun Clauses may form the ồirect Objects (do, for short) of the verbs of
SAYING, THINKING, KNOWING, OBSERVING, and DOING (which are in fact
MONO-TRANSITIVE VERBS). They answer the question ‘What?’

- He SAID that he WAS FEELING tired. ( What did he say?)
- She THOUGHT that the train ARRIVED at ( What did she think?)
- I UNDERSTAND that nothing IS GOING TO BE DONE.
( What did you understand?)
Other words might introduce N Clauses are who, why
when, how, what.; whether, and if.
- I DID NOT KNOW who he WAS.
- He DID NOT SEE where she HAD GONE.
- DO you UNDERSTAND DO
- They DO NOT REALIZE how we DO
- HAVE you DONE what I TOLD you to do!
- I DON’T KNOW if he HAS DONE yet.
Instead of the single conjunctions who. , how, when, etc. we
may use conjunctive adverbial phrases formed with prepositions, which
will often express our meaning more clearly and exactly:
- HAVE you FOUND out at what time the train
- They DID NOT KNOW for how many_ hou he HAD BEEN there.
- He DID NOT KNOW in what district the house COULD
- He KNEW quite well on what business the policeman HAD
- He soon DISCOVERED
which of the hoys ip Class 5HAD BROKEN The window.
- 1 HAD HEARD how often he HAD DONE it,
but\HAD FORGOTTEN exactly how WAS.
Advise. ask, remind. show,reach, and are some common DI¬
TRANSITIVE VERBS which lake a do subordinate Noun Clause alter n i() pronoun
or noun phrase:
- The teacher ASSURED US that we ARE m no danger.
- I BET you that no one WILL ACCEPT the offer.
- She finally CONVINCED the jury WAS TELLING the

- The police NOTIFIED mv friend that car HAD BEEN FOUND.
- They PERSUADED me that the plan WAS, feasible.
- REMIND your father that we HAVE tonight.
- Experience HAS TAUGHT them a copy IS essentia!
- No one HAS ever TOLD me that I A beautiful.
- WILL you please TELL me whether
- CAN you TELL me howl CAN s WITCH
- PEL ASK someone whom we CAN GIVE to.
- No one CAN ADVISE you what you SHOULD DO.
- I TOED him in what restaurant I WOULD
- He REFUSED TO TELL anyone on whose account he HAD COME to
town.
The do subordinate Noun Clause may also follow its ỈO prepositional phrase
which is usually introduced by to’:
- He CONFESSED to me that he WAS extremely alarmed.
-1 POINTED OUT to John that few people WOULD AGREE.
-She SIGNALED to US that she WOULD KEEP quiet.
-We CAN’T PROVE to the commission that effects ARE NOT harmf.
- The employers ANNOUNCED to journalists
the dispute HAD BEEN SETTLED.
- The consultant RECOMMENDED to the employers
that new salary scales SHOULD BE INTRODUCED.
- The garage EXPLAINED to customers
that the spare parts HAD NOT BEEN DELIVERD.
The do subordinate Noun Clause may be moved to the position after its
compleiTTent,which is in form of an adjective (phrase); its
original position is taken up by the meaningless pronoun
- I FIND it strange that he REFUSES to come.
- 1 CONSIDER it unlikely that the money WILL BE REFUNDED.

4. Noun Clouses may form a complement of a preposition:
- CAN you SEE from where you sit?
- You MUST DO the best with what you HAVE.


- We’D LIKE WORK with whom we CONSIDER the best.
- The parly WILL HAVE TO DRAW from whatever sources CAN -1 strongly
OBJECT to what you HAVE just SAID.
- It all DEPENDS on where you GO.
- We HAVE RECEIVED no news of when the boat LEAVES.
- He HAS no idea of how it WOULD BE DONE.
5. Noun Clauses may be used as an app of a noun phrase the head of which is
an abstract noun such as ; belief, rumour story, news,
etc. Noun Clauses normally specifies of the head noun.
- There EXISTS the belief that his comp a profit.
- Everybody KNOWS
the rumour that Ed's wife FALLS love with his brother.
- The news that the enemy WERE near WAS untrue.
- The story that Eleanor HAD MET with the senator IS NOT unknown.
- The fact that rain MAY FALL in deserts IS widely known/IS true.
- The fact that the problems ARE immense IS obvious.
- The fact that Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.
- The fact that a depression OCCURRED
WAS attributable partly to psychological factors.
- The fact that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.
- The fact that Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.
- The fact that a tenth planet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED
by discrepancies in the motions of Uranus and Neptune.
- The fact that the computer revolution IS infancy
frequently ESCAPES comment.

6. Noun Clauses may be the subject ive after A LINKING VERB:
- That WAS what I THOUGHT too.
- She BECAME what she HAD HOPED.
- She HAS BECOME what she always WANTED TO BE.
- This IS how you SHOULD DO
- Ken’s belief IS that things CAN'T GET any worse.
- My question IS whether (or not) you WILL PAY for such a loss. 


7. Noun Clauses maybe the object complement after a do pronoun
or noun phrase:
- DYE your hair what colour you L
- YOU’VE MADE me what I AM.
- We HAVE MADE the club what today.
EXERCISE 8: Identify all the Noun Claus the following paragraph.
What roles do the Noun Clauses play in the sentences involved?
The sight that met our gaze was certainly not a little amusing. Peter sat on the
ground gazing into the cat’s face with his nose about four inches from it. Turning
his head a little to one side he spoke to the
cat, telling (it that)he loved it but the cat said nothing. Peter therefore
demanded sharply if it heard him. Again he told it loved and
he asked if it didn't love him. This time the cat gave a faint mew. Peter was
better pleased: he called it a jolly old rascal and asked why did not speak to him
at once. Then, putting forward his mouth, he kissed the cat on the nose! He
paused for a moment and then told it again he loved it because he had to take
care of it, and looked after it, and think about it, and see that it didn't die. As he
said this the cat interrupted, mewing two or three times.
SUBORDINATE ADVERB CLAUSES
An Adverb Clause is a group of words (containing a finite verb) doing the work of
an adverb. It is introduced by a

Conjunction. Compare:
- He came yesterday.
-He came on the ỉưh of August.
- He came when I ASKED him.
(Adverb of Place) 
- Take it to Mr. Smith's house.
- Take it wherever you LIKE.
- He acted strangely.
- He acted in a peculiar
- He acted as if he WERE afraid.
There are times when the Adverb Clause may come before THE ERB it qualifies;
there are other times when the Adverb Clause can nly come after.
Adverb Clauses can be sub-categorized according to the meanings
:ney express:


1. Adverbials of Time have four subcategories within them:
1.1. Adverbia/s of Point of Time tell
jylace,answering the question ‘ or what
- I'LL DO when I HA VE time.
- As soon as everyone WAS ready, I GAVE a signal.
- As I WAS GOINS down the road, I MET your friend Tom.
1.2. Adverbia/s of Duration or Extent in Time describe
long an event lasts,answering the question
- The two drivers MUST STAY the police GET there.
- I’VE BEEN WORKING here
since I TED from my university.
- AỊI the tjmeI WAS there, I DID NOT SEE a sign of him.
- While I WAS SITING there, he CAME up to me.
1.3. Adverbia/s of Frequency describe event

occurs, answering the question 'How oftenT or 'How many timesT
- He CALLED on me I ARRIVED.
- My dog COMES whenever I CA
1.4. Adverbials of Temporal Relationship convey the temporal relationship
between two events or states, answering the question
-1 HOPED to pay him a visit before I WENT away. -I’LL READ you my letter
after I'VE FINISHED and I SEND away.
- Almost everyone HAD LEFT for home by the we ARRIVED.
2. Adverbials of Place (also called spaed) answer the questions
‘ Where?’or ‘How farT
- He always HIDES where I CAN never REACH.
- r LL JOG as farasI CAN.
- GO as near as you LIKE to him: he does not bite.
- They GO wherever they ARE TOLD.
3. Adverbials of Manner describe the which something
done,answering the question ‘ Hor ‘By what wayT
- You OUGHT TO WRITE as I DO.
- When my father IS away, I WILL DO as I


- The dog LOOKS asjfhe WANTED something to eat.
- He BEHAVES asjf he IS COINS TO BE ATTACKED.
4. Adverbials of Comparison compare of state
action relative to another,answering the question
- He DOES it as well as I DO.
- He DOES NOT DO it so well as you DO.
- He DOES it better than I DO.
- It IS as good as I THOUGHT.
- He DID as much as he COULD.
- There ARE NOT so many people here as I EXPECTED.

- Our coach LEFT earlier than it SHOULD HA
- The road SEEMS longer than I THOUGHT.
5. Adverbia/s of Cause and Adverbia/s of Reason answer the
question ‘WhyT Traditionally, has been associated with
a relatively objective statement while reason has implied a more subjective
assessment:
- The old man WALKED slowly his legs ARE bad.
- I’VE BEEN WAITING here
as I KNOW you'll certainly come and pick me up.
In the majority of cases, however, it is difficult to judge the level: objectivity and
thus to discern between cause and reason, as with the llowing examples:
- The plan FELL down because it PROVED to be expensive.
6. Adverbials of Contingency, like adverbials of Cause, also answer the question
"Why’.However, it is necessary to n te that adverbials of Cause ‘give as a reason
of something which is happening, has happened, or will happen’ while adverbials
of Contingency ‘give as a reason something which might have happened, or
which may happen’ [Campbell, 1962. 59]. The first is certain, the second is only
possible or probable.
- They DECIDED to retreat at once
for fear (thatyiest they SHOULD BE CUT from the main force.
- You HAD BETTER NOT SKI ẬT7 the weather IS really bad.
7. Adverbials of Purpose answer the question ‘ What forT or
whatpurposeT Notice that 'iorder that’ is more forceful than
'so that.’