MCAT verbal test (5)

MCAT Section Tests
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VERBAL REASONING TEST 3
Time – 85 Minutes
60 Questions

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DIRECTIONS: There are nine passages in this Verbal
Reasoning test. Each passage is followed by several
questions. After reading a passage, select the one
best answer to each question. If you are not certain of
an answer, eliminate the alternatives that you know to
be incorrect and then select an answer from the
remaining alternatives.
sensibly improved and developed, but you look at the
Passage I (Questions 1-6)
masterpieces
of art with an analysing and comprehending
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...Just to paint is great fun.... One begins to see, for
eye....
instance, that painting a picture is like fighting a battle; and
trying to paint a picture as an amateur is, I suppose, like
But it is in the use and withholding of their reserves
trying to fight a battle. It is, if anything, more exciting than
that the great commanders have generally excelled. After
fighting the battle successfully. But the principle is the
all, when once the last reserve has been thrown in, the
same....
45 commander’s part is played. If that does not win the battle,
he has nothing else to give. The event must be left to luck
In all battles two things are usually required of the
and to the fighting troops. But these last, in the absence of
Commander-in-Chief: to make a good plan for his army
high direction, are apt to get into sad confusion, all mixed
and, secondly, to keep a strong reserve. Both of these are
together in a nasty mess, without order or plan—and
also obligatory upon the painter. To make a plan, thorough
consequently without effect. Mere masses count no more.
reconnaissance of the country where the battle is to be
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The largest brush, the brightest colors cannot even make an
fought is needed. Its fields, its mountains, its rivers, its
impression. The pictorial battefield becomes a sea of mud
bridges, its trees, its flowers, its atmosphere—all require
mercifully veiled by the fog of war. It is evident there has
and repay attentive observation from a special point of
been a serious defeat. Even though the General plunges in
view....

himself and emerges bespattered, as he sometimes does, he
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I think this heightened sense of observation of Nature is
will not retrieve the day.
one of the chief delights that have come to me through
In painting, the reserves consist in Proportion or
painting. No doubt many people who are lovers of art have
Relation.
And it is here that the art of the painter marches
acquired it in a high degree without actually practising. But
along
the
road which is traversed by all the greatest
I expect that nothing will make one observe more quickly or
harmonies in thought. At one side of the palette there is
more thoroughly than having to face the difficulty of
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white, at the other black; and neither is ever used ‘neat.’
representing the thing observed. And mind you, if you do
Between these two rigid limits all the action must lie, all the
observe accurately and with refinement, and if you do
power required must be generated. Black and white
record what you have seen with tolerable correspondence,
themselves placed in juxtaposition make no great
the result follows on the canvas with startling obedience...
impression; and yet they are the most that you can do in pure
65 contrast. It is wonderful—after one has tried and failed
But in order to make his plan, the General must not
only reconnoitre the battle-ground, he must also study the
often—to see how easily and surely the true artist is able to

achievements of the great Captains of the past. He must
produce every effect of light and shade, of sunshine and
bring the observations he has collected in the field into the
shadow, of distance and nearness, simply by expressing
comparison with the treatment of similar incidents by
justly the relations between the different planes and surfaces
70 with which he is dealing.... This is founded upon a sense of
famous chiefs.
proportion, trained no doubt by practice, but which in its
Then the galleries of Europe take on a new—and to me
essence is a frigid manifestation of mental power....
at least a severely practical—interest. “This, then, is how —
— painted a cataract. Exactly, and there is that same light I
noticed last week in the waterfall at ——.” And so on.
You see the difficulty that baffled you yesterday; and you
see how easily it has been overcome by a great or even by a
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skillful painter. Not only is your observation of Nature


1.

The existence of which of the following would most
strongly challenge the author’s conception of the
process of painting?

4.

A. A watercolor of waves crashing on the beach
B. A famous artist who has never been in a European

art gallery
C. A medieval masterpiece that portrays the gates of
heaven
D. A commander who retreats hastily when his troops
are losing

A. the painter may not feel creatively inspired.
B. nothing can make up for a lack of sense of
proportion.
C. the quality of a painting’s colors may not make an
impression on the viewer.
D. painting is in the final analysis a matter of luck.

5.
2.

In the context of the passage, the Commander-in-Chief
is to the battleground as the:
A.
B.
C.
D.

3.

A. It supports the author’s claim that the great artists
are worthy of imitation.
B. It supports the author’s claim that neither black
nor white is ever used ‘neat.’
C. It weakens the author’s claim that black and white

themselves placed in juxtaposition make no great
impression.
D. It weakens the author’s claim that great painters
take Nature as their subject.

Based on the passage, which of the following opinions
could most reasonably be ascribed to the author?
A. Becoming an artist is a matter of training rather
than talent.
B. One learns more from failures than from
successes.
C. Modern artists can scarcely hope to equal the
achievements of the masters.
D. One can convey ideas about art through analogies
to other experiences.

painter is to the subject being painted.
painter is to the canvas of the painting.
painter is to the paint colors.
painter is to the art gallery.

Following the example of the master Manet, the young
Matisse often inserted in his pictures areas of white
such as tablecloths or crockery that allowed for
striking contrasts with black objects such as a knife or
a dark bottle. What is the relevance of this information
to the passage?

The passage suggests that having the finest art supplies
at hand may NOT always be helpful to a painter

because:

6.

The author’s statement “But [the fighting troops], in
the absence of high direction, are apt to get into sad
confusion, all mixed together in a nasty mess, without
order or plan—and consequently without effect”
assumes that:
A. chaotic painting cannot have an unintended artistic
effect.
B. an artist naturally resists direction from another
individual.
C. a painting cannot help but reflect the mental state
of its painter.
D. it is impossible for painters to collaborate on a
work without confusion.

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Passage II (Questions 7-12)
Although the concepts and categories of ethics may be
applied to the conduct of corporations, there are important
differences between the values and principles underlying
corporate behavior and those underlying the actions of most
individuals.... As individuals, we are often concerned with
integrity, autonomy, and responsibility even when they
cannot be shown to further a basic goal such as overall
happiness. We regard them as important and valuable in
themselves and not simply as a means to some other more
basic ends. But a preoccupation with integrity, autonomy,
and responsibility for their own sakes cannot be ascribed to
corporations or corporate persons...
As formal organizations, business corporations are
distinguished by their particular goals, which include

maximization of profits, growth, and survival. Providing
goods and services is a means to this end. The following
statement from the board of directors of the 3M Company is
exemplary in this regard: “The objective of the 3M
Company is to produce quality goods and services that are
useful and needed by the public, acceptable to the public,
and in the best interests of the global economy—and thereby
to earn a profit which is essential to the perpetuation of the
useful role of the company.” These goals provide the raison
d’etre and ultimate ethical values of the 3M Company.
Other things have ethical value only insofar as they are
instrumental in furthering the ultimate goals....
...If, for example, a number of individuals (outsiders or
even insiders) believe that a company’s aggressive
marketing of infant formula in third world countries is
morally wrong, the company is unlikely to be moved by
moral arguments alone as long as what it is doing remains
profitable. But if those opposed to the company’s practice
organize a highly effective boycott of the company’s
products, their moral views will soon enter into the
company’s deliberations indirectly as limiting operating
conditions. They can, at this point, no more be ignored than
a prohibitive increase in the costs of certain raw materials....

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the corporation had produced and distributed a vehicle that
was known to be defective at the time of production and
sale and that even after a great deal of additional
information accumulated regarding the nature of the
problems, the corporation took no action to correct them.
The obvious noncorporate analogy would be the
prosecution of a person who was driving a car with brakes
known to be faulty, who does not have them repaired
because it would cost too much, and who kills someone
when the brakes eventually fail and the car does not stop in
time. Such cases involving individuals are prosecuted and
won regularly.
If...corporations have no concept of right or wrong
because they are exclusively goal-directed, can they be
convicted in cases of this type, and what purpose would be
served by such a conviction? Remember that we are talking
only about the corporate entity itself—not its managers,
agents, and owners who, as human persons, can be held to
interpersonal standards of moral and legal responsibility. It
is very difficult to argue for holding goal-directed entities
to interpersonal standards; in fact, we do not believe it can
be done.
Perhaps we can make a utilitarian argument for
convicting corporations of such crimes. The argument

would be that of deterrence; conviction and punishment
would deter other corporations from taking similar actions
under similar circumstances.... However, there appears to be
considerable evidence that deterrence does not work on
corporations, even if, arguably, it works on individuals....
The penalties imposed do not appear to discourage other
corporations from engaging in similar acts. The possibility
of being discovered and the potential magnitude of the fine
merely become more data to be included in the analysis of
limiting conditions....

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...If corporations are by their nature end- or goaldirected...how can they acknowledge acts as wrong in and of
themselves? ...Is it possible to hold one criminally
responsible for acts that if performed by a human person
would result in criminal liability?...
The first case of this type to achieve widespread public
attention was the attempt to prosecute the Ford Motor
Company for manslaughter as the result of alleged negligent
or reckless decision making concerning the safety
engineering of the Pinto vehicle. Although the defendant
corporation and its officers were found innocent after trial,
the case can serve as an exemplar for our purposes. In
essence, the prosecution in this case attempted to show that

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7.

The claim that things “have ethical value [to
corporations] only insofar as they are instrumental in
furthering the ultimate goals” of the corporation (lines
25-27) is:
A. necessarily true, given the information presented
in the passage.
B. perhaps true, and supported by the information
presented in the passage.
C. perhaps true, but not supported by any
information in the passage.
D. necessarily false, given the information presented
in the passage.

8.

9.

10. If a company that produced shampoo products opted
to stop the routine testing of its products on animals
because it decided that it is wrong to cause the animals
pain, what effect would this have on the argument
made in the passage?
A. It would strongly support the argument.
B. It would support the argument somewhat, but not
conclusively.
C. It would neither support nor substantially weaken
the argument.
D. It would substantially weaken the argument.

In the context of the passage, the phrase limiting
operating conditions (lines 36-37) refers primarily
to:

11. The author’s analogy of the alleged actions of the
Ford Motor Company to those of a person who
knowingly drives with faulty brakes suggests that:

A. the factors that will adversely impact a company’s
profit-making capacity.
B. the prevailing moral opinions of the public
concerning a company’s products.
C. the availability of raw materials necessary for
producing a particular good.
D. the difficulty a company’s officers have in trying
to ignore ethical issues.

A. Ford should have been convicted of the crime of
manslaughter in the trial.
B. the Ford corporation was capable of
understanding the moral concepts of right and
wrong.
C. the problem with the safety engineering of the
Pinto had to do specifically with its brakes.
D. Ford may have ignored the Pinto’s defects
because they would be too costly to correct.

Implicit in the author’s discussion of whether or not a
corporation can be convicted in cases like the one
involving the Pinto vehicle is the assumption that:

A. most corporations have committed both moral
and legal transgressions.
B. a corporation has an identity above and beyond its
individual members.
C. few corporate persons will question their
corporation’s actions.
D. corporations do not always believe that the end
justifies the means.

12. Which of the following assertions would most
strengthen the author’s claim that deterrence will not
work on corporations?
A. The possibility of punishment does not deter
many individuals from committing crimes.
B. The penalties imposed on companies have
amounted to a small fraction of their profits.
C. Strict anti-pollution laws have cut down on the
waste dumped by companies into rivers.
D. The trial of a corporation is often extended over a
period of several years.

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Passage III (Questions 13-21)
Few ideas are more deeply entrenched in our political
culture than that of impending ecological doom. Beginning
in 1962, when Rachel Carson warned...that pollution was a
threat to all human and animal life on the planet, pessimistic
appraisals of the health of the environment have been issued
with increasing urgency. And yet, thanks in large part to her
warnings, a powerful political movement was born...and a
series of landmark environmental bills became law.... These
laws and their equivalents in Western Europe, along with a
vast array of private efforts spurred by environmental
consciousness that Carson helped raise, have been a

stunning success. In both the United States and Europe,
environmental trends are, for the most part, positive; and
environmental regulations, far from being burdensome and
expensive, have proved to be strikingly effective, have cost
less than was anticipated, and have made the economies of
the countries that have put them into effect stronger, not
weaker.
Nevertheless, the vocabulary of environmentalism has
continued to be dominated by images of futility, crisis, and
decline.... Nor are environmentalists the only people
reluctant to acknowledge the good news; advocates at both
ends of the political spectrum, each side for its reasons,
seem to have tacitly agreed to play it down. The left is
afraid of the environmental good news because it undercuts
stylish pessimism; the right is afraid of the good news
because it shows that governmental regulations might
occasionally amount to something other than wickedness
incarnate, and actually produce benefits at an affordable
cost....
Consider some of what has been accomplished in this
country...Thanks to legislation, technical advances, and
lawsuits that have forced polluters to pay liability costs,
America’s air and water are getting cleaner, forests are
expanding, and many other environmental indicators are on
the upswing....
In recent years, several worrisome environmental trends
have either declined from their peak or ended altogether.
The amount of household trash dumped in landfills, for
example, has been diminishing since the late nineteen
eighties, when recycling began to take hold. Recycling,

which was a fringe idea a decade ago, is now a major
growth industry, and is converting more than twenty per
cent of America’s municipal wastes into useful products.
Despite start-up problems, many municipal recycling
programs now pay for themselves.
Emissions of
chlorofluorocarbons, which deplete the ozone layer, have
been declining since 1987. Studies now suggest that ozonelayer replenishment may begin within a decade. Dozens of
American cities once dumped raw sludge into the ocean.
This category of pollution passed into history in 1992,
when the final load of New York City sludge slithered off a
barge imaginatively named Spring Brook. Today, instead
of being dumped into the ocean, municipal

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sludge is either disposed of in regulated landfills or,
increasingly, put to good use as fertilizer....
America’s record of protecting species threatened with
extinction, which is often depicted as dismal, is in truth

enviable. Since 1973, when the Endangered Species Act
took effect, seven animal species in North America have
disappeared, but several hundred others once considered
certain to die out continue to exist in the wild. A number of
species, including the bald eagle and the Arctic peregrine
falcon, are doing so well that they have been or are being
taken off the priority-protection list....
It’s true, of course, that some environmental programs
are muddled. For instance, the Endangered Species Act can
have the unfair effect of penalizing landholders who
discover rare creatures on their property, by prohibiting use
of the land. In the main, though, conservation has been an
excellent investment for society. Environmental initiatives
worked well even in their early years, when they were driven
by top-heavy federal edicts. They work even better as new
regulations have centered on market mechanisms and
voluntary choice; new acid-rain reductions, for example, are
being achieved at unexpectedly affordable rates, thanks to a
free-market program under which companies trade
pollution “allowances” with each other. Western market
economies excel at producing what they are asked to
produce, and, increasingly, the market is being asked to
produce conservation. Environmental reform should be
seen as a boon to Western industry, impelling it toward
efficiencies that enhance its long-term competitiveness....

13. For which of the following claims does the passage
provide some supporting evidence or explanation?
A. Environmental good news undercuts stylish
pessimism.

B. The vocabulary of environmentalists is dominated
by images of doom.
C. Environmental regulations in Europe have proven
to be strikingly effective.
D. Environmental initiatives have worked when
centered on market mechanisms.

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14. Suppose that current models of automobiles emit an
average of eighty per cent less pollution per mile than
was emitted by cars in 1970. How would this
information affect the claim that landmark
environmental bills have been a stunning success?
A. It would support the claim.
B. It would refute the claim.
C. It would support the claim if it were shown that
the emissions reductions were a consequence of
environmental bills.
D. It would support the claim if it were shown that
the emissions reductions were not a consequence
of environmental bills.

15. Based on information in the passage, which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A. Chlorofluorocarbons no longer damage the ozone
layer.
B. Technical advances have contributed to
conservation.

C. Raw sludge is no longer a source of ocean
pollution.
D. Recycling has had an impact on landfill dumping.

16. Based on information in the passage, each of the
following statements is a plausible explanation of why
pessimistic appraisals of the environment continue to
be issued EXCEPT:
A. environmentalists and politicians are unaware of
the successes of the movement.
B. an immense amount of work still needs to be
done to save the environment.
C. optimistic evaluations would have unwanted
political repercussions.
D. environmentalists garner support by arousing
concerns and fears.

17. According to the passage, which of the following is
most likely to be true about the impact of the
Endangered Species Act on the overall number of
animal species in America?
A. The Endangered Species Act has caused
number of species to increase gradually.
B. The Endangered Species Act has caused
number of species to rebound markedly.
C. The Endangered Species Act has slowed
decline in the number of species.
D. The Endangered Species Act has had
significant effect on the number of species.

the
the
the
no

18. The head of the Environmental Protection Agency
recently gave a series of speeches pointing out that
there were many signs of environmental progress in
America. Which of the following best characterizes
the relevance of this to the passage?
A. It supports the claim that efforts at environmental
reform have been costly but effective.
B. It weakens the claim that efforts at environmental
reform have been costly but effective.
C. It supports the claim that the vocabulary of
environmentalism is dominated by images of
futility.
D. It weakens the claim that the vocabulary of
environmentalism is dominated by images of
futility.

19. If the claims made in the passage are correct, how
would politicians on the political right be expected to
react to America’s program to protect endangered
species from extinction?
A. They would extol it because its success is not
attributable to governmental regulation.
B. They would extol it because its success refutes
the pessimistic claims of the political left.
C. They would reject it because its success was due

to unjust and costly regulations.
D. They would reject it because it has not shown any
measurable success.
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20. The author of this passage would probably give his
greatest support to which of the following actions by
the Congress?
A. Establishing a subcommittee that would be
devoted to environmental issues
B. Streamlining the inefficient bureacracies that
arose during environmental reform
C. Legislation that make anti-pollution regulations
difficult to enforce
D. Passing bills that encourage rather than coerce
industries to control pollution

21. The existence of which of the following phenomena
would most strongly challenge the information in the
passage?
A. A speech by a senator who takes credit for saving
his state’s environment
B. A species of animal that has disappeared in the
past year
C. A prediction by an environmentalist that the

ozone layer problem will worsen
D. A recycling program that is supported by federal
funds

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Passage IV (Questions 22-27)
While most archeologists believe that primitive
European societies were patriarchal in both their social and
religious structures, a new controversial theory challenges
these traditional views. This new theory suggests that
during the Stone Age there thrived peace-loving, matriarchal
communities in which men and women lived together as

equals, respected nature, and worshipped a nurturing deity
called the Great Goddess.
According to this feminist theory, the people of “Old
Europe”—Europe from 7000 B.C. to 3500 B.C.—lived in
stable agricultural societies in which women headed clans
and men labored as hunters and builders, but neither sex
dominated the other. War was shunned and craftspeople
created comfortable dwellings and graceful ceramics instead
of weapons. Like the woman-centered social system, the
religion of Stone Age Europe focused on women in its
veneration of the life-generating Great Goddess and other
female deities. Worship was closely linked to the themes of
respect for life and regeneration.
Proponents of this theory contend that this peaceful and
harmonious society was shattered by waves of IndoEuropean invaders in about the year 3500 B.C., when
marauders from the Russian steppes transformed Europe
from a peaceful, agrarian culture to one in which men
dominated women and wars raged. Social and sexual
egalitarianism were replaced by patriarchy and hierarchy,
and warrior gods dethroned the Great Goddess. With the
widespread decimation of Old Europe, the goddess-centered
religion went underground. However, its symbols have
reappeared over the centuries in the forms of the female
deities of Greece and Rome, in the Virgin Mary, and in the
belief in spiritual forces lurking within the natural world.
The theory of the Great Goddess has been hailed by
feminist social critics, artists, and religious thinkers for
providing an important alternative to traditional, patriarchal
mythologies and paradigms, as well as for providing a new
and more positive model for the human relationship to the

natural world. But while eminent anthropologist Ashley
Montagu calls the theory “a benchmark in the history of
civilization,” many other investigators into prehistoric
Europe consider the theory an unsubstantiated and
ideological version of history.
To a number of critics, the chief problem in this radical
theory is one of method. Traditional archeologists, taking
issue with unorthodox speculation on ancient belief
systems, contend that archeological evidence may tell us
something about what people ate in the small villages of
prehistoric Europe, how they built their homes, and what
they traded, but cannot tell us much about what the dwellers
of the ancient world actually thought. Such specu-

lation, they say, is illegitimate. The most severe critics warn
that, in blurring the distinction between intuition and fact,
proponents of the new theory have failed as scientists.

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But supporters of the theory of a goddess-worshipping
Old Europe counter that such critiques reveal a certain
narrow-mindedness on the part of scientists rather than
weaknesses on the part of their theory. They argue that
some degree of speculation is important, perhaps even
necessary, for progress in archeology and other fields. This
element of speculation, they say, helps reveal the
implications of a theory. While such theories may never be

proven, they have the ability to spark debate, stimulate
future scholarship, and provide imaginative alternatives to
more conventional theories.

22. Which of the following would a proponent of the
theory of the Great Goddess most likely NOT agree
with?
A. The available archaeological evidence does not
rule out the idea that Old European matriarchal
communities existed.
B. The field of archaeology has been dominated in
the past by male-oriented scholarship.
C. Matriarchy is conducive to establishing a healthy
relationship with the natural world.
D. The decimation of Old European society wiped
away all traces of the Great Goddess religion.

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23. Supporters of the Great Goddess theory might
justifiably counter the argument of traditionalists that

archeological evidence “cannot tell us much about
what the dwellers of the ancient world actually
thought” by pointing out that this implies that:
A. archeology cannot hope to be anything more than
a fruitless enterprise.
B. there is no good reason to think that primitive
European society was socially patriarchal.
C. understanding the thinking of more modern
cultures should likewise be considered
impossible.
D. ancient people functioned at a considerably lower
intellectual level than do modern humans.

26. Which of the following maxims seems most in
agreement with the argument the supporters of the
Great Goddess theory put forth in response to
criticism?
A. Those who live by the sword will die by the
sword.
B. A mind is like a parachute in that it only works
when open.
C. He who does not understand his opponent’s
arguments does not understand his own.
D. The squeaky wheel gets the grease.

27. A proponent of the matriarchal theory might argue that
the theory serves all of the following purposes
EXCEPT:
24. Which of the following statements about prehistoric
European society would traditional archeologists

most likely consider illegitimate?
A. The people were agrarian and not nomadic.
B. Food was cooked in clay vessels over a fire.
C. Arrows and spears were the most commonly used
instruments of warfare.
D. The people were worried about invasion.

A. showing the existence of bias in the scientific
establishment.
B. providing a model of sexual equality for presentday society to emulate.
C. broadening the unnecessarily conservative limits
of conventional archeology.
D. demonstrating that matriarchies are consistently
more egalitarian than are patriarchies.

25. If it were conclusively demonstrated through
archeological evidence that the society of Old Europe
had in fact been patriarchal and warlike, one would
expect those who had supported the Great Goddess
theory to contend that:
A. it was a mistake to have extended the bounds of
scientific scholarship to the realm of imagination.
B. speculating incorrectly had nevertheless been a
valuable exercise.
C. no one could have anticipated that the more
unorthodox theory would be the correct one.
D. traditional archeologists must have doctored the
evidence to fit their conclusions.

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Passage V (Questions 28-33)
...Rhetoric for the Greeks was both an essential part of
their lives and a serious obstacle to progress. In public life,
a man had to make his way at every step by the immediate
persuasion of the spoken word. Whether he was addressing
an assembly or law-court or a more restricted body, he
would be speaking to a public meeting rather than to a quiet
committee, without the support of circulated documents,
and with no backcloth of daily journalism to make his own
or others’ views familiar to his hearers. The immediate

effect was all-important; it would be naive to expect that
mere reasonableness or a good case would be enough. It
was early realized that persuasion was an art, up to a point
teachable, and professional teaching was well established in
the second half of the fifth century. When the sophists
claimed to teach their pupils how to succeed in public life,
rhetoric was a large part of what they meant, though, to do
them justice, it was not the whole. The contests of Attic
tragedy exhibit all the tricks of this trade, as well as the art
of the poets; and the private life of the Greeks was lived so
much in public that the pervasive rhetorical manner crept in
here too.
Skill naturally bred mistrust. If a man of good will
needed to learn how to present his argument effectively, the
selfish or malicious could be taught to dress their case in
well-seeming guise. It was a standing charge against the
sophists that they ‘made the worse appear the better cause,’
and it was this immoral lesson which the hero of
Aristophanes’ Clouds went to learn from, of all people,
Socrates. Again, the charge is often made in court that the
opponent is a skillful speaker and the jury must be aware of
being deceived by him. From the frequency with which this
crops up, it is clear that the accusation of cleverness might
damage a man. Juries, of course, were familiar with the
style, and would recognize the more obvious artifices, but it
was worth a litigant’s while to get his speech written for
him by an expert. Persuasive oratory was certainly one of
the pressures that would be effective in an Athenian lawcourt.
A more insidious danger was the inevitable desire to
display this art as an art. It is not easy to define the point at

which a legitimate concern with style shades off into
preoccupation with manner at the expense of matter; but it
is easy to perceive that many Greek writers of the fourth and
later centuries passed that danger point. The most
influential was...Isocrates, who polished for long years his
pamphlets, written in the form of speeches, and taught to
many pupils the smooth and easy periods he had perfected.
This was a style of only limited use in the abrupt
vicissitudes of politics. Isocrates took to the written word
in compensation for his inadequacy in live oratory; the
tough and nervous tones of a Demosthenes were far
removed from his, though they, too, were based on study
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harm.... This was not due mainly to the influence of
Isocrates: public display was normal and inevitable for a
world which talked and listened far more than it read.... The
balance was always delicate, between style as a vehicle and
style as an end in itself. We must not try to pinpoint a
specific moment when it, once and for all, tipped over; but
certainly, as time went on, virtuosity weighed heavier...
...While Greek freedom lasted, and it mattered what a
Greek city decided to do, rhetoric was a necessary
preparation for public life, whatever its side effects. When

the study became, in the gloomiest sense of the word,
academic, only the side effects remained, and they were not
such as to encourage depth of thought. It had been a source
of strength for Greek civilisation that its problems, of all
kinds, were thrashed out very much in public. The
shallowness which the study of rhetoric might (not must)
encourage was the corresponding weakness.

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28. The author of the passage would most likely have the
highest regard for an orator who:
A. roused his hearers to immediate and decisive
action.
B. understood that rhetoric serves an aesthetic as
well as a practical purpose.
C. relied on facts and reason rather than on rhetorical
devices in making his case.
D. passed on the techniques he had perfected to many
students.

29. Historians agree that those seeking public office in
modern America make far fewer speeches in the
course of their campaign than those seeking a public
position in ancient Greece did. The author would
most likely explain this by pointing out that:
A. speeches are now only of limited use in the abrupt
vicissitudes of politics.
B. modern politicians need not rely exclusively on
speeches to make themselves known.

C. modern audiences are easier to persuade through
rhetoric than were the Greek audiences.
D. modern politicians do not make a study of
rhetoric as did the Greeks.

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30. The passage suggests that being particularly adept at
rhetoric was NOT always to a Greek’s advantage
because:
A. success in public life naturally bred considerable
jealousy in rivals.
B. public figures forfeited their right to a private life.
C. listeners were wary of being misled by skillful
language.
D. verbosity was a character trait not held in high
regard among the Greeks.

33. In the context of the passage, the term side effects
refers primarily to:
A. an understanding of the importance of public
debate to keeping freedom.
B. a misplaced emphasis on rhetorical style as

opposed to substance.
C. a tendency to ignore the potential of the written
word.
D. the exclusion from leadership of those not
proficient in oratory.

31. Which of the following claims would most weaken
the author’s assertion that “the accusation of
cleverness might damage a man” (lines 32–33) in
Greek court?
A. Greek juries frowned on personal attacks on an
opponent’s character.
B. Alerting the jury to the possibility of deceit
caused them to doubt what they subsequently
heard.
C. Those
accused
of
cleverness
usually
counterattacked with a similar accusation.
D. Greek citizens naturally expected some speakers
to use rhetorical tricks.

32. Implicit in the statement that the exaltation of
virtuosity was not due mainly to Isocrates because
public display was normal in a world that talked far
more than it read is the assumption that:
A. Isocrates was actually concerned as much with the
content of his speeches as with their style.

B. excessive concern with style is bound to arise in a
world dominated by public display.
C. the Greeks were guilty of exalting virtuosity in
their public art and architecture as well.
D. Isocrates was less influential than previous
historians estimated.

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Passage VI (Questions 34-41)
...No one pretends that actions should be as free as

opinions. On the contrary, even opinions lose their
immunity when the circumstances in which they are
expressed are such as to constitute their expression a
positive instigation to some mischievous act. An opinion
that corn dealers are starvers of the poor, or that private
property is robbery, ought to be unmolested when simply
circulated through the press, but may justly incur
punishment when delivered orally to an excited mob
assembled before the house of a corn dealer, or when
handed about among the same mob in the form of a placard.
Acts, of whatever kind, which without justifiable cause do
harm to others may be, and in the more important cases
absolutely require to be, controlled by the unfavorable
sentiments, and, when needful, by the active interference of
mankind. The liberty of the individual must be thus far
limited; he must not make himself a nuisance to other
people. But if he refrains from molesting others in what
concerns them, and merely acts according to his own
inclination and judgment in things which concern
himself...he should be allowed, without molestation, to
carry his opinions into practice at his own cost.... As it
useful that while mankind are imperfect there should be
different opinions, so it is that there should be different
experiments of living; that free scope should be given to
varieties of character, short of injury to others; and that the
worth of different modes of life should be proved
practically, when anyone thinks fit to try them. It is
desirable, in short, that in things which do not primarily
concern others individuality should assert itself. Where not
the person’s own character but the traditions of customs of

other people are the rule of conduct, there is wanting one of
the principal ingredients of human happiness, and quite the
chief ingredient of individual and social progress.
...It would be absurd to pretend that people ought to
live as if nothing whatever had been known in the world
before they came into it; as if experience had as yet done
nothing toward showing that one mode of existence, or of
conduct, is preferable to another. Nobody denies that
people should be so taught and trained in youth as to know
and benefit by the ascertained results of human experience.
But it is the privilege and proper condition of a human
being, arrived at the maturity of his faculties, to use and
interpret experience in his own way. It is for him to find out
what part of recorded experience is properly applicable to
his own circumstances and character. The traditions and
customs of other people are, to a certain extent, evidence of
what their experience has taught them—presumptive
evidence, and as such, have a claim to his deference: but, in
the first place, their experience may be too narrow, or they
may have not interpreted it rightly. Secondly, their
interpretation of experience may be correct, but unsuitable
to him. Customs are made for customary circumstances and

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customary characters; and his circumstances or his character
may be uncustomary. Thirdly, though the customs be both
good as customs and suitable to him, yet to conform to

custom merely as custom does not educate or develop him
any of the qualities which are the distinctive endowment of
a human being. The human faculties of perception,
judgment, discriminative feeling, mental activity, and even
moral preference are exercised only in making a choice. He
who does anything because it is the custom makes no
choice. He gains no practice either in discerning or desiring
what is best....

34. Based on information in the passage, with which of
the following statements about opinions would the
author most likely agree?
A. Different opinions exist because people are
imperfect.
B. An opinion can be relatively harmless in one
context and dangerous in another.
C. Opinions directed specifically against fellow
human beings should be punished.
D. All expressions of opinion should really be
considered actions.

35. Implicit in the passage’s discussion of the
circumstances under which “opinions lose their
immunity” is the assumption that:
A. ownership of private property discriminates
against the poor.
B. an excited mob is likely to attack someone
expressing an unpopular opinion.
C. corn dealers refuse to make charitable gifts of
corn to the needy.

D. opinions circulated through the press will not
instigate mischievous acts.

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36. Based on the information in the passage, which of the
following would the author NOT approve of?
A. Scolding a young boy for continually teasing a
classmate
B. Defending an accused murderer on the grounds
that he acted in self-defense
C. Taking cigarettes away from a teenager to prevent
her from smoking
D. Publishing an editorial that decries domestic
violence

37. In order to apply to specific situations the general
view that “the liberty of the individual must be...[to a
certain degree] limited,” it would be most helpful to
know:
A. how to determine whether a harmful act was
justifiable.
B. how long criminals should be incarcerated.

C. whether the author would want his own liberty to
be limited.
D. why the author felt compelled to write about the
subject of individual liberty.

40. The passage suggests that even customs based on
correctly-interpreted experiences may NOT be helpful
as guides for action because:
A. customs cannot be applied to unusual situations
or people.
B. the number of possible experiences is nearly
infinite.
C. it is unlikely that the same experiences will be
repeated.
D. customs vary from one culture to the next.

41. The existence of which of the following phenomena
would most strongly challenge the author’s argument
about “conforming to custom merely as custom”?
A. A class in morality taught at a parochial high
school
B. An important discovery made by a researcher who
uses unconventional methods
C. A culture in which it is traditional to let children
make their own decisions
D. A custom that involves celebrating a noteworthy
historical event

38. Based on the passage, the author probably believes
that acting in accordance with a custom observed by

people in the past is:
A.
B.
C.
D.

always good.
always bad.
sometimes good and sometimes bad.
lacking in intrinsic value.

39. The author holds that one should not necessarily defer
to the traditions and customs of other people. The
author supports his position by arguing that:
I. traditions and customs are usually the result
of misinterpreted experiences.
II. customs are based on experiences in the past,
which are different from modern experiences.
III. customs can stifle one’s individual
development.
A.
B.
C.
D.

II only
III only
I and III only
II and III only

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Passage VII (Questions 42-48)
Medicine is a fertile area for pseudoscientific claims
for a simple reason. Most diseases or conditions (a)
improve by themselves; (b) are self-limiting; or (c) even if
fatal, seldom follow a strictly downward spiral. In each
case, intervention, no matter how worthless, can appear to

be quite efficacious.
This becomes clearer if you assume the point of view
of a knowing practitioner of fraudulent medicine. To take
advantage of the natural ups and downs of any disease (as
well as of any placebo effect), it’s best to begin your
worthless treatment when the patient is getting worse. In
this way, anything that happens can more easily be attributed
to your wonderful and probably expensive intervention. If
the patient improves, you take credit; if he remains stable,
your treatment stopped his downward course. On the other
hand, if the patient worsens, the dosage or intensity of the
treatment was not great enough; if he dies, he delayed too
long in coming to you.
In any case, the few instances in which your
intervention is successful will likely be remembered (not so
few, if the disease in question is self-limiting), while the
vast majority of failures will be forgotten and buried.
Chance provides more than enough variation to account for
the sprinkling of successes that will occur with almost any
treatment; indeed, it would be a miracle if there weren’t any
“miracle cures”....
Even in outlandish cases, it’s often difficult to refute
conclusively some proposed cure or procedure. Consider a
quack diet doctor who directs his patients to consume two
whole pizzas, four birch beers, and two pieces of
cheesecake for every breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and an
entire box of fig bars with a quart of milk for a bedtime
snack, claiming that other people have lost six pounds a
week on such a regimen. When several patients follow his
instructions for three weeks, they find they’ve gained about

seven pounds each. Have the doctor’s claims been refuted?
Not necessarily, since he might respond that a whole host of
auxiliary understandings weren’t met: the pizzas had too
much sauce, or the dieters slept sixteen hours a day, or the
birch beer wasn’t the right brand. The point is that one can
usually find loopholes which will enable one to hold on to
whatever pet theory one fancies.
The philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine goes even
further and maintains that experience never forces one to
reject any particular belief. He views science as an
integrated web of interconnecting hypotheses, procedures,
and formalisms, and argues that any impact of the world on
the web can be distributed in many different ways. If we’re
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web of our beliefs, the argument goes, we can hold to our
belief in the efficacy of the above diet, or indeed in the
validity of any pseudoscience.
Less controversial is the contention that there are no
clear-cut, easy algorithms that allow us to distinguish
science from pseudoscience in all cases. The boundary
between them is too fuzzy.... Number and probability do,
however, provide the basis for statistics, which, together
with logic, constitutes the foundation of the scientific

method, which will eventually sort matters out if anything
can. However, just as the existence of pink does not
undermine the distinction between red and white, and dawn
doesn’t indicate that day and night are really the same, this
problematic fringe area...doesn’t negate the fundamental
differences between science and its impostors.

42. The claim that “it would be a miracle if there weren’t
any ‘miracle cures’” would be most weakened by
evidence that showed that:
A. some crackpot treatments have turned out to have
authentic medical benefit.
B. the possibility of improvement is nonexistent
during the course of many illnesses.
C. the number of fraudulent medical practitioners
has dwindled considerably.
D. some patients recover from illness without any
sort of intervention at all.

43. In the context of the passage, the term self-limiting
refers to medical conditions that:
A. run a definite course that does not result in the
patient’s death.
B. impair the patient’s ability to engage in everyday
activities.
C. have a very high rate of mortality.
D. never shows improvement.

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44. Suppose that in order to demonstrate the legitimacy of
his work, a faith healer compiles a book of interviews
of people who swear that he has cured them just by
blessing them. The author would most likely respond
by asserting that:
A. eyewitness testimony of emotional events tends to
be unreliable.
B. the interviewees would have gotten better without
the healer’s intervention.
C. the ability to cure people does not justify
shameless self-promotion.
D. the interviewees have been deluded into thinking
that they have improved when they have not.

45. According to the passage, which of the following is
most likely to be the best way to determine whether a
practitioner’s intervention is worthwhile or not?
A. Keep a record of the time it takes for a patient to
respond to the practitioner’s treatment
B. Keep a record of the number of patients the
practitioner has treated successfully
C. Keep a record of the dosage that the practitioner
employs in his treatment
D. Keep a record of both the successes and failures
of the practitioner

47. Doctors and scientists continue to debate whether
certain types of alternative medicine are scientific or

pseudoscientific. How is this information relevant to
the passage?
A. It weakens the claim that one can hold on to
whatever pet theory one fancies.
B. It weakens the claim that the scientific method is
useful in sorting science from pseudoscience.
C. It strengthens the claim that there is a fundamental
difference between medicine and science.
D. It strengthens the claim that science and
pseudoscience cannot always be distinguished.

48. The author of the passage would most likely argue
that W.V.O. Quine’s philosophical views are:
A. extreme, because some beliefs can be proven to be
either true or false.
B. insightful, because any set of beliefs has to be as
valid as any other.
C. flawed, because they do not explain why anyone
would reject any belief.
D. bankrupt, because they do not apply to any
particular situation.

46. Based on the information in the passage, which of the
following opinions could most reasonably be ascribed
to the author?
A. Too often nothing truly effective can be done to
ameliorate the illness of a patient.
B. There is no way that pseudoscience will ever be
eliminated.
C. Beliefs can be maintained even in the absence of

strong supporting evidence.
D. Experience never forces one to reject any
particular belief.

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Passage VIII (Questions 49-55)

In the decades following World War II, American
business had undisputed control of the world economy,
producing goods of such high quality and low cost that
foreign corporations were unable to compete. But in the
mid-1960s the United States began to lose its advantage and
by the 1980s American corporations lagged behind the
competition in many industries. In the computer chip
industry, for example, American corporations had lost most
of both domestic and foreign markets by the early 1980s.
The first analysts to examine the decline of American
business blamed the U.S. government. They argued that
stringent governmental restrictions on the behavior of
American corporations, combined with the wholehearted
support given to foreign firms by their governments, created
and environment in which American products could not
compete. Later analysts blamed predatory corporate raiders
who bought corporations, not to make them more
competitive in the face of foreign competition, but rather to
sell of the most lucrative divisions for huge profits. Still
later analysts blamed the American workforce, citing labor
demands and poor productivity as the reasons American
corporations have been unable to compete with Japanese
and European firms. Finally, a few analysts even censured
American consumers for their unpatriotic purchases of
foreign goods.
While there is an element of truth to all of these
explanations, the real blame for the decline of American
business lies with corporate management, which has made
serious errors based on misconceptions about what it takes
to be successful in the marketplace. These misconceptions

appear to have been especially damaging. These involve
labor costs, production choices, and growth strategies.
Even though labor costs typically account for less than
15% of a product’s total cost, management has been quick
to blame the costs of workers’ wages for driving up prices,
making American goods uncompetitive. As a result of
attempts to minimize the cost of wages, American
corporations have had trouble recruiting and retaining
skilled workers.
The emphasis on cost minimization has also led to
another blunder: an overconcentration on high technology
products. Many foreign firms began by specializing in the
mass production and sale of low technology products,
gaining valuable experience and earning tremendous profits.
Later, these corporations were able to break into high
technology markets without much trouble; they simply
applied their previous manufacturing experience and ample
financial resources to the production of higher quality
goods. American business has consistently ignored this very
sensible approach.
As a result of management’s
unwillingness to sanction the design and manufacture of
low technology products, American business has lost both

the financial and technological edge it once enjoyed.
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The recent rash of corporate mergers and acquisitions

in the U.S. has not helped the situation either. While
American firms have neglected long-range planning and
production, preferring instead to reap fast profits through
mergers and acquisitions, foreign firms have been quick to
exploit opportunities to ensure their domination over future
markets by investing in the streamlining and modernization
of their facilities.
Without a change in the traditional American
philosophy toward management, the outlook for American
business is bleak. Today’s corporate executives lack the
empire-building vision which once propelled American
business to a position of unrivaled dominance.

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49. Suppose that labor costs were the only part of the total
cost of producing goods to have risen since the mid1960s. What is the relevance of this information to
the passage?
A. It supports the author’s claim that labor demands
have hurt American corporations.
B. It supports the author’s claim that workers’ wages
have made American goods uncompetitive.
C. It weakens the author’s claim that American
corporations have had trouble retaining skilled
workers.
D. It weakens the author’s claim that management
was wrong to blame labor costs for driving up
prices.
50. The passage suggests that compared to Japanese
workers, American workers are often considered:

A.
B.
C.
D.

more content and more productive.
more content but less productive.
less content and less productive.
less content but more productive.

51. With which of the following general statements would
the author most likely NOT agree?
A. American business has been hurt by the inability
to plan for the long-term.
B. Cutting production costs always leads to
increased competitiveness.
C. American consumers are not the prime cause of
the decline of American business.
D. Initial analysis of the decline of American
business yielded only partially accurate
conclusions.
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52. Which of the following would most weaken the
author’s argument about the overconcentration of
high technology products?
A. Producing low tech products is not as profitable

as is producing high tech products.
B. Manufacturing high tech products is a completely
different process from manufacturing low tech
goods.
C. Most of the low tech products purchased by
Americans are made by foreign firms.
D. Most of the high tech products purchased by
Americans are made by foreign firms.

55. Economics experts have asserted that the American
share of foreign and domestic markets was no greater
in the 1950s than in the 1980s. If true, this would
cause the author to modify the claim that:
A. the American workforce has been unable to
compete with European firms.
B. American business squandered its advantage over
foreign competition.
C. American goods can be produced in such a way as
to be competitive.
D. the errors made by corporate management date
back to the post-World War II years.

53. Adopting the author’s views as presented in the
passage would most likely mean acknowledging that:
A. it should be the goal of American business to
regain control of the market.
B. the major blunder of American businesses was to
alienate the skilled workers.
C. the future of American business would appear to
be hopeless.

D. the foreign market is more important for business
survival than the domestic market.

54. The author of this passage would probably give his
greatest support to which of the following actions by
the corporate management of an American company?
A. Acquiring a smaller company in order to gain
financial resources
B. Considering the option of paying the most highly
skilled workers a higher wage
C. Imitating the general management strategy of
foreign firms
D. Paying for television advertisements that will win
back American consumers

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Passage IX (Questions 56-60)
...The woman-suffrage campaign was indeed as much
evangelism—a kind of social gospel—as it was politics.
The copious documentation the suffragists left behind tells
a story of missionary zeal, untiring political education, and
commitment to a conception of America as an experiment
in civic justice. Underpinning this ideology were strands of
American exceptionalism, occasional self-righteousness,
and appeals to female moral superiority.... The suffragists
revealed an eclectic social philosophy that oscillated
between the poles of preaching women’s superior virtues
and proclaiming their essential humanity....
...As events showed, the leading suffragists understood
the uses of public drama—and were well attuned to the
vitality of political rhetoric. They exploited the great
American narratives, biblical and civic, stories of new
beginnings, brave struggles, repentance and renewal, and
effectively turned them to their own purposes.... Southern

suffragists often coupled panegyrics to woman’s purity with
appeals to racial and ethnic prejudices. One leader argued
openly in 1903 that “enfranchisement of women would
insure immediate and durable white supremacy.”
...Even more moderate suffragists...believed that
American women who know history “will always resent the
fact that American men chose to enfranchise Negroes fresh
from slavery before enfranchising American wives and
mothers, and allowed hordes of European immigrants
totally unfamiliar with the traditions and ideals of American
government to be enfranchised...and thus qualified to pass
upon the question of the enfranchisement of American
women.” Suffragists sought to capitalize on this antiimmigrant, anti-black sentiment in order to promote their
own ends—a story that has been told, and lamented, by later
generations of feminists and historians....
...Educated adults of the day—and the suffragists were
overwhelmingly drawn from the ranks of the educated—
knew their Bunyan, understood that overcoming adversity
was a test of character, even believed that overcoming
adversity was the way character was formed....Above all,
suffragists saw in the vote a great engine for social change,
a way to tap woman’s greater capacity for human empathy,
her status as “the mother of the race.” Women, they
believed, would vote en bloc, for the good of humanity, and
the world would look different forever. Some argued that if
the moral power of women could be utilized through the
ballot, human suffering would be alleviated; social wrongs
would be righted; a new democratic age would begin....
...Perhaps the fact that no clear-cut voting patterns have
emerged simply tells us that the political attitudes of

women, like those of men, are not a function of how they
are supposed to think or act. No consensus has been
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or its potential for affecting the outcome of elections or
public policy more generally.... Our attention should be
focused not so much on whether women will vote or
govern differently from men, but rather on why suffrage is
so vital to a democratic society. Suffrage is to the
individual what sovereignty is to states: the insignia of
membership in a political society; the mark of political
standing and dignity... Civic emancipation, of which the
franchise is the indispensable feature, is the only sure and
certain basis for democratic political life. It cannot
accomplish every good end. But no good political end can
be achieved without it....

56. In the context of the passage, political rhetoric ( line
14) refers to:
A. The guidelines used by political speechwriters.
B. The suffragettes’ effective presentation of
American ideology in order to make political
gains.
C. The suffragettes’ circumlocution of historical
facts and ideas in an attempt to confuse voters.
D. The code that successful politicians must follow

during an election campaign.

57. With which of the following statements would the
author most likely agree?
A. Suffragette exploitation of American ideology
was a severe violation of moral principles.
B. Due to their lack of education, the suffragettes
believed that their prejudice against blacks and
immigrants had no similarity to the prejudice they
experienced as women.
C. Suffragists were ahead of their time in believing
that “women...would vote en bloc...for the good
of humanity....”
D. The end result suffragettes achieved, civic
emancipation, is essential to maintaining a
democratic society.

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58. Based on information in the passage, which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A. Women suffragists often came from educated
backgrounds and had a solid understanding of
American politics.
B. To promote their own cause, suffragists took
advantage of popular sentiments toward
immigrants.
C. Women tend to vote in distinct patterns related to
their gender.

D. Many suffragists believed that women were part
of a superior group.

60. The passage implies that modern day feminists and
historians would most likely feel that tactics used by
suffragists were:
A. valid, yet often hurt minorities such as
immigrants and blacks.
B. useless and functioned to prevent women from
finally gaining the right to vote.
C. effective, but compromised the integrity of their
pursuit of equality.
D. ignorant since the suffragists did not consider
other groups.

59. The author would most likely agree with which of the
following statements?
A. Suffragists didn’t realize that their exploitation of
other minorities was hypocritical in itself.
B. The suffragists’ ultimate achievement may not
guarantee a good society, but it does ensure the
survival of democracy.
C. The suffragists’ extensive knowledge of American
history helped them to accurately predict
women’s voting patterns.
D. The suffragist movement may have helped women
gain rights, but it did not help society progress on
any other level.

20

as developed by


Material in this test was adapted from the following sources:

Winston Churchill, Amid These Storms. Reprinted in A Quarto of Modern Literature , by Leonard Brown and
Porter Perrin, eds.© 1957 by Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Martin Benjamin and Daniel A. Bronstein, “Moral & Criminal Responsibility & Corporate Persons.” Reprinted
in Corporations and Society: Power and Responsibility. © 1987 by Greenwood Press.
Greg Easterbrook, “Here Comes the Sun.” © 1995 by The New Yorker.
Antony Andrews, The Greeks. © 1967 by W.W. Norton & Company.
John Allen Paulos, Innumeracy. © 1989 by Hill and Wang.
Jean Bethke Elshtain, What Feminists Could Learn from Ms. Anthony. © 1995 by Civilization.