MCAT verbal test (24)

MCAT Section Tests
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Materials used in this test section have been adapted from the following sources:
Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 6

ANSWER KEY
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. A
9. D
10. B

11. D
12. C
13. B
14. A
15. A
16. C
17. A
18. D
19. C
20. D

21. B
22. C
23. A
24. A

25. C
26. B
27. C
28. D
29. B
30. A

31. D
32. B
33. D
34. A
35. B
36. D
37. C
38. C
39. B
40. A

41. C
42. B
43. D
44. B
45. B
46. D
47. D
48. B
49. C
50. C

51. D

52. A
53. B
54. D
55. C
56. C
57. A
58. B
59. D
60. D



Passage I (Questions 1-7)
Topic and Scope: Why PCBs contaminate the Hudson River and issues relating
to whether they should be removed.
Paragraph 1 provides general historical context with respect to hazardous waste
and its clean-up in the U.S.
Paragraph 2 describes PCBs, which constitute a particular group of chemicals,
the uses made of them.
Paragraph 3 asserts that: PCBs are hazardous; they were, accordingly, banned;
they nevertheless persist in the environment. It then notes that the issue of
cleaning up PCBs is controversial.
Paragraph 4 describes a particular case of PCB pollution and some of its effects.
Paragraph 5 outlines the positions of area residents, the polluter, and the EPA
with respect to PCB cleanup in the particular location described in paragraph 4.
Paragraph 6 identifies another issue with respect to PCB cleanup, which is not
identified by the stakeholders whose positions were delineated in paragraph 5.
1.
A
That PCBs are heavier than water (statement I) can be inferred from the

information that dredging is recommended to remove them from the riverbed. If
PCBs are on the riverbed, they must be heavier than water. This inference is also
supported by the reference in paragraph 2 to PCBs as “heavy” liquids. In
evaluating whether PCBs are toxic to fish, examine what the passage specifically
says. The passage states that PCBs bioaccumulate in fish and that human
consumption of fish from contaminated portions of the river is restricted. Thus, it
may seem plausible that PCBs are toxic to fish. However, while the passage
indicates that PCBs have been linked to cancer and developmental problems in
humans, it provides no information supporting an inference that PCBs specifically
injure fish. Since PCBs are identified, in the second paragraph, as being “very
stable,” they cannot also be “readily biodegradable.” Don’t be confused by the
reference, in paragraph 3 to “bioaccumulate,” which is consistent with stability but
not with degradation.
2.
B
The passage indicates that the EPA is responsible for administering the
Superfund Program, and that this program investigates hazardous waste sights.
Paragraph 4 indicates that EPA has estimated that 1.1 million pounds of PCBs
have accumulated in the Hudson River due to dumping by two capacitor
manufacturing plants located along the northern range. It is a valid inference,
based on the preceding information (paragraph 1, third sentence), that this
estimate results from an investigation by EPA, intended to identify the degree of
pollution and its source. Paragraph 4 goes on to describe the specific evidence of
this pollution, including existence of PCBs in estuary sediments. Thus, it is a
correct inference that the PCBs in estuary sediments were identified by EPA as
having originated with the two plants along the northern Hudson. Because rivers
by definition flow toward the ocean, absent evidence to the contrary, this is a
basis to infer that pollutants would tend to travel in that same direction--down the

river to its mouth. Thus, choice (B) is correct--the PCBs do not necessarily
remain where originally deposited. While (A) sounds plausible, information in the
passage provides no basis for an inference that there is another source of
pollution. (C) is incorrect because paragraph 4 indicates that the field surveys
found “substantial contamination,” which is inconsistent with presence at a
background level. (D) is too extreme to be a correct inference.
3.
C
To answer this inference question, look for evidence supporting each assertion.
The first paragraph indicates that companies found responsible for pollution can
be financially liable for the cost of cleanup. Since companies inherently care
about profit, absent evidence supporting another motivation, it is reasonable to
infer a motivation of minimizing cost, choice (C). While it is plausible that the
company is concerned about its public image (B), there is no basis in the
passage for an inference that this is its overriding concern. (D) is illogical. If the
company had commercial fishing interests, this would not be likely to make it
oppose cleanup.
4.
A
In the first sentence of paragraph 5, the passage states that EPA hopes that
removal of the PCBs will permit revitalization of commercial fishing on the
Hudson. Descriptions of the concerns of local residents or the company do not
refer to fishing. While it seems plausible that the EPA would be concerned about
the environment as a whole, the passage does not support that inference; the
mission of EPA, as stated in the first paragraph, is to clean up “the worse of
these sites nationwide.” Furthermore, the passage points out that EPA has not
disclosed the ultimate fate of the PCBs and their impact on the larger
environment.
5.
B

A local newspaper by definition would base its editorial on matters of concern to
local residents. Of the answer choices, only choice (B) reflects a concern
attributed by the passage to local residents. (A) is incorrect because PCBs are
synthetic and were first developed in the 1880s. Thus, the preindustrial level can
be assumed to have been zero. (C) is incorrect because the passage states that
the EPA has already determined that PCBs will be disposed of outside of the
local area. (D) is incorrect because there is no indication in the passage that local
communities will be affected by the cost of the dredging; the passage indicates
the cost will probably be borne by the company.
6.
C
The passage indicates that PCBs tend to accumulate in living organisms. Thus, it
is not likely that avoiding consumption of fish will reduce an individual’s existing
level of PCB concentration. Since PCBs are also present in the air, it is also
unlikely that an individual can avoid any further increase in PCB concentration,
even if eating fish is avoided. The best can be hoped is that accumulation of
PCBs will be slowed, choice (C). Since there may be other causes of cancer and


developmental problems, and since avoiding fish does not eliminate PCB
exposure, (D) is incorrect.
7.
A
The passage indicates that the most potent source of PCB exposure in humans
is consumption of fish. Yet, the passage indicates that consumption of fish
caught in contaminated sections of the river is prohibited. The passage does not
attempt to explain the parallel between the river’s contamination and PCBs in
nearby residents. Although the passage indicates that air along the river is
contaminated, air is not indicated as a major source of exposure and there is no
indication of whether PCBs in the air tend to parallel that in adjacent water.

Although some municipalities draw drinking water from the river, the passage
does not indicate the degree of contamination in the sections of the river from
which water is drawn. In contrast, the passage does explain why PCBs were
useful as components of electrical equipment and cooling systems (paragraph 2),
why they accumulate in living organisms (paragraph 3) and gives examples of
the reasons dealing with PCBs already present in the environment can be
controversial (paragraph 5).
Passage II (Questions 8-14)
Topic and Scope: The resolution of a schism in the Roman Catholic Church
Paragraph 1: What the council of Pisa did, and what problems resulted
Paragraph 2: How the council of Constance undid the actions of the council of
Pisa
Paragraph 3: What positive steps the council of Constance took to resolve the
basic problem.
8.
A
Both councils wanted to appoint a new pope, and depose all rival claimants.
Choices (B) and (C) are FUDs; they misuse details in the passage. Choice (D)
refers to something that was done by only one of the councils.
9.
D
All three statements describe things that the Council of Constance did, and the
Council of Pisa did not do, which contributed to the success of the former.
10.
B
Choice (B) is logically connected to the author’s use of the detail. The other
choices are not.
11.
D
The Spanish did not do the things that choices (A) and (C) says they did. They

did do what (B) says they did, but these actions did not help resolve the division
in the Church.
12.

C


The author says that Benedict XIII and Gregory XII were deposed “with equal
justice,” and that John XXIII was “the most profligate of mankind.” This suggests
that none deserved to be pope. He does not make any judgment as to who was
the best of this bad lot. Nor does he address the question of whose election was
most legitimate.
13.
B
If John XXIII had been able to remain pope, there would have been no need for
another council to elect another pope. But it would have been necessary to get
rid of the earlier claimants to the title. This would have reunited the Church.
We’re not told whether John would have moved the papal see back to Rome.
14.
A
The deputies in question were representatives of the five most powerful
countries. The other choices are not supported by the passage.
Passage III (Questions 15-21)
Topic and Scope: New research on memory loss in old age.
Paragraph 1 memory loss in old age may not be unavoidable, because there are
several types of memory
Paragraph 2 new methods of research have led to this discovery
Paragraph 3 loss of “episodic” memory (of events and details) is most associated
with age, but may be prevented by exercising this faculty
Paragraph 4 “semantic” memory (of knowledge and facts) may actually improve

with age
Paragraph 5 “implicit” memory (of activities done without intention) is not affected
by age
Paragraph 6 sums up the results
15.
A
The third paragraph of the passage states that only episodic memory
deteriorates with age. The first sentence of this paragraph says that episodic
memory contains memory of recent events and minor details; therefore,
statement I describes the sort of memory that might be affected in old age.
Recollection of childhood events (statement II) is related to semantic memory,
which is described in the fourth paragraph as possibly improved by age. The
ability to perform routine tasks (statement III) is based in the implicit memory,
which the author describes in the fifth paragraph as unaffected by age.
16.
C
To answer this question consider both the information contained in the passage
and the author’s tone. The passage suggests that current research contributes
much to our understanding of how memory works; however, in the last paragraph
the author qualifies his optimism—such studies only apply to certain memory
problems. Considering this, of the choices given the author’s attitude is best


described as “reserved optimism.” The tone is too subdued for “unbridled
enthusiasm” (A). “Wary skepticism” (B) doesn’t reflect the hopeful note to this
passage. “Unbiased objectivity” (D) is wrong because it also fails to capture the
optimism and approval of the passage.
17.
A
Current research refutes established ideas about memory and aging, choice (A).

(B) correctly states that past investigations only tested episodic memory;
however, the passage does not explain exactly why this was the case. (C) is too
general; this passage has to do with just one aspect of the brain’s functioning—
memory. While the third paragraph discusses the reasons why episodic memory
diminishes with age (D), this is just a detail supporting the passage’s main thrust.
18.
D
The answer to this inference question can be found in the second paragraph,
which suggests that recent developments stem from methodological changes,
choice (D). Although the first and second sentences of the first paragraph say
that it is commonly known that older people are often forgetful, the passage does
not imply that such stereotypes have limited scientific research, and you cannot
infer that scientists have attempted to dismantle such stereotypes or that such
effort has changed our conceptions of the elderly (A). The author only mentions
disease and injury-related memory loss in the last paragraph, and doesn’t imply
that scientists have confused disease-related problems with age related memory
problems (B). (C) is a Distortion; the idea that mental exercise might diminish
memory loss (paragraph 3) resulted from, not led to, the new developments in
memory research.
19.
C
See paragraphs 2 and 3. Older people forget recent events but remember the
distant past because recent events are stored in episodic memory, which
declines with age, while distant memories reside in the semantic memory, which
actually improves with age. (A) is wrong in saying that childhood events exist as
part of the implicit memory. (B) incorrectly attributes memory of the distant past
to implicit memory. (D) incorrectly suggests that semantic memory is for recent
events and that it seems to degenerate from lack of use after retirement.
20.
D

Tying shoelaces is the kind of activity we perform without intentional effort—
stored in the implicit memory and discussed in the fifth paragraph (D). Although
amnesia is mentioned in paragraph 5, choice (A) is opposite; tying shoelaces is
the kind of activity an amnesiac will remember.
21.
B
Although the body of the passage optimistically relates developments in memory
research, the last paragraph notes that such findings don’t address problems
associated with illness, disease, or injury. Choice (B) picks up on this while
accurately reflecting the author’s tone. (A) seems to fault the character of the


research in a way that is not suggested in the passage. The passage doesn’t
suggest that problems of injury, disease and illness are “more critical” than other
memory disorders (C) or that do not conform to the tripartate model (D).

Passage IV (Questions 22-28)
Topic and Scope: Why we need to understand old ideas in order to understand
new ideas.
Paragraph 1 understanding old ideas is necessary to seeing how new ideas were
developed.
Paragraph 2 Darwin’s evolution theory was developed in the context of older
ideas.
Paragraph 3 many of the old ideas on which Darwin built were “Creationist”
Paragraph 4 Linnaeus and LeClerc are given as two examples
Paragraph 5 other scientists interested in the age of the earth developed antiCreationist evidence before Darwin.
22.
C
The overall idea in this passage is that the build-up to Darwin’s synthesis of
natural selection as the major mechanism for evolution was a result of hundreds

of years of previous study of nature and attempts to understand natural
relationships. It was Darwin who stood on the shoulders of others who had a
wide variety of ideas about how organisms change over time. Thus, choice (C) is
correct. (D), while possibly tempting, is not correct, because old ideas should be
dismissed if disproved, but they can still be learned from to understand new
ideas. Religious scientists did influence Darwin, but that is not the main idea of
the passage, so (A) is incorrect. As well, (B) is correct but not a main idea.
23.
A
The passage indicates that long, gradual processes shaped mountains and other
terrain; that new plants and animals being found “aroused suspicion” about
Biblical accounts; and, that improvements in the relative dating of fossil finds
brought into question the Biblical age of the Earth. However, noted similarities
between species had always been recognized, and it is not indicated anywhere
in the passage that these observations called into question the Biblical account of
creation at all; thus, choice (A) is correct.
24.
A
This is another “main idea” type of question. In fact, if you realize that the main
idea of the passage concerns all the previous ideas that helped Darwin formulate
his groundbreaking theory, Choice (A) should jump right out at you. All the other
choices are smaller ideas in the passage – important, yes, but not what the
author is trying to emphasize here.
25.

C


LeClerc’s ideas, as discussed in the passage, have the most similarity to Charles
Lyell’s, the geologist who concluded that the age of the Earth was far greater

than the Bible stipulated. Choice (C) is correct because, in addition to the Biblical
age not accounting for measured features such as mountain building time, the
Biblical age could apparently not account for LeClerc’s measured melting and
cooling times of molten iron – which he related to the age of the Earth.
26.
B
The author feels that Darwin’s theories cannot be presented in a vacuum, and
that one can only understand their power and logic if he or she appreciates how
these relatively simple ideas evolved themselves from a complex mesh of other
ideas. Nowhere in the paragraph or in the passage does the author imply choice
(A), that Darwin does not deserve due credit for his ideas, nor is it suggested that
the ideas were so simple that Darwin never needed much help, (D). In addition,
(C) is incorrect because at the time of religious ideas on creation, there was little
evidence to support evolution, as the passage states. Thus, those who studied
nature and came to form a body of knowledge that needed a reasonable unifying
theory were, more often than not, individuals who were studying nature to find
religious inspiration.
27.
C
Statement I is not a correct statement here, because although the author feels
one can appreciate Darwin’s work if he or she knows the past history that relates
to that works, the author never asserts that Darwin’s theory cannot stand alone to
be applied to and to explain many evolutionary phenomena. In fact, Darwin’s
ideas, and not ones previous to him, are the concepts that have withstood much
scientific scrutiny. Thus, choices (A) and (D) can be eliminated. Statements II
and III are both correct, and these are both assertions that the author makes in
various parts of the passage to back up his introductory paragraph. Thus, (C) is
the correct answer here.
28.
D

Uniformitarians, like geologist Charles Lyell, are described in the passage as
those who believe that major features of the Earth’s terrain have been built up
over long periods of gradual erosion, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. Thus,
Choice (D) is correct. Catastrophists, as the name implied, were a group of
people who proposed that sudden, catastrophic forces could account for the
major features of Earth’s terrain, while creationists and Darwinists focused much
more on phenomena involving nature’s organisms and ecosystems, rather than
on Earth’s geology.
Passage V (Questions 29-33)
Topic and Scope: Nicholas the Unlucky (not Nicholas II himself) and Bark’s
claim that “Nicholas II presided over, but didn’t contributeto, the fall of Czarist
Russia.


Paragraph 1 contemporary Americans care more about relating to one another
than about making good reasoned judgments. Bark’s book represents this
“compassion craze”.
Paragraph 2 contrasts Bark’s contention with the prevalent view of Nicholas.
Paragraph 3 reviews Bark’s account—undisputed by the author—of conditions in
Russia in Nicholas’s time.
Paragraph 4 an extended quotation of Bark, described as “confused and
confusing.”
Paragraph 5 Bark’s discussion of Count Pobedonostsev.
Paragraph 6 rates Nicholas the Unlucky low, “reality avenges itself.”
29.
B
Read above and below the line reference. The relevant lines are: “To the
contrary, turbulent times are perfect for redoubling the faith of ages; the first
reaction to discomforting ideas is hatred. The first sentence conveys Bark’s idea
that in times of turmoil leaders re-invest in traditional values. To illustrate this

point, Bark uses Woodrow Wilson. Since history has “smiled” on Wilson—who is
“stalwart;” he stood the course—we can infer that his re-investment was
successful. Choice (A) is a Distortion—it goes too far. Whether Bark endorses
the trend is unknown. What’s more, this choice leaves too much
unacknowledged; it does not, for example, recognize the implied comparison of
Nicholas to Wilson. (C) is FUD. Bark, not the author, believes this. And leaders
re-invest in the faith of ages, not in reform. (D) is Outside the Scope. We have no
knowledge of the author’s view on this point.
30.
A
The author contrasts Nicholas’s confrontation with modernity with that of the
Hohenzollerns, so the author must believe that the two cases are comparable.
(B) is FUD. The reference to the Hohenzollerns is at the end of paragraph 6,
whereas the reference to “the inalienable Russian truth” appears in paragraph 5.
Nothing links the two references. (C) is a Distortion. True, the author seems to
treat modernity, Westernness, and Europeanness synonymously, but this is in
paragraph 3; it has no bearing on the discussion of the Hohenzollerns. (D) is a
Distortion. The author implies that Nicholas should have modernized, but not
using “the same policy reforms” as those in other countries. What’s additionally
suspect about this choice is the mention of Japan and Prussia, countries clearly
outside the scope of the question stem.
31.
D
Choices (A) and (B) view the author’s argument in the last paragraph as weak.
Yet the argument is clearly stated and supported with persuasive illustrations. (C)
is a Distortion. Merely asserting that reality avenges itself would not undermine
anything: arguments are undermined by facts (or by other arguments), not by
isolated assertions. The claim that reality avenges itself is part of the author’s
overall point of view; it cannot, by itself, undo an argument. (D) correctly reports
a significant, legitimate reason why the author’s argument is strong.

32.
B
Choice (A) is a Distortion. According to the second paragraph, “Bark concedes
that Nicholas was a poor leader.” (B) aligns neatly with the claims of paragraph 2,
“the prevalent view of Nicholas.” (C) is FUD; it might initially hold some appeal,
because the reference in the question stem to workers and strikes might get us
thinking of economics—the topic to which the reference to 1860 is connected in
paragraph 3. But nothing in the question stem would bear on (e.g.: contradict) the
reference to 1860. (D) is a Distortion. The episode might lend some support to,
but certainly would not by itself confirm, Bark’s view that czarism was doomed.
33.
D
(D) raises two considerations that run counter to what we know about the
compassion craze. First, we know from paragraph 1 that the compassion craze is
“barely a decade old,” but according to this choice, Nicholas the Unlucky was
written several decades ago. Second, the compassion craze is a reflection of
“American compassion,” but this choice gives Bark “very little exposure to
American cultural values.” The combined effect of these two considerations is to
cast doubt on the idea that Bark’s book exemplifies the compassion craze.
Choice (A) is Outside the Scope. The biography at issue is that of Nicholas; that
Pobedonostsev comes off poorly is immaterial. Even if we “regard as unflattering”
the depiction of Pobedonostsev, we could easily still believe that “the
compassion craze has swept up biography.” (B) is Outside the Scope. The claim
in this choice is completely consistent with the author’s assertion about the
compassion craze. This choice says little more than that biographers are
sincere—but so what? (C) is Outside the Scope. Like the previous choice, this
one comes down to the idea of sincerity.
Passage VI (Questions 34-39)

Topic and Scope: Historico-deductivist charges against positivism and the
positivist defense in the scientific study of international relations.
Paragraph 1 gets right into the historico-deductivist critique: positivists don’t
seem to recognize that objectivity is impossible because researchers bring bias
to their work, and because “cloudy” activity in the international realm lacks the
“clock-like” precision of laboratory activity.
Paragraph 2 provides an example.
Paragraph 3 swings over to arguments in defense of positivism. Most positivists
aren’t as extreme as historico-deductivists like Dougherty (“clocks and…clouds”
in paragraph one) make them out to be.
Paragraph 4 reports that historico-deductivists also produce value-driven
research findings.
Paragraph 5 says positivism can get us to surprising (“counterintuitive”) truths.
34.
A
The author depictis a posteriori overdetermination as an obstacle to the
production of nomothetic statements (paragraph 2). Statement I must therefore
be correct; eliminate choices (B) and (D). Statement II reflects a


misunderstanding of overdetermination, which involves causes, not effects.
Eliminate choice (C). Finally, quickly confirm the untruth of statement III. Since
we have no reason to believe that historico-deductivism is somehow exempt from
the problem of overdetermination, we cannot infer that, because of
overdetermination, historico-deductivism is better suited than positivism to the
study of world politics.
35.
B
Begin by reading around the reference: The second sentence (“We needn’t grasp
at the torch with eyes closed, fearing to be blinded.”) is a repetition of the first, in

a clearer metaphor. “Apodictic findings” in the first sentence corresponds to the
torch in the second. So the answer must be the choice that comes closest in
meaning to “apodictic findings, ” which seem to represent the ideal sort of results
sought after by international relations scholars. No one would seek out
propensity to error (A). And political phenomena and methodological
commitments in (C) and (D), respectively, can really neither be sought nor
avoided. But (B), nomothetic, or lawlike, generalizations are an ideal. (Apodictic
means incontestably true; logically doubtless.)
36.
D
Nomothetic statements are “rarely if ever possible” in the study of international
relations, because “too many [causes] can be determined.” In other words, for
historico-deductivists, there seems to be some basic incompatibility between
multiple causality and the production of nomothetic statements. Choice (D)
encapsulates this reasoning. (A) is FUD. Historico-deductivists probably believe
that positivists as such cannot fully account for the cause(s) of World War I. But
historico-deductivist arguments about overdetermination do not rest on this
specific assumption about the war. Note that the reference to the war is only
illustrative—an instance of the difficulties of positivism. (B) is a Distortion. The
historico-deductivists doubt complex social events successfully studied through
the scientific method—not that they cannot be studied at all. Choice (C) is a
FUD. First, the passage doesn’t particularly characterize verifiability or
replicability, so we have no basis for believing that the latter is somehow more of
an impediment than the former. Second, the scope of the question stem is a
posteriori overdetermination, which has to do with discerning the cause(s) of
events, not with the verifiability or replicability of research findings.
37.
C
Dougherty seems to believe that positivists would try to take a “cloudy” subject
such as “the nature of reciprocity” and impose on it “clocklike” scientific analysis.

Choices (A) and (B) can quickly be eliminated, on two grounds. First, from the
passage we know nothing of the precepts of historico-deductivism; its tenets are
never stated and only very obliquely implied. So we have no real basis for
making judgments about historico-deductivist studies. Second, Dougherty is
almost surely a historico-deductivist. Since the “clocks and…clouds” remark was
a criticism, it’s implausible that Dougherty was criticizing his own research


school. (D) is Outside the Scope, unrelated to the debate between positivists
and historico-deductivists about the study of international relations.
38.
C
Begin by identifying Williams’s underlying principle: that the fact that some ideal
(whatever “apodictic findings” are, we can tell that they’re desirable) may be
unachievable should not deter us from trying to “come as close as possible” to it.
The principle underlying choice (C) is almost identical to the one on which
Williams’s rule rests. The principle of (A) seems to be that a creator’s opinion of
his or her work is the highest standard by which to judge that work. The principle
of (B) seems to be that there are many different, coequal kinds of intelligence.
And the principle of (D) seems to be that a person should be more influenced by
the potential dangers associated with an activity than with the desirability of that
activity.
39.
B
Here’s an example of the sort of question we hope for when we take on a
passage as challenging as this one. What can “reasonably be inferred?” The
style of the passage is academic—a consideration that rules out choice (D) (and
probably (C)). The passage is about the scholarly study, not the actual conduct,
of international relations—a consideration that rules out (C). Finally, while
historical subjects appear in the passage, they do so only to illustrate arguments

put forth by international relations scholars—a consideration that rules out (A).
Passage VII (Questions 40-47)
Topic and Scope: Attempts to use quality control for administrative reform of
welfare, evaluation of its effects and effectiveness
Paragraph 1 introduces the problems of welfare during the Nixon administration
and the difficulty in achieving reform through legislation.
Paragraph 2 introduces and defines the term performance monitoring or quality
control.
Paragraph 3 begins discussion of the supposed purpose of quality control as well
as its actual effects upon the welfare system. The latent political function of
quality control is mentioned, as are the improper penalties imposed on state
agencies and the unreasonable administrative practices that led to denial of
welfare for qualified applicants.
Paragraph 4 continues the discussion of the negative consequences of quality
control by introducing the issue of bias in the welfare delivery process, which
again had a detrimental impact on potential welfare recipients.
Paragraph 5 develops a discussion of the contradictory nature of the theory and
practice of quality control, and concludes with a subtle condemnation of the
federal government’s attempt to use performance measures for resolving the
fiscal troubles of welfare.
40.

A


The second sentence of paragraph 1 declares that Nixon’s administration “was
unable to secure a legislative majority for comprehensive welfare reform,” which
is neatly paraphrased in choice (A). (B) is half-right and half-wrong in relation to
the first sentence of the paragraph, since no mention is made of federal support
in particular. (C) is completely outside the scope. (D) is a Faulty Use of Detail of

the discussion in paragraph 1 about the presidential administration’s attempts to
enact welfare reform, for reform efforts were not focused solely on decreasing
the caseload but rather on general reform of the entire system.
41.
C
Paragraph 2 presents and discusses the negative consequences of the
performance monitoring instituted by the OMB and the HEW, and choices (A),
(B), and (D) are paraphrases of several sentences in this paragraph. Only the
effect mentioned in (C) cannot be found in the passage.
42.
B
The next to last sentence of paragraph 5 suggests that the author of the passage
would prefer that states maintain some autonomy from the federal government,
so that federal authorities cannot “indirectly influence state administrative
practices” or “encroach[ ] on areas of nominal state authority.” Choice (A)
contradicts the author’s argument in paragraphs 3 and 4 that administrative
reforms led to unreasonable demands on many welfare recipients. (C) is outside
the scope since the author never makes any recommendation about the best
solution for welfare reform, and instead focuses on the problems of one particular
attempt at reform. (D) contradicts the statement in Paragraph 4 that “quality
control appears to have initiated a process of effective disentitlement.”
43.
D
Paragraph 3 introduces the negative consequences of quality control or
performance monitoring, and the sentence with the quoted phrase provides one
reason for its ineffectiveness, as supported by the example given in the following
sentence. Choice (A) is FUD of the final sentence of the paragraph; (B) is a
Distortion of the first few sentences of the paragraph; and (C) is FUD of the
second sentence of the paragraph. Remember that question stems with phrases
like “in order to” are asking you to determine the function of a particular sentence

or idea, so other details or ideas mentioned in the paragraph may not be directly
related to the particular idea in the question. Both (A) and (C) are prime
examples of exactly this type of FUD.
44.
B
The final sentences of paragraphs 3 and 4 support choice (B), stating that some
qualified applicants were denied welfare due to overly stringent procedural
guidelines, and that worker demands on applicants could be unreasonable to the
point of harassment. (A) is opposite from the correct answer choice, and (C) is
contradicted by the opening sentences of paragraph 3, which declare that quality
control “penalized states only for overpayments and payments made to ineligible
individuals.” (D) is directly contradicted by the statement towards the end of


paragraph 4 that “quality control ironically eroded the government accountability
that it was ostensibly intended to guarantee.”
45.
B
The ostensible purpose of quality control was to achieve fiscal accountability. As
it turned out, HEW (the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare) used it to
penalize states only for overpayments (B) and payments made to ineligible
individuals, and not to hold states responsible for unreasonable delays in the
welfare process (A)—see the middle of paragraph 3. HEW used quality control to
withhold federal reimbursements for state welfare payments it deemed improper,
and the passage implies that this practice led to the tightening, not the easing, of
rules for federal reimbursement (C). Quality control was a way to curb the
provision of welfare administratively—not legislatively—and no official changes
were made in the actual rules for welfare eligibility (D).
46.
D

In paragraph 3, the author states that quality control penalized states only for
overpayments and payments made to ineligible individuals, and not for
underpayments, erroneous denials, unreasonable delays, etc. The tone here, as
elsewhere, is critical. Thus, it is reasonable to infer that the author would support
more evenhanded enforcement of accountability as a way to improve the welfare
system, so choice (D) is correct. Decreasing the number of welfare applications
is also one of the adverse effects of quality control that the author would wish to
reverse (A). The author never implies that the quality of the caseworkers was at
fault for practices that arose after the implementation of quality control—the
caseworkers were just conforming to standards which made them accountable
only for errors of liberality, not of stringency, so (B) would not really make a
difference. Out-of-control spending on welfare was a big reason for the quality
control program, and increases in that spending would not eliminate the negative
effects inherent in the quality control program itself, so (C) can be rejected.
Passage VIII (Questions 47-53)
Topic and Scope: the formation of hydrocarbon reserves and how they can be
located
Paragraph 1 how hydrocarbon reserves are formed
Paragraph 2 the two types of “trap” in which hydrocarbon reserves form
Paragraph 3 using seismology to find stratigraphic traps, and some problems in
the method.
Paragraph 4 recent improvements and the future
47.
D
Every paragraph deals with choice (D), which constitutes the topic and scope of
the passage. (A) is FUD; this is addressed only in the first half of the passage.
(B) may be tempting, but look back at the passage: seismologists are discussed
only in the second half. You might miss this fact, since seismology is the subject

of the part of the passage you just finished reading; this is why taking a moment
to look back over the whole passage before tackling the questions can pay off.
(C) is a detail discussed only in paragraph 2.
48.
B
Answering this question simply involves identifying the right sentence in the
passage—it is an explicit detail. The last sentence of paragraph 4 contains many
of the words of the question stem; look there for your answer. It says “the
density contrasts … are often very small”—that is, “there is little density contrast”.
Choice (A) is a detail from discussion of how resolution can be improved—a
different but related matter. (C) and (D) relate to the primary limitation on seismic
method mentioned earlier in that paragraph.
49.
C
Again, the answer is found principally just by locating the relevant sentence. The
question directs you to the third sentence of paragraph 2. When a sentence
begins with the words “For example”, the immediately preceding sentence or
sentences will explain what this is an example of: in this case, it’s simply an
example (or “illustration”) of how stratigraphic traps are formed by sediments.
Choice (A) is a Distortion of this purpose. (B) is an additional detail mentioned in
giving this example, but not the author’s purpose. (D) relates to the information
developed later in the passage, not here.
50.
C
Since not all reservoirs have a “stratigraphic seal” (because most known
reserves are in structural traps, according to the end of paragraph 2), choice (C)
can be easily eliminated as a necessity. If you were in any doubt or failed to pick
up on this important distinction made between “structural” and “stratigraphic”
reservoirs, you can still eliminate the other choices. In the first paragraph, we are
told that the hydrocarbons will be lost “unless they encounter impermeable rocks”

and that they can be extracted “if the rock within which they are trapped is highly
permeable”—so (A) and (D) are needed. (B) is only very tangentially referred to
(“after being formed deep within the earth”), but clearly necessary.
51.
D
Where are “carbonate reservoirs” mentioned? At the beginning of paragraph 4,
we are told the most common stratigraphic traps “with the possible exception of
carbonate reservoirs” are in sandstone. So carbonate reservoirs are
stratigraphic traps that may be more common than those in sandstone. We are
then told that the sandstone traps are “much thinner than a seismic wavelet.” If
that were also true of the carbonate reservoirs, they would be included as
examples of the problem being discussed, rather than cited as possible
exceptions. So it is implicit that they are thicker than a seismic wavelet. The
wrong choices are all irrelevant to this discussion. Answering this inference
question requires carefully focussing on only the relevant sentences.
52.

A


The author tells us that seismology is the “primary means of exploring for oil”
(paragraph 3) and that it is not a perfect tool—with limitations that affect the
ability to detect some of the “most common stratigraphic traps” (paragraph 4), but
“recent developments” give promise of improvement (paragraph 5). This
parallels choice (A) closely. (B) is too extreme: if it were intrinsically flawed,
there wouldn’t be any point in pursuing it. (C) paints too rosy a picture. (D) is a
Distortion: the author doesn’t contrast the “theoretical” and “practical”
applications of seismology.
53.
B

Again, the question requires that you focus closely on the relevant language in
the passage. The author says that “the primary limitation of the seismic method
… is resolution” and that resolution is related to the seismic wavelet being thinner
than the features you are searching for. When you must identify how the author
would want to improve the situation, this kind of evidence of the author’s
emphasis is helpful. Anything that reduces the length of the seismic wavelets
addresses what the author considers the most important problem—that’s choice
(B). The wrong choices relate to less important aspects of improving seismic
research which are discussed.
Passage IX (Questions 54-60)
Topic and Scope: The three social functions of popular music
Paragraph 1 merely introduces the topic
Paragraph 2 the first two functions, creation of identity and management of
feelings
Paragraph 3 the third function, organizing time, and its particular applicability to
the young.
54.
D
The author states that there are three functions of popular music, then fills in
some detail and description for each—a simple structure. Wrong choices (A) and
(C) focus on details in the passage. (B) is Outside the Scope; the author presents
his or her own theory without any others for contrast.
55.
C
Classical music is never mentioned in the passage, but the author makes several
statements about music in general, including the statement in the second
sentence of paragraph 3, that “one of the effects of all music…is to focus our
attention on the feeling of time.” Choice (A) is a detail specific to popular music,
mentioned in paragraph 2 (where music is compared to sport). (B) is also from
the second paragraph, and relates only to “popular love songs”. (D) applies only

to popular music, and is discussed in the third paragraph.
56.

C


Choices (A) and (B) are FUD, traps for those who read too quickly; banality,
embarrassment, and incoherence are mentioned as characteristic of our own
declarations of love, for which popular love songs provide an antidote. Choice
(D) is Opposite; the author expressly states his or her respect for the love songs
as “important because they give shape and voice to emotions” (C) in the middle
of paragraph 2.
57.
A
In discussing popular music’s ability to create a sense of community and
collective pride, the author adds the reference to sport as a parallel aspect of
popular culture. (B) is the opposite of this; the two are parallel, not contrasted.
(C) and (D) are Outside the Scope and irrelevant.
58.
B
The bulk of the last paragraph is devoted to how music’s ability to “organize our
sense of time” is particularly relevant to youth. Choice (A) goes too far; the
author addresses only a small part of the “experience of youth” in the paragraph.
(C) is way Outside the Scope. And (D) also goes beyond the scope of the
paragraph; no analysis is offered of the relationship between music and time—it
is simply asserted.
59.
D
To answer the question, locate the relevant text and focus on exactly what is
stated there, excluding details from other sections of the passage. Popular

music and its contribution to our sense of identity is discussed in the first half of
paragraph 2. Choice (A) is FUD; differences between the young and old are
mentioned only in the last paragraph. (B) is contradicted in the discussion of
“popular love songs” as providing language different from our everyday
language. (D) is a detail from the discussion of popular music’s function “in the
management of feelings” in the second half of paragraph 2.
60.
D
Again, first locate the relevant text, then look for an answer consistent with the
relevant details, rather than details from other parts of the passage. The
question addresses the third function, discussed in the last paragraph. Youth,
the author says, “is experienced…as an intense presence.” Choice (D) would
contradict this, and weaken the author’s argument. (A) and (B) would support
the author’s statements that for youth moments have “nostalgia coded into them”
and that youths experience “impatience for time to pass and a regret that it is
doing so”. The attitude of older people toward popular music (C) is irrelevant to
this author’s view of how youth experience it.