Introduction to management 13th schemerhorn bachrach chapter 16

John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.

16

Daniel G. Bachrach

Introduction to Management
th
13 edition

Chapter 16
Motivation Theory and Practice


Planning Ahead —Key Takeaways
 Explain theories of how individual needs motivate behavior.
 Identify the influences of expectancy, equity, goal-setting, and self-efficacy
processes on motivation.

 Discuss the roles reinforcement principles and strategies play in motivation.
 Explain how job designs and alternative work schedules influence motivation.

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Chapter 16 Outline

1. Individual Needs and Motivation
a)

Hierarchy of needs theory

b)

ERG theory

c)

Two-factor theory

d)

Acquired needs theory

2. Process Theories of Motivation
a)

Equity theory

b)

Expectancy theory

c)

Goal-setting theory

d)

Self-efficacy theory

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Chapter 16 Outline

3. Reinforcement Theory
a)

Reinforcement strategies

b)

Positive reinforcement

c)

Punishment

4. Motivation and Job Design
a)

Job simplification

b)

Job enrichment

c)

Alternative work schedules

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Individual Needs and Motivation

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level,
direction, and persistence of effort expended at work

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Individual Needs and Motivation
Needs



Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual



Explain workplace behavior and attitudes



Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior



Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory



Developed by Abraham Maslow



Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes



Lower-order needs:
 Physiological, safety, and social needs
 Desires for physical and social well being



Higher-order needs:
 Esteem and self-actualization needs
 Desire for psychological growth and development

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

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Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory



Deficit principle
 A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior



Progression principle
 A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is
satisfied

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory



Developed by Clayton Alderfer



Three need levels

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory



Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time



Frustration-regression principle
 An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is
frustrated

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
Two-factor theory



Developed by Frederick Herzberg



Hygiene factors:
 Elements of the job context
 Sources of job dissatisfaction



Satisfier factors:
 Elements of the job content
 Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory

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Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory



Developed by David McClelland



People acquire needs through their life experiences



Needs that are acquired:

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory



Need for Achievement (nAch)
 Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master
complex tasks



People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
 Involves individual responsibility for results
 Involves achievable but challenging goals
 Provides feedback on performance

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory



Need for Power (nPower)
 Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for
other people

 Personal power versus social power



People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
 Involves control over other persons
 Has an impact on people and events
 Brings public recognition and attention

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory



Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons



People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
 Involves interpersonal relationships
 Provides for companionship

 Brings social approval

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Process Theories of Motivation

 Process theories of motivation …


How people make choices to work hard or not



Choices are based on:
 Individual preferences
 Available rewards
 Possible work outcomes

 Types of process theories:


Equity theory



Expectancy theory



Goal-setting theory

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory



Developed by J. Stacy Adams



When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to
others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of
equity to the situation
 Perceived inequity
 Perceived equity

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Figure 16.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison

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Process Theories of Motivation
Equity and social comparison



People compare their ratio of outcomes-to-inputs to the outcomes-to-inputs
ratio of another (a referent)

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Process Theories of Motivation

–

Over-reward inequity (positive inequity) occurs when an individual
perceives that rewards received are more than what is fair for work
inputs

–

Under-reward inequity (negative inequity) occurs when an individual
perceives that rewards received are less than what is fair for work inputs

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory



People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing:
 Work inputs
 Rewards received
 Referent’s inputs or outcomes
 Comparison points
 Situation

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of equity theory—



Underpaid people experience anger



Overpaid people experience guilt



Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes



Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated



Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace

 Gender equity
 Comparable worth

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Process Theories of Motivation
 Expectancy theory


Developed by Victor Vroom



Key expectancy theory variables:
 Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance
 Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
 Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.