SparkCharts research style usage APA MLA

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This chart is a basic guide to the two most commonly used
references on format of research papers and other forms of
academic writing:
. Americon Psychologicol Associotion IAPAI style
. Modern Longuoge Associotion (MLAI style
This chart is only a summary and does not provide a comprehensive guide to all APA or MLA writing rules. Complete
guidelines can be found only in the two associations' official
style handbooks:
. Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (currently in 5th edition)
. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (currently
in 6th edition)
Some instructors and editors prefer that their students and
writers follow other style manuals, such as The Chicago
Manual of Style or Strunk and White's The Elements of Style.
Always be sure to follow your instructor or editor's specific
guidelines. lf you're unsure about which rules to use, ask for
clarification.

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APA style is the standard used for writing in the social sciences, psychology, sociology, criminology, health sciences,
business, economics, and education.
MLA style is the standard used for writing in the humanities
(l iteratu re, history, phi losophy, art, etc.).
APA and MLA style rules are similar in many ways, but there
are a number of specific differences that reflect the different

needs of scientific research vs. research in the humanities.
For example:
r ln the sciences, scholars place emphasis on current, timely research. Therefore, APA rules require that all citations
include not only the author but also the date of the cited
work. This rule applies both to in-text citations and to citations on the final "References" page.
. ln the humanities, scholars place emphasis on the author
and the structure and quality of the argument. Therefore,
MLA rules for in-text citations emphasize the author
Dates of cited works are listed only on the final "Works
Cited" page.
ln all cases, follow the guidelines thot you've been given.

I. FORMATTING THE MANUSCRIPT
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Poper ond morgins: Use standard 8.5"x11" paper with margins of at least 1" on all sides.
Foni: Preferred font is 12-point Times Roman, although Courier also is acceptable
Spocing: Double-space every line, including references.
Numbering: Number all pages starting with the title page, except pages containing art or figures. Place numbers in the upper right-hand corner. Put:the first few words of the title to the
left of the page number on every page.
Running heod: Abbreviated title printed at the top of each page of the manuscript. The running head should be 50 characters maximum, including spaces and punctuation, and should
appear in all capital letters on the upper left-hand corner of the title page.
Order of sections: Put pages in the following order, each starting on a separate pager Title
page (p. 1); Abstract (p. 2);Main text (starting on p.3), References, Appendixes, Author note,
Footnotes, Tables, Figure captions, Figures.

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Regardless of the speciflc style rules you're following, universal techniques for clear and effective writing always appty:
Always write cleorly ond simply. Don't adorn your writing
unnecessarily in an attempt to sound more scholarly.
Make sure each paragraph begins with a topic sentence

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that develops your argument. Develop only one specific
component of your argument in each paragraph.
Use tronsitionol words ond phroses to guide your reader
through the flow of your argument. Sudden, unintroduced

leaps in your reasoning disorient your readerr Vsry sentence lengfh ond stnrture Too many short sentences make your writing choppy, whereas too many long
sentences make your writing tedious and hard to follow.
. Check spelling ond grommor carefully. Enors distract
your reader and make your writing less effective.
Make sure that you do not plogiorize in any way. Plagiarism,
even if unintentional, is a serious offense that immediately
damages your credibility. Be sure to keep track of all your
sources carefully and cite them using the guidelines below

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Specific content of the abstract will vary depending on the nature of your paper:
. Reseorch report: Abstract should include the research topic, characteristics of participants, experimental method, results (including significance levels), and conclusions.
Theoreticol orticle or review: Abstract should include the topic, organizlng thesis" sources,
and conclusions.
Cose study: Abstract should include the individual or organization under study, the problem addressed, and the questions raised.
Methodologicol poper: Abstract should include the type of method used, its main features, the scope of its applications, and its reliability.

Effects of Contrast

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Tifle: Concise (10-12 words) and self-explanatory. Avoid redundancies like 'An Analysis of . "
or'An lnvestigation of . . . ." The title should appear in upper- and lower-case letters on the title
page, centered and on the top half of the page lf it runs longer than one line, double-space it.
Authors: Listed in order of contribution, after the title, centered, and double-spaced. lnclude
first name, middle initial(s), and last name. Separate any suffixes (e g, Jr. or lll) from the last

name with only a space, not a comma.
Affiliotion: Name of the institution where the research was conducted. lnclude two affiliations
only if both institutions contributed financially to the study; never include more than two. lf
the affiliation is not a university or college, include a city or state. For affiliations outside the
United States, include the city, state or province, and country.
Running heod: An abbreviated title (50 characters or less) in all caps, flush left, introduced
by the words "Running head:" at the top of the title page but below the page number

Beginwiththemostimportantinformationbutdonotrepeatthepapertitle.
or
in the paper itself' State onl-v tbur
Include only information that appears

flveofthemostimportantpoints,theories,and/orfindings.Citeprer-tous
terms'
Define all abbreYiations and special
research relevant to your study
Do not exceed 120 *-ords
except for units of measurement'

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aegins on the page following the abstract (p. 3). The paper title should appear at the top of
the page, centered. The text of the introduction should appear one double space below tie
paper's title No "lntroduction" label is necessary.
Give the appropriate bockground and context for your study by presenting the probler:n,
explaining its importance, and recognizing previous works that are relevant to your study.

Effects of Contrast

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ON REACTION TIME
Running head: EFFECTS OF CONTRAST

State the specific purpose of your study. lnclude a formal statement of your h)?ottle{* and a
description of the voriobles tested (why they were chosen, how they were manipufaied, lrhat
results you expected them to yield and why)

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EffectsofContrastonReactionTimeinaSemanticCategorizationTa-
Thetextofthepaperstartshere'inanindented(0.5''orfir.etoSe\-en
spaces),

A clear, precise summary of the article. The abstract should be only one block paragraph

in

length (with no indentations) and should not exceed 120 words.
Place the abstract on the page following the title page (p. 2), with the title 'Abstract" centered
at the top of the page.
aegin with the most importont informotion but do not repeat the paper title
lnclude only information that appears in the paper itself State only four or five of the most
important points, theories, and/or findings.
Cite previous research relevant to your study.
Define all obbreviotions and speciol terms, except for units of measurement

paragraph that provides atr lntru-rleft-justified, and double-spaced

ductiontothesubjectofthepaperTheintroductionshouldbeginonedoubie
space

label is necessary'
below the paper's title' No "Introduction"

The introduction continues here

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One
lmmediately follows the introduction The heading, "Method," should be centered and continuous with the preceding section (do not begin a new page)
lnclude enough details so that a reader can replicate your study but not so many details that
the reader gets bogged down in minutiae lf there are any detailed but necessary descriptions, put them in the nppendix
Divide the Method section into three continuous subsections labeled "Participants,"
"Materials," and "Procedure." The titles for these subheadings should be in italics, flush left,
and continuous with the preceding text:
l. Porticiponts (or Subiects): Describe the selection process for subjects, the total number
of subjects chosen, and the number in each subgroup or sample
* lf the subjects are humon, describe basic demographic characteristics, including age,
sex, racelethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other relevant variables
" lf the subjects are onimols, describe genus, species, subspecies identification, sex, age,
weight, physiological condition, and details of raising and handling
2. Moteriols (or Apporotusl: Describe specialized equipment by giving the model number
and the name and location of the commercial supplier
3. Procedure: lnclude a step-by-step summary of the research or experiment Paraphrase all
instructions unless the details are crucial to the experiment oescribe counterbalancing,
randomization and other aspects of experimental design lf you used a language other than
English to gather information, specify the method of translation used, if any
lf you are reporting the results of multiple experiments:
u Use separate Methods and Results sections for each experiment
* Use centered headings before the Methods section of each experiment: e g, Experiment 1,
Experiment2, eIc

iitle "Refererces ce-:e-:: a: --e::: :-:-s page
oouble-space all references and use hangirg ride::s se: ''-s: -3 :''='='e^ce flush left and
indent subsequent lines)
(For details on formatting, see Quoting. C:i.r':g a:c Rc'e-:^: -1 33 i,,,
Begins on a new page, with the

Method

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In the flrst paragraph, state yoL.ir cecari-3::: z=-- z::-s =::-=:
ln the second paragraph, state ary cra^ges - ,, a-- -.- =--:- s
ln the third paragraph. acknor',iledge ai1'g-::-s z^a
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the study or revising the paoer Aiso -e -: C- Z-: sl:: : a'a--=..'
of interest Do not acknor,lledge jout?e' ec:c-s -e. e,,,:-s :' ::-:-s =
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chosen, and the number in each subgroup

ln general, use words for numbers below 10
However, always use numerals foi-:

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a:c numerols for numbers

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Numbers below 10 when grouped y,,itl n-:le 's at3,: 'l r _:
Numbers that precede units of rneasure-e--. 5 c:t:
Numbers in a list of four or more nuEbers. 3 i.c=:::. :
=-=:- :Statistical or mathematical functions pe:cei:ages ':::s :-:

those interr-ieired
. Numbers that represent time, rnoney, scctes c: e sc: e :- . Names of books or tables: Chapter 4. Tab,e Alwoys use words insteod of numerols to begin o sentence: -T-,';=--,-=::-a^s:er-ealed ."
Put a zero before the decimal point in a fraciro: ui ess :^e ''z:::- -e ,e: a.^ te gieater than
one (e g , a correlation or probabiliiyl. s -E nir _r= --q
Two decimal places are usually enough
Make plurals of numerals by adding an s viiinoli a: atcs:-al^s :rri.s

model number and the
Describe specialized equipment by giving the
name and location of the commercial supplier

Procedure
Paraphrase all
Include a step-by-step summary of the experiment
the experlment
instructions unless the details are crucial to

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Lowercose Greek letters are used for popuiatior sla.:si cs
Itolicized Lotin letlers are used for most sarnpie s.al s:ic,<
ltolicize all statistical symbols except for vector symbois ',,,"r c- s-c; c le:yled in bold, and
Greek letters, subscripts, and superscripts, vrlhich shouic .e,nz'?. : itse stardard font

Use an uppercase italicized N for the total nurnber of pai't c,pa-is JSe a o',,/e:case italicized
n for subsets of participants. -\:r8o, tr=15
Use parentheses to identify degrees of freedorn and sarnpie size iir a chi-square test
Space and punctuate equations and formulas as you wouid regular words:
In the equation 3l( - U = z. we see that
Put simple equotions in the text
Set off complicoted equoiions from the text with two double spaces above and below, numbered in the right-hand margin with an Arabic numeral in parentheses
Layer porentheses as follows: ( ) first, then [ ], and finally { }
When placing symbols next to a variable, prime marks come before subscripts, which (gener-

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ally) come before superscripts

Results

III. OUOTING, CITING, AND

REFERENCING

paragraph
you will want to start with an introductory
Semantic Categorization

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Materials

the Method section T1-pically'
The Results section immediately follows

First use

II. STATISTICS, MATH, AND MEASUREMENTS
Always use the metrlc systern lf tire o::g :a s:-c,, ,,,as
provide the original units fol!or,reC by -e:: c :c-,e's 3-s

and this is the end of the Method section

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Participants

lmmediately follows the Method section The heading, "Reslrlts," should be centered and continuous with the preceding section
Summarize the data and the statistical methods you used to analyze the data Review all relevant results, including those that contradict your hypothesis
Figures ond tobles: Use figures and tables only when they enhance your ability to communicate the results Do not include a figure or table without mentioning it in the text and describing briefly what it contains-remember, tables do not necessarily explain themselves (For
details on formatting, see Figures and Tables, other side )
Stotistics: (See Statistics, Math, and Measurements, right)

More !"hc^ "'

Aegins on a new page lf there are rnult!ole aore:c;ces
and so on lf there is only one appendix s:r-'c.v .2e :
lnclude in the appendix all informatior tna: ,,,c- c rg
in the main body of the paper ie g , .ists oi
re:a
code for a computer program.i

in the paper acceptance process
ln the fourth paragraph, lisi ihe co:taci 3c:s3- s

Effects of Contrast

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lmmediately follows the Resulis seciion l::he D sc-ss:- s :- e= ):- .z^ :onbine it with
results in a "Results and Discussion" ol'"Res;,:s::c C:^c -s:^s s3c:::
eegin with a direct statement of whether o:1c: i^e res-:s s-:t3-t -, --' .- g ral hypothesis
Compare your work with the work of oihers ii a::-c:- ::e
Comment on the importance of your findi"gs. ,','! s:^e s:-:_, -io--a^:? How can the
results be applied? What are the larger irncl:ca:rc^s c'rC-''-t -gs-

Fewer thon 40 words: lnclude in the text, surrounded by double quotation marks
40 words or more: Set off from the text in indented block form without quotation marks lf
the quotation contains multiple paragraphs, indent the start of each one 0 5"
To indicote errors in the original source, use sic, italicized and bracketed: ". . . biolgical [sic]"
To indicote chonges in the original source:

ata

UseheadingswithintheResultssectiontoidentifydifferentSetSof

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data

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Use an ellipsis

to indicate omission Add a period if the omission comes between sentences

Use brackets to insert material

lf someone other than the original author has italicized words for emphasis, add the words
[italics added] in brackets after the words
Cite quotations in the following ways (depending on quote length and use of author name):
* Horner (rg6) found that "Children raised in stable tivo-parent families . . ." (p. +S8).
* He found that "Children raised . . . " (Horner, t967. p. 438).
* Horner (tg6i found the foliorving:
Children raised . . . lassuming quotation is 40 or more rvords long]. (p. +SB)
You may need to obtain copyright permission long quotations

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APA style uses the author-date format for in-text citations
All references cited in the text should also appear in the reference list (except for classical
works and personal communications)

Effects of

Contrast

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References

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. the photoeiectric effect (Einstein, r9o6)
Einstein's description of the photoelectric effect (rqo6)
In 19o6, Einstein published a paper on the photoelectric effect.

Cronin,ME(1999)ReactiontimeinorangutansSciencelssuesQuarterly,
18,24-38

t* five *ufh*rs
First use in a paper: Barrett, !!'aters, and Tang Ugg) found . . .
First use in a paragraph after already used in a paper: Barrett et al. (rgg:) found . .
Further uses within the same paragraph: Barrett et al. tound. . .
Within parentheses, use an ampersand: ... (Barrett. \Vaters, &Tang, LggT)

Greet,KT.(2004)Newstatisticalapproachestoreactiontimeresearch
New York: JYB Press

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Feriediecls

t&er* t*:cn five **91:*rs
. First use in o poper:

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* Zuckerman et al. (rgBZ) found. . .
Further uses within the some porogroph:
* Zuckerman et al. found . . .
lf two or more papers would have the some obbreviotion under APA rules (e g , Einstein,
Rush, and Oppenheimer, 1950, and Einstein, Bohr and Teller, 1950, both would abbreviate
to Einstein et al , 1950), provide as many names as are needed to distinguish between the

. Generolform:
* Connors, J. L. (tqgg). l)igestion in healthy infants.
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papers:

"

Einstein, Rush, et al. (rqSo) and Einstein, Bohr, et al. (rqSo) found . . .

*Jo *u?hor

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lnclude the title and date:
the book Pregnancy and Pouerty (tgZg)
For articles or book chapters, put the title in double quotation marks:
the study on health care ('America suffers," rgg7)
lf the writer is listed as 'Anonymolls," cite accordingly: (Anonymous, 1956)

Beaks
. Generol form:
* Norris, G. H., & Canting, L. L. (rg6S). Culture cnd class in Hungary. Bloomington,

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order:

studies suggest (Strickley, rgg7; see also Blake. TggS; NIasters, rg86)

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Houston, TX: Scribe Press.

. Author some os publisher:
* American Psychiatric A"ssociation.

(1994). Dtagnostic and stofisficcl manual of
mental disorders (+th ed.). \Arashington, DC: Author. (Use the word "Author" for

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ei*ssi*c€ w*rks

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Classical works, such as the gible and Greek and Roman texts, should be cited in the
text but do not need to be included in the reference list at the end of the paper
Translations of classical works should be noted: (Plato, trans. zoor) Translations also
should be included in the reference list
When citing specific sections of classical works, use line numbers, chapters, and so on
instead of page numbers, which typically apply only to a single edition
When citing a reprint of an older work, indicate both the date of the original publication
and the date of the reprint, separated by a slash: (Freud, t9otlt96t)

Farseigl*? e*effi*r{-$nismfi*s':e (such as email, letters, or conversations)
Cite in the text but do not include in the reference list: (J. NI. Hamilton, personal com-

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munication, December t7, zocl3)
{*':diree? r*fere*ees (works not referenced directly but discussed in a secondary source)
lf you wish to mention an article by Jones that you did not read directly but learned about
in a book by Adamson, cite as follows: Jones's study (as cited in Adamson, 1994)
lnclude the secondary source (in above example, Adamson) in the reference list

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Work* stii{ i* pres$
. Rather than cite a predicted publication date, indicate that the work is still in press:
(Horace, in press)

Crarnpton and Sons.
Edited:
* Crarvford, A. F., & Gregor, 'I. B. (Eds.). (rg8o). LTrban deueloprnent in ilmerica.
Los Angeies: Srnith-Folle;'.
Revised edition:
" Gonzalez, 1\I. Y. (rgg6). The neutron (Rev. ed). New York: Academic Press.

. Multiple editions:
u Gonzalez, M. Y. (tqgZ). The neutron (3rd. ed). New Yrlrk: Academic Press.
. Multivolume work:
* Lancashire, K. S. (zooo). Peer pressure in ctdolescent intet'action (\rols. 1-3).

{r*ss*lis€ings
. To cite two or more works published in a single year by the same authors, distinguish
between them in the text and in references by adding a letter to the year:
* Crowley et al., 1923a, r9z3b, rg21c
. lf two authors cited have the some lost nome, give their initials in all references:

* A. J. Einstein and Wilson (r9oS) and,J. C. Einstein and Hartley (rg6r) found . . .

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IN: Hashford Press.
No outhor or editor listed:

* Pregnancy and pouerty: The crists in .Atrorfh American cities. (rgZil.Chicago:

.
t&aitt,pie er*skc withi* €?:e scme *itetian
. To cite two or more works by the same author, list the author's name once, followed by
the dates of publication in chronological order:
as has been shorvn (Hewlett 1989, 1993, 1gg4)
. To cite different authors, separate the authors using semicolons and list them in the
order in which the works appear in the reference list:
serninai papers in physics (Einstein, 19o5a. r9o5b; Oppenheimer and Bohr,
L94o; Teller, 19S1)
. To separate a major citation from other citations, list the primary source first, followed by
a semicolon, then insert a "see also" before listing the remaining citations in alphabetical

Scientifi.c fuIothering, 74, 246z7B. (14 is the volume number, 246-278 are page numbers)
Two to six outhors:
" Linne)', ivl ts., & Palurer, G. (1987). Steroid use in prof'essional cycling. Sports
Medicine, Tz, Bg-tzg.
More thon six outhors:
* Resnick, L. K.. F.riedman, I{. R., Klein, \4'., Hennann, J. S., Ng, A., Zucker, M.,
et al. (rggz). The cognitive behavior of patients undergoing chemotherapv. Ihe
Journal of Cancer Sfrrdies, ZS, 645-787.

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publisher )
Non-English book:
* Galvin, E. G. (rqBB). Les.ieux d'enfants [Chiidren's games_1. Paris: Marceaux.
English tronslotion of non-English book:
u Galvin, E.G. (tggo). Children's gotnes (T.C.Thomas &Y. H. Serron, Trans.). Nerv
York: Academic Press. (Originai rvork published rgBB)
Encyclopedio or dictionory with outhor or editor lisled:
* Harris, T. F. (rgSS) Dictionary of geology (grd ed., Vols. z-3). Princeton, NJ: Dalton.
Encyclopedio or dictionory with no outhor or editor listed:
* Cro.fton's clictionctrg of collocluial English (4th ed.). (rqqS). Kansas City, MO:

Crofton Press.
ehap?ers *r *rfieies irz b**k*
. Generql form:
u Nguyen, C. F. (rqBS). Maritai communication. In E. R. Bailey & H. A. IVlcArthur
(Eds.), Essays on nrcrriage (pp.43-98). London: Sociological press.
. Two outhors, two editors:
u Clarke, E., &Anderson, B.(tgg}. Heart disease and sodium intake. In E. J. Yang and
M. V. Egan (Eds.), Cardiac an'est: Risk.factnrs (pp.roo-rz3). NewYork: Doone.
. ln o multivolume work:
* Piaget, F. (tqZB). Hypersensitivity in toddlers. In E. L Stern (Ed.), Deuelopmental
psychology: VoIs. t-z.Infancy to early childhood. Berlin: Deutsche Press.
. With different series ond volume editors:
* Roy, L. L. (rggg). Personality disorders. In E. H. Ford (Series Ed.) &,J. L. Durst (Vol.
Ed.), Child deuelopment: VoI. z. Socis.I clfsorders (znd ed., pp. 12-19). illiami: Moore.
. ln on encyclopedio:
* Hailey', T. G. (tgqo). Quantum mechanics.InThe neu, erTcAlopae.clia Britaruica
(Vol. 5, pp. 1oo-126). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Werks sf?li ire Fr€ss
o Do not list year, volume, or page numbers until the work is published
" Parr, A. (in press). Ihe testosterone effect. Journal of Gender and Sexual Studies.
Srt*6ne s*{Jrc*s

All works cited in the main text should be included in the references list and vice versa
(aside from exceptions mentioned above)
Start the reference list on a new page, with the title "References" centered at the top
Align the first line of each entry flush with the left margin of the page tndent each subsequent line of each entry 0.5" from the left margin (known as "hanging indent format")
List references in olphobeticol order
* lf there are multiple works by the same principal author, order alphabetically by the
second (or third, etc ) author
* lf there are multiple works by the same authors, order by date with earliest work first
* lf there are multiple works by the same authors in the same year, add lowercase letters
after the year (e g , 1991a, 1991b) to distinguish the works Then, alphabetize by title
* Works by anonymous authors should be alphabetized under author name 'Anonymolls "
* Works with no author should be alphabetized by title

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lnternet-only periodicol:
* Srnith, P., & Kay, L. S. (zoot, May B). Properties of aloe. Today's Medicine, t7,52-34.
Retrieved April t6, 2oot, from n/article/zoor_5/aloe.htm
Generol form for olher online documents:

* O'Neill, S. K., & Bror,vn, F. (zcloo). Geriatric health care tn Canadct. Retrieved
January 3, 2oo2, from http://wrvr,v.eldercares.org/health-care/canada.htm
ldentifY the lnternet location by using the appropriate address (e g, a uniform resource
locator (URL), file transfer protocol (FTP) address, telnet address, gopher address, etc )
Double-check to make sure that you spell the address correctly Keep in mind that some
types of lnternet addresses may be case-sensitive
Never insert a hyphen to break an lnternet address across lines lf an address does not
fit on one line, break it only after a slash or before a period
when citing a multi-page lnternet document, provide the title and URL of the starting or
home page

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