Human safety and risk management second edition

Human Safety and Risk Management
Second Edition


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Human Safety
 and

Risk Management
 Second Edition

A. Ian Glendon
Griffith University, Queensland, Australia

Sharon G. Clarke
Manchester Business School, University of manchester , UK

Eugene F. Mckenna
University of East London, UK


3090_Discl.fm Page 1 Tuesday, November 29, 2005 12:57 PM

Published in 2006 by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Glendon, A. Ian, 1945Human safety and risk management / A. Ian Glendon, Sharon G. Clarke, and Eugene McKenna.--2nd ed.
p. cm.
Originally published: London ; New York : Chapman & Hall, 1995.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3090-4 (alk. paper)
1. Psychology, Industrial. 2. Job Stress. 3. Quality of work life. 4. Employees--Health risk assessment.
5. Risk management. I. Clarke, Sharon, 1968- II. McKenna, Eugene F. III. Title.
HF5548.8.G568 2006

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Preface
Much has happened in the 10 years or so since the first edition of Human Safety and Risk
Management was published. New journals on risk and safety have appeared — for example,
Health, Risk & Society; Journal of Risk Research; Policy and Practice in Health and Safety; Risk,
Decision and Policy; Risk Management: An International Journal; and Transportation Research
Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. Longer established journals in the risk and safety
field have gone from strength to strength, including: Accident Analysis and Prevention, Journal
of Safety Research, Risk Analysis, Safety Science, and Work & Stress. The large amount of recent
research literature that has been generated in the risk and safety field is reflected in two
completely new chapters in this second edition. Over 56% of more than the 300 works
referenced in Chapter 2 have appeared since the first edition of this book was published,
while well over 70% of the 200 referenced works in the new chapter on safety culture have
appeared since the publication of the first edition. Nearly 500 references cited within the
book have appeared since 2000. In addition to including the new substantive chapters in
this edition (though it is inevitable that our attempts to access and include the considerable
volume of potential new material fall short in many areas), we have updated our text in
numerous ways and have reworked material from the earlier edition. In these endeavors,

we are delighted that Dr. Sharon Clarke joined the author team, adding her expertise and
knowledge to that of the authors of the first edition.
The greatly increased volume of relevant material has been accompanied by changes
in the way in which some concepts associated with risk and safety have been understood
and presented. Controversies that have developed since the first edition was published
include use of the term accident. While still in widespread public use, many authorities
and sources increasingly eschew this term as being value laden and potentially prejudging
blame through ascribing exclusive or prime personal agency at an event’s location by attribution of emotional content. Workplace accidents typically involve one, or occasionally
more, workers being injured as a result of encountering some energy force — for example,
gravity, pressure, and heat — often exacerbated by other factors. We consider a more objective referent to be injuries — an undesired outcome that is frequently the object of prevention
activity. Personal injuries can usefully be distinguished from incidents (a broader term that
could involve plant or equipment damage), disasters — which are large-scale and could
involve multiple fatalities, and near-hits (also called near-misses). The term accident has
similarly come under critical scrutiny in the road transport domain, where it is increasingly
being replaced by the more accurate and less emotive term crash. Wherever possible in
this edition, we adopt this terminology. Exceptions include occasions when we describe
the work of others whose use of the term accident cannot readily be reassigned.
This book’s orientation is primarily, though not exclusively, psychological. Understanding risk and safety issues inevitably involves many disciplines, as does their effective
management, and we acknowledge that an approach from any single discipline will be
inadequate in addressing the full gamut of relevant issues. Thus, in Chapter 2, we explore a

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wide range of approaches to risk, only some of which have their origins within psychology
and cognate fields. In subsequent chapters, individual differences, but also some of the
many ways in which human beings are alike, are explored within a risk and safety context.
Throughout the book we draw on a range of disciplines as appropriate, with the overriding
aim of increasing understanding of this important field of scientific study and professional
practice.

We have identified the core audience for this book by the generic term scientist practitioner, primarily, although not exclusively those who work in safety, risk, and related
fields. This term is used in the United States, Australia, and elsewhere to refer to those
who straddle the divide between research and practice, and whose orientation has been
considered as under threat within the broader organizational psychology domain, particularly within the United Kingdom (Anderson et al., 2001). Our reference to safety and
risk scientist practitioners throughout the book should be taken to imply that all those who
consider themselves to be, or who aspire to become, scientists or researchers in the broadest
sense, and those who have an interest in health, safety, risk, and related topics are also to
an extent practitioners — again in the broadest sense, including for example, the practice
of teaching and writing as well as other forms of practice, such as training and consultancy.
Similarly, practitioners in any field of health, safety and risk, in whatever form, should have
the option of basing their practice upon scientific findings, even if they themselves do not
consider themselves primarily to be scientists. To this extent, the term could encompass all
those who work in the health, safety, and risk field, in whatever guise. We occasionally use
an alternative synonym health and safety professional. One of our hopes is that the combination of scientific evidence, practical examples, and case studies presented in this book will
go some way toward bridging the practitioner–researcher divide described by Anderson
et al. (2001), at least within the safety and risk domain of organizational psychology.

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Acknowledgments
Ian Glendon expresses his deep appreciation of the enduring love and continuing support from his wife Mimi. He thanks his sons Oliver and Roland for their tolerance
in seeing slightly less of him than he would have liked during the production of this
book. He is also grateful to his Griffith colleagues, particularly Professor Peter Creed and
Dr. Glenda Andrews, for facilitating his study leave and teaching relief that were essential
for completing the book.
Sharon Clarke would like to thank her family, particularly husband Peter Axworthy,
and children Emily Rose and Sam, for their continual support throughout the writing of
this book.
Eugene McKenna appreciates the support of his children and coauthors. In particular

he would like to express his thanks to Tony Moore, senior editor at Taylor & Francis, who
played a major role initially by his enthusiastic support and decision to publish.
Our appreciation extends to our publishers and their staff at Taylor & Francis for their
continued patience and support.
We would also like to thank Dr. Alan Waring and Anders af Wåhlberg for reading and
commenting on draft sections of the book, and Courtney Jackson-Carroll for background
research. Very special thanks to Anthony Ho for his expertise in designing the book cover.

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About the Authors
Dr. Ian Glendon is associate professor in the School of Psychology, Griffith University,
Queensland, Australia. His research interests include driver behavior/driver stress,
OHS/risk management, and safety climate/culture. He has supervised over 20 research
higher degree students to completion and has over 100 refereed publications, including
three previous coauthored books. He has consulted for over 60 clients on OHS auditing, safety culture/climate analysis, accident/incident analysis, task analysis, and human
error/reliability analysis. He is a registered psychologist in Queensland, a chartered occupational psychologist (U.K.), a Chartered Fellow of the Institution of Occupational Safety
and Health, a member of several other professional bodies and president (2006–2010) of
the International Association of Applied Psychology Traffic and Transportation Psychology
Division.
Dr. Sharon Clarke is senior lecturer in organizational psychology with the Manchester
Business School, The University of Manchester, U.K. Her research interests are in health
and safety management, and safety culture and managing human risks. She has published
widely on these topics, including articles in the Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Safety Science, amongst others, and is a
regular presenter at international conferences. Her book, coauthored with professor Cary

L. Cooper, Managing the Risk of Workplace Stress: Health and Safety Hazards, was published
by Routledge in 2004. She is a member of the British Psychological Society, the American
Psychological Association, and the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
Dr. Eugene McKenna, professor Emeritus, University of East London, is a practicing
chartered psychologist, a fellow of the British Psychological Society, a Fellow of the Royal
Society of Medicine, and is on the visiting faculty of the Graduate School of Business,
University of Strathclyde. He is a member of the council of the National Conference of
University Professors — a body representing U.K. university professors. His academic and
consultancy interests cover organizational psychology and human resource management,
and he has a particular interest in training and developing managers. He has published
widely and is the author of Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour (Psychology
Press, 2006) and Human Resource Management — A Concise Analysis (coauthored with
Professor Nic Beech, Prentice Hall/Pearson Education, 2002).

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Glossary
AA
ABS
ACAS
ACSNI
ACTH
AET
AIDS
ALARA
ALARP

AS
ATP
AUD
AVM
AWA
AWS

Automobile Association (U.K.)
Advanced braking system
Advisory, Conciliation, and Arbitration Service (U.K.)
Advisory Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (U.K.)
Adrenocortico tropic hormone
Affective events theory
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
As low as reasonably achievable
As low as reasonably practicable
Australian Standard
Automatic train protection
Australian dollar
Air vibration monitor
Australian workplace agreement
Automatic warning system (for trains)

BACT
BBC
BBS
BRPM
BS
BSI
BSP

Best available control technology
British Broadcasting Corporation
Behavior-based safety
Basic risk perception model
British Standard
British Standards Institution
Behavioral safety process

CASA
CBA
CBI
CBT
CEO
CFIT
CFQ
CHD
CO2
COSHH
CRM
CST
CT

Civil Airline Safety Authority (Australia)
Cost benefit analysis
Confederation of British Industry
Cognitive behavior therapy
Chief executive officer
Controlled flight into terrain
Cognitive Failures Questionnaire

Coronary heart disease
Carbon dioxide
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (U.K. legislation)
Crew resource management
Climate safety tool
Cultural theory

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dB
DSE
DTA

Decibel
Display screen equipment
Dynamic task allocation

EAP
EC
EC-JRC
EEC
e.g.
EPI
ESP
et al.
EU

Employee assistance program
European Commission

European Communities Joint Research Centre
European Economic Community
For example
Eysenck Personality Inventory
Extra sensory perception
et alia (and others)
European Union

f

FA
FFPI
FMEA

Feet
Degrees Fahrenheit
Football Association (England)
Five-Factor Personality Inventory
Failure modes and effects analysis

GB
GDP
GEMS
GFT
GHQ
GSK

Great Britain
Gross domestic product
Generic error modeling system

General failure type
General Health Questionnaire
GlaxoSmithKline

h
H
HAM
H&S
HAZOP
HBM
HFIT
HGV
HIV
HMSO
HPWS
HR
HRA
HRM
HRO
HSC
HSE
HSG
HSL
HTA
Hz

Hours
High
Hierarchy of abstraction modeling
Health and safety

Hazard and operability study
Health belief model
Human Factors Investigation Tool
Heavy goods vehicle
Human immuno deficiency virus
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (U.K.)
High performance workplace system
Human resources
Human reliability assessment
Human resources management
High reliability organization
Health and Safety Commission (U.K.)
Health and Safety Executive (U.K.)
Health and safety guidance
Health and Safety Laboratory (U.K.)
Hierarchical task analysis
Hertz

◦F

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IAEA
ICT
i.e.
ILO
INSAG
IPO
IQ

IR
ISO
IWO

International Atomic Energy Agency
Information and communications technology
That is
International Labor Organization
International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group
Inputs, process, outputs (model)
Intelligent quotient
Industrial relations
International Standards Organization
Industrial, work, and organizational (psychology)

JCQ

Job content questionnaire

KB
kph
KSA

Knowledge based
Kilometers per hour
Knowledge, skills, abilities

L
LMX
LoC

LPC
LTIFR

Low
Leader–member exchange
Locus of control
Least preferred coworker
Lost time injury frequency rate

m
MAO
MAUT
MBE
ME
MIV
MLQ
MMR
MORT
MRI

Meters
Monoamino oxidase
Multi-attribute theory
Management-by-exception
Myalgic encephalomyelitis
Main inlet valve
Multifactor leadership questionnaire
Mumps, measles, and rubella (vaccine)
Management oversight and risk tree
Magnetic resonance imaging

N
NA
n-Ach
NASA
n.d.
NHS
NIOSH

Number
Negative affectivity
Need for achievement
National Aeronautical Space Administration
No date
National Health Service (U.K.)
National Institute for Occupational Health
and Safety (U.S.)
National Nuclear Corporation (U.K.)
National Occupational Health and
Safety Commission (Australia)
Net present value
New South Wales (Australia)
New Zealand Standard

NNC
NOHSC
NPV
NSW
NZS

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OBMod
OCB
OECD
OHS
OHSC
OHSM
OHSMS
OIM
OPQ
OSCI
OSHA

Organizational behavior modification
Organizational citizenship behavior
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
Occupational health and safety
Occupational health and safety committee
Occupational health and safety management
Occupational health and safety management system
Offshore installation manager (company)
Occupational Personality Questionnaire
Organizational and safety climate inventory
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (U.S.)

p
PA
PBR

PE
PhD
PHEA
PIF
PP
PPE
PR
PRA
PRP
PSB
PSF
PSV
PTSD

Probability
Positive affectivity
Payment by results
Person–environment (fit)
Doctor of Philosophy
Predictive human error analysis
Performance influencing factor
Precautionary principle
Personal protective equipment
Public relations
Probabilistic risk assessment
Performance related pay
Pumped Storage Business (U.K.)
Performance shaping factor
Public service vehicle
Post traumatic stress disorder

QC
QHSE

Queen’s Counsel
Quality, health, safety, and environment

r
RA
RAAF
RAF
RB
RBR
RET
RHT
RM
RMS
RMT
RP
RR
RSI

Correlation coefficient
Risk assessment
Royal Australian Air Force
Royal Air Force
Rules-based
Risk-based regulation
Rational emotive therapy
Risk homeostasis theory

Risk management
Risk management standard
Risk motivation theory
Risk perception
Risk resolution
Repetitive strain injury

SARF
SB
SCT
sec
SEM

Social amplification of risk framework
Skills-based
Social capital theory
Second (time unit)
Structural equation modeling

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SHE
SIOP
SME
SMS
SPAD
SS
SSD
SSS

Safety, health, and environment
Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Small and medium-sized enterprise
Safety management system
Signal passed at danger
Sensation seeking
System state diagram
Sensation seeking scale

TA
TABP
TAFEI
TAT
THERP
TMI
TPB
TRA
TRRL
TSC
TV

Task analysis
Type A behavior pattern
Task analysis for human error identification
Thematic Apperception Test
Technique for human error rate prediction
Three Mile Island
Theory of planned behavior
Theory of reasoned action

Transport and Road Research Laboratory (U.K.)
Total safety culture
Television

UCL
U.K.
UKAEA
UN
UQ
U.S.
USAF
USS
UWIST

University College London
United Kingdom
United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
United Nations
University of Queensland
United States
U.S. Airforce
U.S. ship
University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology

VALS
VDU
vs.

Values and lifestyle
Visual display unit

Versus

16PF

Sixteen personality factors (Cattell)

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Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Establishing the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Emerging issues in OHS research and practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Fields and topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.1 Legal and regulatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.2 Technical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.3 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.4 Psychological. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.5 Managerial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Ten generic challenges for OHS research and practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.1 Integrating knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.2 Knowledge application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.3 Program evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.4 System complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.5 Multiple synergies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.6 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.3.7 Displacing risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.8 Ethics and social justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.9 Triangulating methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.10 Conceptual and theoretical advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
1
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14

Chapter 2 Risk models and risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 First-order concepts/approaches to risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1 Technical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.1 Description of the technical approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.2 Risk management and the technical approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.4 Where next for the technical approach to risk? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.1 Description of the economic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.2 Risk management and the economic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.4 Further comments on the economic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Cultural theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.1 Description of the approach from cultural theory . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.2 Risk management and cultural theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15
15
17
17
17
18
18
18
19
19
22
24
24
25
25
26

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2.3

2.4

2.5

2.2.3.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.4 Further comments on cultural theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Psychometric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4.1 Describing the psychometric paradigm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4.2 Risk management and the psychometric approach . . . . . . . .
2.2.4.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4.4 Further comments on the psychometric approach . . . . . . . . .
Expanded/developed approaches to risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Social constructionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1.1 Describing the social constructionist approach . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1.2 Risk management and the social constructionist
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Social amplification of risk framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.1 Describing the social amplification of risk framework
(SARF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.2 Risk management and the social amplification
framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.4 Criticisms of SARF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.3 Individual differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3.1 Individual differences and risk-taking behaviors . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3.2 Risk management and individual differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Basic risk perception model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4.1 Describing the basic risk perception model (BRPM) . . . . . . .
2.3.4.2 Criticisms of the BRPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4.3 Risk management and the BRPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4.4 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meta-approaches to risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Political . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.1 What constitutes a political approach to risk? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.2 Risk management and the political approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.4 Further political risk model development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Socio-emotional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2.1 Describing the socio-emotional approach to risk . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2.2 Risk management and the socio-emotional
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2.3 Illustrative implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3.1 Adapting to risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3.2 Adaptation and risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3.3 Illustrative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Evolutionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4.1 Describing the evolutionary approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4.2 Risk management and the evolutionary
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4.3 Illustrative applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4.4 Links with other models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Further discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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28
29
29
29
32
33
33
34
34
34
34
34
35
35
36
37
37
38
38
40
40
40
40
42
42
42

43
43
43
46
47
48
49
49
51
52
52
52
55
56
57
57
61
62
62
64


Chapter 3

From sensation and perception through motivation and
behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sensation and the human senses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Hearing and vibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Perceptual organization and interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Attention and vigilance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Sustained attention and vigilance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Selective attention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Effectiveness of warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Causal attribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Attributional effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.1 Self-serving bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.2 Severity bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.3 False consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.4 Situation bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.5 Correlational bias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.6 Negative weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.7 Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.8 Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.9 Representativeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.10 Small numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.11 Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.12 Overconfidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.13 Hindsight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Behavioral approach to motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 Behavior modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2 Principles of learning: implications for safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.3 Goal setting and performance feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motivating for safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

67
68
70
72
74
75
77
78
79
79
81
83
88
89
89
91
91
91
92
92
92
93
93
93
93
94
96
96
100
100

105
107

Chapter 4 Human error and human factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Human error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Errors as a learning tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Categorizing human error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Slips and lapses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.1 Rule-based mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.2 Knowledge-based mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.3 Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Error occurrence and detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Error reduction strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Human factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Ergonomic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Human and machine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

109
109
110
110
113
114
117
117
118
120
124

128
131
131
131

3.1
3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7
3.8

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4.6

4.7

4.8

Interface design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1 Fitting tasks to human operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6.2 Ergonomic applications to reduce human error potential . . . . . . . . . . . .
Techniques for reducing human error/increasing human
reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.1 Task analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2 Task analysis for error identification (TAFEI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3 Predictive human error analysis (PHEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.4 Reason’s generic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.5 Quantified human reliability assessment (HRA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.6 Influence diagrams and model of accident causation using
hierarchical influence network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.7 Human factors investigation tool (HFIT) for accident
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.8 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

136
136
138
144
144
145
146
149
149
151
152
152
153

Personality and risk liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Models of personality and the “big five” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Accident proneness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
“Big-five” personality characteristics and injury liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Extraversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1.1 Sensation seeking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1.2 Other facets of extraversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1.3 Reversal theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Neuroticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Conscientiousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4 Agreeableness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.5 Openness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Risk propensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Individual differences in error liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personality at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.1 Using personality tests in selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

155
155
156
161
169
170
171
172
173
173
174
175

176
177
178
179
179
182

Chapter 6 Attitudes, values, and risk behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Understanding attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 The nature of attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Attitude components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2.1 Affective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2.2 Cognitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2.3 Behavioral intention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 Attitude dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4 Attitude measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4.1 Likert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4.2 Semantic differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4.3 Visual analogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Attitudes toward safety and risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185
185
186
187
187
188
188

189
190
191
191
192
193
193
193

Chapter 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8

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6.5

Attitudes and behavior: some theoretical perspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Attitudes influence behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2 Behavior influences attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3 Attitudes and behavior are mutually reinforcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.4 Attitudes and behavior are likely to be mutually consistent,

but independent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More complex approaches to attitude–behavior links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.1 The theory of planned behavior (TPB). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2 The health belief model (HBM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3 Protection motivation theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.4 Overview of complex models describing
attitude–behavior links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Attitude change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.1 Attitude functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2 Attitude levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2.1 Compliance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2.2 Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2.3 Internalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2.4 The importance of attitude strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3 Attitude change interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3.1 Audience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3.2 Persuader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3.3 Personality factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3.4 Presentation of issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3.5 Persistence of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.4 Other factors in attitude–behavior change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.4.1 Information provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.4.2 Fear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.4.3 Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety climate and safety attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8.1 The concept of safety climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8.1.1 Safety climate and perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8.2 Safety climate and safe behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

204
207
207
207
207
208
208
208
209
209
209
210
210
210
210
210
211
212
216
219
220
222
224

Chapter 7 The role of stress in safety and risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Theoretical models of stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Workplace stressors and injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Intrinsic job characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1.1 Workload and work pace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3.1.2 Work schedules and shiftwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Organizational roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 Work relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4 Job insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Individual differences and job stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2 Type A behavior pattern (TABP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.3 Negative affectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.4 Locus of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.5 Self-esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

227
227
229
233
235
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
243
245

6.6

6.7

6.8

6.9

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195
195
195
196
197
198
198
202
203


7.5

Mechanisms linking stress with injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1 Direct effects of job stress on injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1.1 Effects of acute stressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1.2 Effects of chronic stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2 Indirect effects of job stress on injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2.1 Work-related attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2.2 General health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.3 The role of moderating factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.3.1 Social support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.5.3.2 Coping strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.1 Individual-level stress interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.1.1 Employee assistance programs (EAPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.1.2 Stress management programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.1.3 Health promotion programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2 Organizational level stress interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2.1 Work redesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2.2 Participation and autonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2.3 Social support groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.3 Effectiveness of stress interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

245
245
247
247
249
250
250
251
251
253
254
255
258
259
260
261
261

262
264
265
267

Chapter 8 Managing teams for safe performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Functions and benefits of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Formation and types of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Types of teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Team effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 Team design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.1 Group norms and expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.2 Cohesiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.3 Group safety climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.4 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.5 Group discussion and decision making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.6 Team leadership and
self-managing teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.7 Virtual teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Safety committee effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 Barriers to team effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1 Social comparison and social control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.2 Intergroup relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.3 Decision-making biases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7 Managing effective work teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.1 Managing teams as individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.2 Balancing authority and democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.3 Teams and organizational structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.4 Teams and organizational support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.7.5 Teams and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

269
269
271
272
273
274
278
280
284
286
287
289

7.6

7.7

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290
292
294
295
295
296
298
301

301
302
302
303
303
303


Chapter 9 Leading and supervising for safe performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Leadership theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Trait theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Leadership style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3 Contingency theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3.1 Worker maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3.2 Least preferred coworker (LPC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3.3 Normative model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3.4 Path–goal theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.4 Relational leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.4.1 Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.5 Trust and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 New leadership theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Charismatic leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 Transformational leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2.1 Individualized consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2.2 Intellectual stimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2.3 Inspirational motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2.4 Idealized influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2.5 Contingent reward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2.6 Management-by-exception and laissez-faire

leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Safety climate and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.4 Substitutes for leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.5 Empowerment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Leadership failures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 Leadership ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 10 Managing human risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 A risk management approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 Safety management systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2.1 Measuring performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2.2 Safety auditing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 Human resource management (HRM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 HR practices associated with occupational health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 Employment security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Selective hiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Communication and information sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4 Reward systems for safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5 Safety training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5.1 The learning process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5.2 Types of safety training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5.3 Transfer of training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5.4 Refresher training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Managing safety risks: an integrated approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 Types of safety intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.2 Individual and group level safety interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.4.3 Organizational level safety interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3.1 Autonomy and safety outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3.2 Self-managing work teams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3.3 Worker participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3.4 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4.3.5 Management development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 11 Safety culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Defining safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Safety culture as attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 Safety culture as behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Theoretical models of safety culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Organizational culture approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Total safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3 Safety culture: an informed culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4 Reciprocal safety culture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.5 An approach from subcultures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.6 Work climate model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.7 A social capital theory of safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.8 The role of safety climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.9 The role of occupational stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.10 High-reliability organizations and
safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Approaches to developing and measuring
safety culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4.1 Interpretive approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.2 Functionalist approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3 Measuring safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3.1 Safety systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3.2 Safety attitudes and perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3.3 Safety behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3.4 Triangulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3.5 Safety culture and injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Changing toward a positive safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1 Indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2 Drivers of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2.1 Direct cultural change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2.2 Indirect cultural change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2.3 Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Safety culture and risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.1 Antecedents of safety culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.2 Safety culture as a form of risk control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.3 A risk management approach to safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.3.1 Management commitment to safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.3.2 Worker involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6.3.3 Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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