Understanding psychology

interactive student edition


Author
Richard A. Kasschau, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology at the University
of Houston. Dr. Kasschau is a member of the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the
American Psychological Society. He has written extensively for magazines, newspapers, and professional journals, and has a dozen books to
his credit. An award-winning and distinguished teacher who has taught
psychology for 35 years, Dr. Kasschau has won the University of Houston’s Teaching Excellence Award twice in the last 15 years.

Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of
1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the written permission of the publisher.
TIME Reports © TIME, Inc. Prepared by TIME School Publishing in
collaboration with Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
Send all inquiries to
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 8787 Orion Place, Columbus, Ohio 43240-4027
ISBN 0-07-828571–2 (Student Edition)
Printed in the United States of America
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 071/043 06 05 04 03


Table of Contents
Senior Consultant-Writers

Educational Reviewers

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Judith R. Levine, Ph.D.
State University of New York at Farmingdale
Farmingdale, New York
Joel Stellwagen, Ph.D.
Hinsdale South High School
Darien, Illinois

iii


Table of Contents
Reading for Information

xii

How to Think Like a Psychologist

xiv

Approaches to
Psychology . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology . . . . . . . 6
1

2
3

Why Study Psychology?
A Brief History of Psychology
Psychology as a Profession

7
14
24

Chapter 2 Psychological Research
Methods and Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1
2
3

What Is Research?
Problems and Solutions in Research
Statistical Evaluation

35
42
47

The Life Span . . . . . 58

The Workings of Mind
and Body . . . . . . . 152
Chapter 6 Body and Behavior . . . . . . . . 154

1
2
3
4

2
3

Physical, Perceptual, and
Language Development
Cognitive and Emotional
Development
Parenting Styles and Social
Development

1
2
3

78

Chapter 4 Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1
2
3
4

Physical and Sexual Development
Personal Development
Social Development

Gender Roles and Differences

93
101
109
116

Chapter 5 Adulthood and Old Age . . . . . 128
1
2
3

iv

Adulthood
Old Age
Dying and Death

129
137
144

Sleep and Dreams
Hypnosis, Biofeedback, and
Meditation
Drugs and Consciousness

183
191
197

Chapter 8 Sensation and Perception . . . 206
1
2
3

Sensation
The Senses
Perception

207
214
223

Learning and Cognitive
Processes . . . . . . . 238

61
70

155
160
170
174

Chapter 7 Altered States of
Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Chapter 3 Infancy and Childhood. . . . . . . 60
1

The Nervous System: The Basic
Structure
Studying the Brain
The Endocrine System
Heredity and Environment

Chapter 9 Learning: Principles and
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
1
2
3

Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning

241
250
259

Chapter 10 Memory and Thought. . . . . . 272
1
2

Taking in and Storing Information
Retrieving Information

273
282

Chapter 11 Thinking and Language . . . . 294
1
2

Thinking and Problem Solving
Language

295
304


Table of Contents
Chapter 12 Motivation and Emotion. . . . 312
1
2
3

Theories of Motivation
Biological and Social Motives
Emotions

313
319
328

Personality and
Individuality . . . . . 340

5

2
3
4

Characteristics of Psychological
Tests
Intelligence Testing
Measuring Achievement, Abilities,
and Interests
Personality Testing

1
2
3
4

Chapter 14 Theories of Personality . . . . 374
1
2
3
4
5

Purposes of Personality Theories
Psychoanalytic Theories
Learning Theories
Humanistic and Cognitive Theories
Trait Theories

375
378
387
391
398

Adjustment and
Breakdown . . . . . . 410
Chapter 15 Stress and Health . . . . . . . . 412
1
2
3
4

Sources of Stress
Reactions to Stress
Coping With Stress
Stress in Your Life

413
420
430
437

Chapter 16 Psychological Disorders . . . 446
1
2
3
4

What Are Psychological Disorders?
Anxiety Disorders
Somatoform and Dissociative
Disorders
Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders

447
455
460
465

What Is Psychotherapy?
Psychoanalysis and Humanistic
Therapy
Cognitive and Behavior Therapies
Biological Approaches to Treatment

485
493
499
506

Social
Psychology . . . . . . 516

343
348
359
363

474

Chapter 17 Therapy and Change . . . . . . 484

Chapter 13 Psychological Testing . . . . . 342
1

Personality Disorders and Drug
Addiction

Chapter 18 Individual Interaction. . . . . . 518
1
2
3

Interpersonal Attraction
Social Perception
Personal Relationships

519
527
533

Chapter 19 Group Interaction . . . . . . . . 544
1
2
3

Group Behavior
Conformity and Obedience

Conflict and Cooperation

545
555
564

Chapter 20 Attitudes and Social
Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
1
2
3

Attitude Formation
Attitude Change and Prejudice
Persuasion

577
582
590

Chapter 21 Psychology: Present
and Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
1
2

Careers in Psychology
Psychology’s Contributions

Skills Handbook
Glossary

Index
References
Acknowledgments and Credits
Honoring America

603
610
620
630
644
659
673
674

v


Table of Contents
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REPORTS
Child Psychologist: Jean Piaget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Psychoanalyst: Sigmund Freud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Is It More Than Boys Being Boys? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Surviving Your Teens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Lots of Action in the Memory Game . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fertile Minds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
The EQ Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Attack on the Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Coloring the Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600

Profiles In Psychology

• Chapter Overviews provide you with a
quick preview or review of the chapter.
• Student Web Activities take you into the
real world of psychology.
• Self-Check Quizzes help you prepare for
the Chapter Test.
Use our Web site for additional resources. All essential content is covered in the Student Edition.

vi

Mary Whiton Calkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Jane Goodall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Jean Piaget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Erik Erikson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Roger Wolcott Sperry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Franz Anton Mesmer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Gustav Theodor Fechner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Elizabeth Loftus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Noam Chomsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Paul Ekman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Howard Gardner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Carl Rogers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Deepak Chopra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Abraham Maslow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Dorothea Dix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Sigmund Freud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Linda L. McCarley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606


Table of Contents

The Four Humors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

A Balance for Living. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

The Case of Clever Hans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

Too Late for Words: The Case of Genie. . . . . . 69

Personality Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Early Maturation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

The Illusion of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

Psychologically Able to Decide? . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Munchausen’s Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

One Person…Two Brains? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

The Case of Rat Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

A Breath of Fresh Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

What You See Is What You Get? . . . . . . . . . . 526

Seeing Is Believing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Your Stripes or Your Morality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

The Case of Little Albert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Feelings vs. Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

The Case of H.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Parapsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609

Checkmate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Why do you do what you do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Do some people really have psychic powers?. . 54

How do advertisements “motivate”
people to buy products? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

How do children exhibit attachment? . . . . . . . 77

Do interest inventories help determine
a career? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

How does the media portray adolescents? . . 104

Do we see ourselves as others see us? . . . . . . 402

Do men and women go through the
same stages of development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

What stresses teenagers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

Can you determine whether the left or right
hemisphere of the brain is dominant? . . . . . . 165
Can you hypnotize yourself? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

What fears are most common among
teenagers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
How can someone overcome
an irrational fear?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

Can you detect changes in stimuli? . . . . . . . . 211

What traits are important in a potential
marriage partner? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

What reinforcement schedules operate
in your classroom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

How do we conform to group norms? . . . . . 558

Can you improve your memory? . . . . . . . . . . 287

How similar are your views to
your parents’ views? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580

vii


Table of Contents

Why You Overreact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Baseball Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Nature vs. Nurture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Good Looks Are Overrated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Culture and Body Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Retirement and You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Do You Do This?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Hypnosis and Athletics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Your Blind Spot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Orange Juice and Toothpaste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
How You Form Bad Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Remembering Classmates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
On the Tip of Your Tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Solve This Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Bilingualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Genetics and Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Your IQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
What Is Your Locus of Control? . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Road Rage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
What Should You Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Homelessness: A Legacy of
Deinstitutionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Social Norms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Illusory Correlation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Try Out a Career in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 605

The Hawthorne Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Family Size and IQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Transforming Scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Birth Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Reflexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Culture and Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Imaginary Playmates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Gender Differences and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Teenagers and Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

The Insanity Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

Are Boys in Trouble? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

The Cohort Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Depression and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

Growing Old. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Therapy and HMOs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

Freud on Dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Shyness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530

TV and Violence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Collectivism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561

Eyewitness Testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Gangs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

Facial Feedback Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

The Just-World Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

Lie Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Human Factors Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607

viii


Table of Contents
READINGS IN PSYCHOLOGY
• An Experiment in the Seventh Century B.C.
by Morton Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

• Memory’s Ghost

• The Wild Boy of Aveyron by David Hothersall. . 5

• The Bell Jar

• Wasted by Marya Hornbacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

• The Wave

by Philip F. Hilts . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

• letters from Jenny by Gordon W. Allport . . . . . . 408
by Sylvia Plath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

by Todd Strasser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

• To See and Not See by Oliver Sacks . . . . . . . . . 236

Charts, Tables, and Graphs
Test Your Intuitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Scientific Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Contemporary Approaches to Psychology . . . . . . . . 21
A Personality Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Where Psychologists Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Divisions of the APA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
A Correlational Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Experimental Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Single-Blind and Double-Blind Experiments. . . . . . . 44
Kate’s Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
A Frequency Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A Frequency Polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A Normal Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Measures of Central Tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
A Scatterplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Cell-Phone Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Physical and Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The Visual Preferences of Infants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
The Flowering of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Tasks to Measure Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . 75
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development . . . . . 82
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development . . . . . . . . . 86
Average Annual Gains in Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Glands That Release Hormones Into the
Bloodstream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Adolescent Identity Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Arrests Per 100,000 Juveniles Ages 10-17 . . . . . . . . . 113
Test Yourself. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Leading Causes of Death in the USA . . . . . . . . . . . 125
How Our Bodies Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Levinson’s Theory of Male Development . . . . . . . . 134
Percentage of Older Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Living Arrangements of Americans
65 and Older, 1997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Anatomy of Two Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

ix


Table of Contents
Charts, Tables, and Graphs
The Synapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
The Parts of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
The Cerebral Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Functions of the Brain’s Hemispheres . . . . . . . . . . . 163
The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
DNA and Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Alzheimer’s Patients in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Freud’s Levels of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Patterns of Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Some Psychoactive Drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Percentage of 12th Graders Who Reported
Using Alcohol in the Past 12 Months,
1976–1996. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Fraser’s Spiral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
The Human Senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
The Human Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Decibel Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
The Human Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The Human Tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Gestalt Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Skin Sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Classical Conditioning Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Examples of Common Conditioned Responses . . . 247
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant
Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Operant Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Figure 13.9

Distribution of IQ Scores

This normal curve displays intelligence as measured
by IQ tests. The average IQ score is 100. What percentage of people score at least 145 on IQ tests?

55

70

80

90 100 110 120 130 145
50%
95%
99%

x

Mentally handicapped
Borderline
Slow learner
Low average
High average
Above average
Superior
Gifted

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Learned Helplessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
How Social Learning Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Improving Study Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Mowrer’s Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
The Processes of Memory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Stages of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Three Systems of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Memory Centers in the Brain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Recognition and Recall Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Using Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Directed vs. Nondirected Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Types of Heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Connecting the Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Overcoming Functional Fixedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Overcoming Wrong Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Answers to Pages 298, 300, and 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Phonemes and Morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Parent Involvement in Language
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Some Biological and Social Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Percentage of Overweight Americans . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Your Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
The Range of Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Threatening Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Theories of Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Fear and Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Changes in Heart Rate and Skin
Temperature for Six Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Judging Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Judging Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Establishing Percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental Abilities . . . . . . 349
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Typical Items on the Stanford-Binet Test . . . . . . . . 353
Sample Items on the Wechsler Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Distribution of IQ Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
The Dove Counterbalance Intelligence Test . . . . . . 357
The GATB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

Table of Contents
Charts, Tables, and Graphs
The KPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
MMPI Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Approaches to Reducing Test Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . 368
Freud’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Defense Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Characteristics of Self-Actualized People. . . . . . . . . 393
Cattell’s Sixteen Source Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Eysenck’s Personality Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Theories of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Types of Conflict Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Some Daily Hassles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
The Flight-or-Fight Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Types of Coping Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Irrational Assumptions That Can Cause Stress . . . . 433
Stress: A Summary Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Distribution of Male and Female
Jobs by Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Phases of Selye’s General Adaptation
Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
DSM-IV—Major Psychological Disorders
of Axis I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Phobias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Suicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Types of Personality Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Effects of Alcohol Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

Reported Anxiety Disorders
in the United States, 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Types of Psychotherapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Kinds of Therapists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Examples of Irrational Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Ellis’s ABCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Beck’s Maladaptive Thought Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Losing Fears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Deinstitutionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Psychologists’ Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Schachter’s Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Triangular Theory of Love . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Rank Ordering of Desired Characteristics
in a Mate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

Figure 8.5

The Human Eye

This cross section of the human eye shows the passage
of light. Note that the retina
receives an inverted image.
Optic Nerve
What is the main function of
Rods
the rods and cones?
LIGHT

Eye muscle

Cones

Neuron

Lens
Retina

Iris
Pupil

Optic
nerve

Cornea
Muscles

Blind spot

Why Do We Join Groups? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Group Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Sociograms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Leavitt’s Communication Network System . . . . . . . 554
Asch’s Experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
A Model of Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Physical Distance From “Learner” and
Compliance to Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Attitude Formation Through Classical
Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
A Theory of Planned Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Balance Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

Using Heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Areas of Expertise of Ph.D. Psychologists . . . . . . . . 604
Some Significant Dates in the History
of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Employment of Ph.D. Psychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Average Breakfast Calories and Average
Grades of 100 Sampled Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Marital Status of the Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Internet Access and Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Divisions of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

xi


Think about your textbook as a tool that helps you learn more about the world
around you. It is an example of nonfiction writing; it describes real-life events, people, ideas, and places. Here is a menu of reading strategies that will help you
become a better textbook reader. As you come to passages in your textbook that you
don’t understand, refer to these reading strategies for help.

✔
Set a Purpose
• Why are you reading the textbook?
• How does the subject relate to your life?
• How might you be able to use what you learn in your own life?

Preview
• Read the chapter title to find what the topic will be.
• Read the subtitles to see what you will learn about the topic.
• Skim the photos, charts, graphs, or maps. How do they support the

topic?
• Look for vocabulary words that are boldfaced. How are they defined?

Draw From Your Own Background
• What have you read or heard concerning new information on the
topic?
• How is the new information different
from what you already know?
• How will the information that you
already know help you understand the new
information?

xii


✔
LOOK FOR CLUES
AS YOU READ

Question
• What is the main idea?
• How do the photos, charts, graphs,
and maps support the main idea?

Connect

• Comparison and Contrast
Sentences:

• Think about people, places, and

events in your own life. Are there any
similarities with those in your textbook?
• Can you relate the textbook information to other areas of your life?

Look for clue words and phrases that
signal comparison, such as similarly,
just as, both, in common, also, and
too.
Look for clue words and phrases that
signal contrast, such as on the other
hand, in contrast to, however, different, instead of, rather than, but, and
unlike.

Predict
• Predict events or outcomes by using
clues and information that you
already know.
• Change your predictions as you read
and gather new information.

• Cause-and-Effect Sentences:
Look for clue words and phrases such
as because, as a result, therefore, that
is why, since, so, for this reason, and
consequently.

Visualize
• Pay careful attention to details and
descriptions.
• Create graphic organizers to show

relationships that you find in the
information.

• Chronological Sentences:
Look for clue words and phrases such
as after, before, first, next, last, during,
finally, earlier, later, since, and then.

✔
Summarize
• Describe the main idea and how the details support it.
• Use your own words to explain what you have read.

Assess
• What was the main idea?
• Did the text clearly support the main idea?
• Did you learn anything new from the material?
• Can you use this new information in other school subjects or at home?
• What other sources could you use to find more information about the topic?

xiii


How to Think Like a Psychologist
Why Study Psychology?
Many people begin their study of psychology
without a clear definition or understanding of the
subject. They may have images of a laboratory
where scientists run rats through mazes, or they
may assume that it deals only with abnormal

emotional disturbances. These, however, are only
small parts of the study of psychology.
Psychology provides tools to help us gain insight
into our own behavior, as well as our relationships with others.

What to Expect
As you begin your study of psychology, you
will find that it is different from any of your other
classes. This is because psychology is connected
to both the social sciences, such as history or
economics, and the natural sciences, such as
biology and chemistry. As a social science, psychology explores the influences of society on
individual behavior and group relationships. As a
natural science, psychology looks for biological
explanations for human behavior. You will learn
more about the social and biological aspects of
human behavior as you draw from the course
material to gain insight into your life and the lives
of those around you.

Your study of psychology can help you gain insights
into explaining people’s behavior.

How Do Psychologists Think?

PET scan of a human brain

xiv

In your study of psychology, you will learn to

think like a scientist. Scientists constantly question their own assumptions and look for alternative evidence and conclusions.
Scientists, including psychologists, use the
scientific method as a problem-solving tool. It
teaches them to think critically by encouraging
open-mindedness, intellectual curiosity, and evaluation of reasons. Using the scientific method
will help you think critically and be objective
when applying principles to everyday issues, people, and problems.


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How to Think Like
Table
a Psychologist
of Contents
The Scientific Method
The scientific method consists of five
steps that help the scientist integrate
theory and research, as well as compare
empirical—or factual—data with
common sense ideas. Using
the scientific method will
help you think like a
psychologist.

Research, Projects, and
Problem Solving
In your psychology course,
you will also need to solve problems through individual research
or group projects—whether they
are the Psychology Projects in
this textbook or other activities
your teacher may assign. Solving
problems involves a series of
processes including analyzing
the problem, breaking it into
component parts, and establishing goals. Here are the steps

involved in problem solving:

• Identify the problem.
• Brainstorm possible
solutions.

• Evaluate the proposed
solutions.

• Choose and implement

thod
e
M
c
i
f
.
cienti
The S entify a problem ns and asking

n or id
assertio
questio
tioning
s
a
e
u
k

q
s
f
atically
it o
1. A
he hab
t autom
t
o
p
n
lo
o
e
d
v

ion;
ence.
format
tion in
for evid
s
e
u
q
er and
• Considt or reject it.
e the

disprov .
r
accep
o
.
s
e
i
v
s
o
it
pr
the
not to fail to confirm
a hypo
goal is
r
e
o
h
t
2. Form
m
t
r
fi
ber tha
to con
ata.

• Remetmhesis but rather
llect d
o
c
o
d
p
n
y
a
h
.
thesis
ictions
ations.
e hypo
e pred
k
h
a
t
t
m
s
observ
o
e
r
t
o

is
s
s
t
3. T
e
n
e
hypoth
xperim
• Use the predictions by e r test.
ed—
e
• Test th e results of you cts” were obtainocess
r
the “fa
arch p
lyze th
ut how ion and rese
o
4. Ana
b
a
s
estion
ollect
lse;
• Ask quhe information c
e or fa
g is tru soning

in
h
t
e
was t
rea
som
te?
o says the facts and
adequa
ter wh
t
—
a
e
m
c
n
t
no
ide
• It doesmatters is the evbased.
t
is
a
wh
idea
ained
ich the
esults g

r
on wh
e
.
h
s
t
n
sio
g to
cordin
conclu
esis ac thesis.
h
t
o
p
5. Draw
y
o
your h
ur hyp
• Modiftyhe testing of yo
from

• De

the best solution.

• At a later time, review the

success of the solution.
To begin any project, you need to establish your goals—what you want to accomplish, how you will accomplish it, and by when. Intermediate goals address parts of
the problem that must be solved in order to arrive at the terminal goal—the final solution to the problem. Use intermediate goals to establish a time line for completing the
assignment, which will help you keep track of your progress. As you work, monitor
and evaluate your work for schedule, accuracy, and whether it is focused on the final
goal. Ask yourself: Are things working as expected? Do you need to adjust anything?

1


Contents
Chapter 1

Introducing Psychology

Chapter 2

Psychological Research
Methods and Statistics

Psychology is the study
of the human mind and
human behavior.


hat do you expect to learn in this introductory
psychology course? You may learn more about
yourself and more about others. This unit will explain
why psychologists study human and animal behavior.
Psychologists attempt to explain and predict why people

behave, feel, and think as they do. They attempt to learn
ways in which people can improve the quality of life.

W


READINGS IN PSYCHOLOGY
These excerpts describe two experiments. The first experiment, related in The
Story of Psychology, took place in an ancient time, when humans were just
beginning to question the origin of their own thoughts. The second excerpt
appeared in History of Psychology and details the attempts of one scientist to
change the behavior of a wild boy.

Reader’s Dictionary
Assyrians: people of an empire in the Middle East,
c. 650 B.C.
spontaneously: arising naturally, without external
influence
Phrygians: people of an ancient country located in
Anatolia, or present-day Turkey
innate: existing in an individual from birth
inarticulate: incapable of understandable speech
erratic: strange; not normal

EXPERIMENT
An

in the

SEVENTH CENTURY B.C.

BY MORTON HUNT

A most unusual man, Psamtik I, King of Egypt.
During his long reign, in the latter half of the
seventh century B.C., he not only drove out the
Assyrians, revived Egyptian art and architecture,
and brought about general prosperity, but found
time to conceive of and conduct history’s first
recorded experiment in psychology.
The Egyptians had long believed that they were
the most ancient race on earth, and Psamtik, driven
by intellectual curiosity, wanted to prove that flattering belief. Like a good psychologist, he began
with a hypothesis: If children had no opportunity to
learn a language from older people around them,
they would spontaneously speak the primal, inborn

4 Unit 1 / Approaches to Psychology

language of humankind—the natural language of its
most ancient people—which, he expected to show,
was Egyptian.
To test his hypothesis, Psamtik commandeered
two infants of a lower-class mother and turned
them over to a herdsman to bring up in a remote
area. They were to be kept in a sequestered cottage,
properly fed and cared for, but were never to hear
anyone speak so much as a word. The Greek historian Herodotus, who tracked the story down and
learned what he calls “the real facts” from priests of
Hephaestus in Memphis, says that Psamtik’s goal
“was to know, after the indistinct babblings of infancy

were over, what word they would first articulate.”
The experiment, he tells us, worked. One day,
when the children were two years old, they ran up
to the herdsman as he opened the door of their cottage and cried out “Becos!” Since this meant nothing
to him, he paid no attention, but when it happened
repeatedly, he sent word to Psamtik, who at once
ordered the children brought to him. When he too
heard them say it, Psamtik made inquiries and
learned that becos was the
Phrygian word for bread.
He concluded that,
disappointingly, the
Phrygians were an
older race than the
Egyptians.
We today may
smile condescendingly; we know from
modern studies of
children brought up
under conditions of
isolation that there is
no innate language