An investigation into the effects of student use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students reading performance at lac hong university a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment o

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY
-----------------------------

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF STUDENTS’ USE OF
METACOGNITIVE AND COGNITIVE STRATEGIES ON STUDENTS’ READING
PERFORMANCE AT LAC HONG UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by Ly Tuan Phu

Supervisor
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Vu

Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2016


STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis entitled “An investigation into the effects of students’ use of
metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students’ reading performance at Lac Hong
University” is my own work.
Except where reference is made in the text of thesis, this thesis contains no material
published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in in part from a thesis by which I have qualified
for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of
the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other

tertiary institution.
Hochiminh City, 2016

Ly Tuan Phu

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to start my thesis by thanking all the lecturers at Ho Chi Minh Open
University who have worked hard to help me gather required knowledge for conducting this
thesis.
I am grateful in the first place to Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Vu at Ho Chi Minh University of
Education for constantly guiding me in the right directions to complete this thesis. His profound
and comprehensive knowledge in the field has been such a reliable resource to me. Without his
help, this thesis could not have been finished.
I am grateful to Faculty of English Department of Lac Hong University for their willing
help. I would like to send my special thanks to Ms. Lien, Ms. Nguyen, Ms. Vy, Ms. Ha, and Mr.
Tung for their kind supports.
I would like to write down here my appreciation to the two classes, 14AV111 and
14AV112, for their participations in this thesis, which helps me to reach its completion.
Thanks, as ever, to my family for their kind support in my long journey.

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ABSTRACT
Throughout their relative long history, the positive effects of learning strategies have not
been completely defined. A myriad of research and work was conducted by prominent authors

and researchers to construct a full picture of language learning strategy. There is a consensus
shared by those authors that learning strategies can significantly enhance students’ language
performance and competence. Another key theme is that different kinds of language learning
strategies are likely to yield divergent results on students’ performance. Among those kinds of
strategies, metacognitive and cognitive strategies are highly reported to be the ones that have
great impacts on students’ performance in their second language learning.
Given this important reason, the current study aims to throw more light on this
relationship in order to boost students’ reading performance at Lac Hong University. Designed
under the paradigm of a quasi-experimental research with the participation of an experimental
and a control group, the current study is aimed to detect the effects of students’ use of two kinds
of strategies, namely metacognitive and cognitive strategies on their reading comprehension. The
current study also employed a prominent model, the ACT (Adapter Character of Thought) model
proposed by Anderson, to shed more light students’ strategy acquisition. Findings from the study
highlighted that metacognitive and cognitive strategies incorporated into a strategy training
course could improve students’ reading performance. As for the strategy acquisition, it is
concluded that students need more time and practice so that they can use their new strategies
automatically at the procedural stage. With respect to the effectiveness of the strategy training
course, students generated a positive feedback to the course. In addition, they made
improvements in terms of better reading comprehension, reading speed vocabulary).

Key words: learning strategy, metacognitive and cognitive strategies, ACT, strategy
training course, strategy acquisition, reading performance.

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Table of Contents
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................................. i
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii

ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background information ........................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Definitions of variables and terms ............................................................................................ 3
1.3.1 Learning strategies........................................................................................................ 3
1.3.2 Metacognitive and cognitive strategies ........................................................................ 4
1.3.3 Cognitive theory ........................................................................................................... 5
1.3.4 Anderson’s ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) Model ............................................. 5
1.3.5 CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Approach) Model ....................................... 5
1.4 Statement of purpose................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Significance of the study........................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Research questions .................................................................................................................... 7
1.7 Structure of the thesis................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Reading ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 L1 and L2 reading ........................................................................................................ 8
2.2.2 Definitions of reading ................................................................................................... 8
2.2.3 The goals of reading ................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Factors of reading comprehension .......................................................................................... 11

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2.4 The ways we read.................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Reading Processes ................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.1 Bottom up and top down process ............................................................................... 14
2.6 Previous literature on features of good L2 readers ................................................................. 15
2.7. Language learning strategy instruction and the need of a training course ............................. 20

2.8 Metacognitive, cognitive strategies and students’ performance ............................................. 27
2.9 The role of teachers in strategy training course ...................................................................... 30
2.10 Learning strategy .................................................................................................................. 31
2.10.1 Definitions of learning strategy ................................................................................ 31
2.10.2 Taxonomies of learning strategies ............................................................................ 33
2.11 The intertwined relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies .................... 37
2.12 Factors affect the use of learning strategies .......................................................................... 39
2.12.1 Stages of training ...................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 42
3.2 Methods for answering research question............................................................................... 42
3.2.1 Quasi- experimental research ..................................................................................... 43
3.3 Data collection ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.3.1 Participants ................................................................................................................. 43
3.3.2 The strategy training procedure .................................................................................. 45
3.3.3 Research site ............................................................................................................... 46
3.3.4 Sources of data ........................................................................................................... 46
3.3.5. Data Analysis............................................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 52
4.2. Analysis of students’ test scores ............................................................................................ 52
4.2.1 Stage 1: before the treatment ...................................................................................... 52

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4.2.2 Stage 2: after the treatment ......................................................................................... 54
4.3. Analysis of students’ questionnaires ...................................................................................... 56
4.3.1 The reliability of students’ questionnaires ................................................................. 56
4.3.3 Findings from students’ questionnaires ...................................................................... 73
4.4 Data from interview ................................................................................................................ 74
4.5 Discussions of the findings ...................................................................................................... 83

4.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 83
4.5.2 Students’ improvements in reading comprehension................................................... 83
4.5.3 Students’ process of strategy acquisition ................................................................... 84
4.5.4 Students’ attitudes towards the strategy training course ............................................ 84
4.5.5 Summary..................................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 5 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................... 86
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 86
5.2 Suggestions ............................................................................................................................. 86
5.3 Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 88
5.4 Recommendations for further study........................................................................................ 88
5.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 89
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 90
APPENDICE................................................................................................................................. 98
APPENDIX 1: Pretests for two groups ......................................................................................... 98
APPENDIX 2: Posttests for two groups ..................................................................................... 107
APPENDIX 3: Strategy Training Course ................................................................................... 116
APPENDIX 4: Questionnaire (English version)......................................................................... 121
APPENDIX 5: Questionnaire (Vietnamese version) .................................................................. 124
APPENDIX 6: Questions for interviews (Vietnamese version) ................................................. 127

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APPENDIX 7: Questions for interviews (English version) ........................................................ 128
APPENDIX 8: Item- Total Statistics .......................................................................................... 129

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: The means of pretest score of control and experimental group ................................... 53
Table 4.2: The non-parametric t-test of pretest scores ................................................................. 53
Table 4.3 : Description of the posttest scores ............................................................................... 54
Table 4.4: The non-parametric t-test of the posttest scores .......................................................... 55
Table 4.5: The non-parametric dependent sample t-test of the experimental group .................... 55
Table 4.6: The non-parametric dependent sample t-test of the experimental group .................... 56
Table 4.7 : Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Comprehending strategies...................................... 57
Table 4.8: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Memory strategies................................................... 57
Table 4.9: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Retrieval strategies .................................................. 57
Table 4.10: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Planning strategies ................................................ 58
Table 4.11: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Monitoring strategies ............................................ 58
Table 4.12: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Evaluating strategies ............................................. 58
Table 4.13: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for the questionnaire ................................................... 59
Table 4.14: Result of Comprehending strategy from students’ questionnaires ............................ 61
Table 4.15: Result of Memory strategy from students’ questionnaires ........................................ 63
Table 4.16: Result of Retrieval strategy from students’ questionnaires ....................................... 65
Table 4.17: Result of Planning strategy from students’ questionnaires ........................................ 68
Table 4.18: Result of Monitoring strategy from students’ questionnaires .................................... 70
Table 4.19: Result of Evaluating strategy from students’ questionnaires .................................... 72
Table 4.20: Results of the semi-structure interviews .................................................................... 77

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ABBREVIATIONS

L1: mother tongue
L2: second language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language

TOEIC: Test of English for International Communication
CALLA: Cognitive Academic Language Approach
ACT: Adaptive Control of Thought

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the background information of the current study. Definitions of
variables and terms are also provided. A brief review of the history of learning strategies is
presented. The purposes and significance of the study are also found in this chapter. The main
research question and its sub-questions are proposed in this chapter.
1.2 Background information
During their history, learning strategies have been proved to possess a significant
relationship with second language learning. Findings from a bulk of research in the field
conducted so far highlighted that the use of learning strategies is closely related to higher
performance thanks to the effectiveness of those strategies in the four skills; listening, speaking,
reading, and writing, and language areas, vocabulary and pronunciation. The research implied
that students who employ learning strategies at a higher frequency are likely to gain higher
performance in their second language learning. Thus, it can be tentatively inferred that the high
frequency of strategies used by students correlates with students’ performance. In addition to the
studies of the frequency of strategies used in language classrooms, a number of researchers have
investigated the ways “good language learners” successfully employed learning strategies in
order to shed more light on the positive effects of learning strategies and draw out “good
lessons” to help low performers in second language learning (Flavell, 1979; Griffiths, 2008).
Among those lessons, strategy use can be considered as one of the prominent lessons.
Throughout their long history and development, learning strategies have been defined, redefined,
and further expanded by a large number of prominent researchers and experts in the field. They
have made great attempts to build up concrete classifications and taxonomies of learning

strategy. In fact, the scientific classifications of learning strategies have been established by
experts in the field (Rubin, 1975; Oxford, 1990; Ellis, 1999; Chamot, 2005). Metacognitive and
cognitive strategies are found in those researchers’ published books and articles. Investigations
into the effects of metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students’ reading performance have
been carried out by prominent researchers in this theme. Findings from the research concur with
the research into the effects of learning strategies on second language learning. In conclusion,
researchers and experts in the field share the consensus on the positive effects of learning
strategies on second language learning performance. In a similar vein, the relationship between

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the use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies and second language reading performance is
likely to be significant. However, previous studies tend to dissect metacognitive from cognitive
strategies and vice versa. In contrast, a number of researchers claim that the relationship between
metacognitive and cognitive strategies is not a clear cut. Indeed, the relationship between
metacognitive and cognitive strategy is “complex” and the two types of strategies can be viewed
as “two interactive facets of the same mental process” (Phakiti, 2003, pp. 47 - 48). In addition to
the complex relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies, the process of how
students can transmit the metacognitive and cognitive strategies to a state that they can use those
strategies automatically is somehow neglected in those studies. It could be explained by the fact
that carrying out such studies requires great amount of time as well as advanced analysis.
Besides, a comprehensive theory is also needed to illuminate students’ process of strategy
acquisition. Cognitive theory represented via a comprehensive model will shed light on this
issue. In addition, a study integrated with a combination of different instruments to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data is needed to throw more light the issue mentioned above.
The brief introduction of strategy confirms one thing that there is still space for further
research into learning strategies. More and more efforts are needed to clear the fuzziness which
is clouding learning strategies. With respect to the Vietnamese contexts, the investigation into
the relationship of learning strategies with second language learning has been scattered. There

has not been much research conducted to investigate the effects of metacognitive and cognitive
strategies on reading and university level Vietnam. As for the students who study English major
at Lac Hong University, they need to take an exam included two subjects, namely reading and
writing in order to graduate. The reading test takes students 90 minutes to finish while the essay
writing test is much longer, 180 minutes. In addition, they need to have a certificate of TOEIC
(Test of English for International Communication) test with the minimum score of 700 as a
compulsory condition for their graduation. The TOEIC test that students at Lac Hong University
need to take is the kind with two subjects, namely reading and writing. From the conditions to
graduate mentioned above, it can be seen that reading accounts for a half in such conditions. And
the majority of the students are well aware of the significance of reading. Therefore, reading is
seen as a vital subject. In a smaller scope, reading skills and strategies hence do play an
important part to help students gain high score in the test.

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Since passing the exams to in order to graduate from university is vital to students,
students need to outperform in both the reading and writing exams. To do that, they need good
skills for the two subjects. The current study focuses on one main part of the exam, the reading
test. The thesis here attempts to equip students with appropriate factors to help them boost their
reading skill so as to achieve the highest performance in reading in general and in reading tests in
particular. One of the main factors is the use learning strategies integrated in the reading course
to boost students’ reading performance. The thesis is also expected to throw more light on
students’ strategy acquisition and use so that further study can dig deeper in this issue.
1.3 Definitions of variables and terms
1.3.1 Learning strategies
Throughout history, the definitions of learning strategies have been defined, improvised
and expanded by a number of experts in the field. A number of definitions of learning strategies
came out from different viewpoints towards them. With respect to the roles of learning strategies,
they can act as mediators linking learners’ individual factors to what they achieve in learning

(Ellis, 1999). Hence, it can be implied that learning strategies play a vital role in language
learning by pushing students to achieve their aims in learning. However, learning strategies are
not easy to define and still “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1999, p. 529). Ellis (1999) grouped learning strategies
into two types: language learning strategies and skill learning strategies. Language learning
strategies “are concerned with the learners’ attempt to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic
information about the target language” while skill learning strategies “are concerned with the
learners’ attempt to become skilled listeners, speakers, readers, or writers” (Tarone, 1980, as
cited in Ellis, 1999, p. 530) Thus, conclusion can be drawn that language learning strategies are
related to language areas while skill learning strategies are concerned with the four main skills in
second language learning.
Meanwhile, based on the aims of them, Oxford (1990) claimed that “learning strategies
are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning” (p. 1) and the author defined learning
strategies as “specific actions taken by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p.8). In this way,
learning strategies are more concrete as they are defined as the “steps” or “actions” that learners
take so smooth their language learning.

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Meanwhile, Chamot (2004) suggests that learning strategies are “the thoughts” and
“actions” by which learners employ to achieve their goals in learning. Cohen (2003) defined
language learning strategies as “conscious thoughts and behaviors” (p. 1) that learners use to
enhance their learning.
Though the definitions and classifications of learning strategies mentioned above hold the
same viewpoint that students intentionally and purposefully use learning strategies to achieve
their goals in second language learning.
1.3.2 Metacognitive and cognitive strategies
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies can be found in prominent writers’ and
researchers‘ taxonomies of language learning strategies.

Rubin (1987, as cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) classified language learning strategies into
three groups; learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies. Learning
strategies in Rubin’s taxonomy consist of metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies
(Hismanoglu, 2000). Cognitive learning strategies “refer to the steps or operations used in
learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning
materials” while metacognitive learning strategies “ are used to oversee, regulate, or self-direct
language learning” (Hismanoglu, 2000, pp. 2- 3)
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies are mentioned in Oxford (1990)’s model of six
groups of strategies; metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, memory strategies,
compensation strategies, social strategies, and affective strategies (p. 16). Oxford (1990) pointed
out “a common function” of cognitive strategies, i.e. “manipulating or transformation of the
target language by the learner” (p. 46). With respect to metacognitive strategies, Oxford (1990)
highlighted the relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies as:
“Metacognitive strategies mean beyond, beside, or with the cognitive. Therefore,
metacognitive strategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices, and which
provide a way for learners to coordinate their own learning process”
(p. 137)
Recently, White (2008) redefined cognitive strategies as “activities which learners use to
remember and develop language and to facilitate comprehension” and metacognitive strategies
as “activities which learners use to organize, monitor and evaluate how well they are
understanding.” (p. 213)

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1.3.3 Cognitive theory
“Cognitive theory sees SLA as the learning of a complex skills, one in which a range of
sub-skills must be practiced in ‘controlled’ processing until they can be integrated into
‘automatic’ or fluent performance.”
(Klapper, 2006, p. 57)

1.3.4 Anderson’s ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) Model
Anderson (1982) proposed a framework to show the process of skill acquisition under the
light of cognitive theory. This framework widely known as ACT consists of two main stages:
“declarative” and “procedural” stages (Anderson, 1982). More details of the two stages are
explained in the next part of this paper.
1.3.5 CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Approach) Model
One of the models for teaching learning strategies which was developed by Chamot
(Chamot, 2004) was the so-called CALLA. The model is claimed to be “recursive “(Chamot,
2004). The author highlighted that in this model teaching and learning strategies are cyclical
process by which students “have the options of revisiting prior instructional phrases as needed”
(Chamot, 2004, p. 21). CALLA model consists of six steps:
Preparation: Teacher identifies students; current learning strategies of familiar tasks.
Presentation: Teacher models, names, explains new strategy, asks students if and how
they have used it.
Practice: Students practice new strategy; in subsequent strategy practice, teacher fades
reminders to encourage independent strategy use
Self- evaluation: Students evaluate their own strategy use immediately after practice.
Expansion: Students transfer strategies to new tasks, combine into clusters, develop
repertoire of preferred strategies.
Assessment: Teachers assesses students’ use of strategies and impact on performance.
(Chamot, 2004, p. 22)
1.4 Statement of purpose
As mentioned above, although research into the effects of learning strategies and their
effects on second language learning has been conducted so far, there has not been much research
investigating the two intertwined facets of metacognitive and cognitive strategies at university
level in Vietnamese context. In addition, there is also a lack of research in to the strategy training

5

course and its effects on students’ reading performance. The rationales mentioned above lead to
the urgent need to conduct more studies to investigate these issues. Therefore the purposes of the
current study are three-fold: (1) to investigate the effects metacognitive and cognitive strategies
on students’ reading performance, (2) to explore the process of transmitting metacognitive and
cognitive strategies into a state that students can use them autonomously under the light of
cognitive theory represented via Anderson’s ACT model, (3) to investigate how students raise
their awareness of metacognitive and cognitive strategies to better perform in reading.
1.5 Significance of the study
The current study is significant for the students and teachers who took part in this study.
In addition, findings drawn from this study are expected to help unlock the door to successful
reading.
As for the students, this present research is expected to contribute to their reading
performance as they observe the effectiveness of metacognitive and cognitive strategies in
second language reading. They have chance to sharpen their old reading strategies and expand
these existed strategies with the new scientific system of strategies integrated in the training
course, which is bound to lead the improvement in reading performance. Furthermore, they can
equip themselves with appropriate reading strategies to become more successful language
learners, which may motivate them in language learning. With respect to the teachers, this study
is intended to provide them a closer look at the positive effects of metacognitive and cognitive
strategies on students’ reading performance along with the learner-strategy approach. As a result,
English teachers may unlock the key to a successful teaching approach that will boost students’
reading performance. As for the teachers, they can see how strategies can help students boost
their performance in reading. They can also notice the ways students acquire new strategies for
later application in their career. Specially, they can expand strategy training not just in reading
but also in many other subjects. In addition, the present study provide teachers with the process
of how students transmit strategies from short term to long term memory, which guide teachers
to diagnose and trigger their students’ reading performance.

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1.6 Research questions
This thesis was set to answer the following main question:
How effectively do metacognitive and cognitive strategies affect students’ reading
performance?
This main research question is then underlined by four sub-questions related to students’
reading performance before and after the training course, their frequency of strategy use, their
process of strategy acquisition and their attitudes towards the strategy training course. Thus, to
answer the main question, the thesis is set to answer the four following sub-questions:
1. To what extent does the use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies affect students’
reading performance?
2. What are the changes in students’ use of strategy in terms of frequency after the
course?
3. What are students’ perceptions on the process of strategy acquisition?
4. What are students’ attitudes towards the strategy training course?
1.7 Structure of the thesis
There are five chapters of the thesis which are organized as:
Chapter 1 describes the background of the study, along with its significance, statement of
purpose and the research questions. Chapter 2 highlights the literature review. Chapter describes
the research design and methods used for data collection. Chapter 4 involves data analysis from
three sources, namely students’ test scores, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. This
chapter focuses on how data is used to answer the previous research questions and to write up the
findings drawn from data analysis. Chapter 5 presents conclusions and suggestions for further
research.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

This chapter mainly focused on definitions of reading and their related aspects such as the
kinds of reading, reading processes, and the main factors of reading comprehension. This chapter
also provided a brief review of previous studies on good readers to draw out good lessons to
boost poor readers’ performance. The relationship between strategies and good reading
comprehension was also discussed. The history of learning strategies was briefly mentioned.
Definitions, classifications, and taxonomies of learning strategies proposed by prominent authors
were found in this chapter. The intertwined relationship between metacognitive and cognitive
strategies was mentioned in detail. Before embarking on the integration of learning strategies
into the reading course to boost students’ reading performance, the roles of the course and
teachers were comprehensively presented.
2.2 Reading
2.2.1 L1 and L2 reading
With inference to the differences and similarities between reading in students’ mother
tongue (L1 reading) and reading in second language (L2 reading), Phaekity (2006) claimed that
L1 is similar to L2 reading. Thus, students tend to mirror what they do in L1 reading in L2
reading (Phaekity, 2005). For examples, students have a tendency to employ the reading
strategies used in L1 into L2 reading. Commenting on the similarities between L1 and L2
reading, Anderson (1984) claimed that reading is both a reading problem and a language
problem (as cited in Wallace, 2001). He argued that good L2 readers could bridge the gaps of
languages during reading process.
2.2.2 Definitions of reading
Reading, along with listening is a receptive skill by which means that readers need to
decode the meaning from what they see (Harmer, 2001). The ability to decode the meaning of
the text is extremely necessary when readers learn how to read (Adam, 2011). These definitions
share a consensus on emphasizing students’ efforts in decoding the meaning of a reading text in
order to achieve a full comprehension of it. This process is found in a definition of reading
proposed in Zare-ee’s study (2007) in which reading is defined as a receptive language process
that students are required to go through the process of internalizing the language input given to
comprehend the text. Moreover, students can activate their background knowledge relating to the

8


reading topic to help them comprehend the text. In addition, readers then are provided language
input from the text and from the aids of their teachers. In addition, they can be put in a new
context which is mentioned by Scramm (2008) as she claimed that second language learners are
put into the language environment than the first language. Such reading process seems to be
passive at the first glance as readers are given resources from the teachers to gasp the
comprehension of the text. In fact, both reading and listening were considered to be passive
(Wallace, 2001) in the past. However, the reading process is not as passive as it seems. Since the
role of reading has been increasing through time, the traditional role of reading has gradually
changed. Wallace (2001) claimed that reading is an interactive process. The author pointed out
that the interactiveness can be observed in the process that students actively interact with the text
to reconstruct its meaning (Wallace, 2001). Agreed with Wallace’ viewpoint, a number of
authors shared the premise that reading is an active process (Silberstein, 1994; Scramm, 2001).
Silberstein (1994) proposed a similar definition of reading which emphasizes the cognitive
feature of reading process. During the process, students continuously interact with the text to
construct their own understanding of the text. Hence, reading process seems to be passive at first
but is an active process due to students’ continuous interaction in their reading process. In a
similar vein, the same viewpoints of reading can be found in the work focusing on the topic
about reading and good language learners. Scramm (2001) wrote that reading is an active
process in which readers build the meaning of a given text.
Likewise, Mikulecky (2008) highlighted the role of cognition in her definition of reading.
She argued that “reading is conscious and unconscious thinking process” (Mikulecky, 2008). A
more comprehensive definition of reading is proposed by Klingner, Vaugh, and Boardman
(2007) that reading is a multicomponent, complex, and interactive process.
Wallace (2001) provided a much more comprehensive definition of reading by stating
that reading is more than a process. As the roles of learners in second language learning have
been emphasized, the role of reading has changed accordingly. Reading can be redefined as a
practice, process or product depends on its focus in reading process. Reading is a practice as one

focus on students’ efforts to apply reading in both classroom context and their daily life. Reading
is viewed as product when students are directed to focus on the elements of text (vocabulary,
sentences, and so forth) and what constitutes both the form and meaning of the text. The view of
reading as a process stresses the roles that readers perform in their process of reconstructing the

9


meaning of the text employing tools such as the strategies used. In this study, reading covers the
three aspects of Wallace’s definition of reading. Reading is both a practice and a process as
students are struggling to practice using learning strategies to remove the roadblocks to
comprehension. Reading is a product when readers are expected to successfully reconstruct the
meaning of the text. Hence, Wallace’s definition of reading is aligned with the view of reading of
this study.
2.2.3 The goals of reading
From the definitions of reading mentioned above, different viewpoints of reading lead to
various focuses on the roles of reading. The bulk of research conducted so far has exclusively
focused on reading comprehension. In fact, reading comprehension stills plays a key role and is
worth further research (Shieh & Freiermuth, 2010). Williams and Atkins (2009) hold that
reading comprehension is “the most important achievement” to students (p. 26). Meanwhile,
Klinger, Vaugh, and Boardman (2007) pondered the three following main goals of reading
comprehension: the text meaning, learning experience, and the joys of reading. The authors
argued that the meaning that students have constructed from the reading materials is more
important than what they employ during reading process. In this way, this viewpoint swings it
pendulum on side that reading is a product rather than a process. In contrast, the ultimate goal of
reading is not reading comprehension (Macalister, 2011). Learners do not just read texts limited
in classroom contexts. They have great chance of spending more time on reading outside their
classrooms which is widely refereed as extensive reading. As a result, they are likely to gain
more values rather than reading comprehension. Hence, it is much more beneficial and essential
to equip readers with skills and strategies for their future reading (Macalister, 2011). However,

one might question the author about the role of comprehension. Is it important to master skills
and strategies than to fully comprehend a reading text? In fact, there is a close relationship
between the ways readers read a text and their levels of comprehension. Thus, students who have
good reading skills and wise use of strategies are bound to achieve high level of comprehension.
In addition to reading skills and reading strategies, there are perhaps other ingredients of good
reading comprehension. Hence, it is more important to reading comprehension and recognize
the factors that contribute to a high level of comprehension.

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2.3 Factors of reading comprehension
One of the definitions of reading comprehension is reading is defined as a “skill” that
readers need to focus on (Abdelrahman & Bsharah, 2014, p. 168). This viewpoint indicated that
reading comprehension is similar to reading strategies employed by the students to comprehend
the text. This seems to be rather confusing as students may mistake their reading strategies with
reading comprehension. A question like this could be raised as” Do students who master good
reading skills are likely to gain high level of reading comprehension?” To full answer this
question, a clearer definition of reading comprehension is needed in this case. A comprehensive
definition of reading is proposed by Williams and Atkins (2009) that a full comprehension of the
text means that readers can connect the main ideas of the text. Moreover, they can have a critical
look at what they comprehend from the text and apply this new knowledge in new learning.
Specially, a full comprehension consists of various factors such as identifying meaning(s) of new
words, dealing with sentences, connecting main ideas, and the action of inference (Williams&
Atkins, 2009). Other researchers stated that readers need a more effective tool, comprehension
questions, in order to achieve the goal of reading comprehension. In fact, comprehension
questions are designed to help readers directing and monitoring their process of reading to reach
its comprehension. As readers can provide meaningful answers to comprehension questions,
which means they can comprehend the text successfully. Comprehension questions can help
learner monitor the reading process so that they can achieve the aims outlined in advance

(Mudzielwana, 2013). This kind of questions helps them allocate their attentions, check,
evaluate, and improvise their progress. Comprehensions questions are usually available in the
reading text and can be added by teachers to ease students’ struggles in reading. It is worth
noticing that comprehension questions should be interesting enough to trigger students to
answer. In addition, active learners can invent the comprehension questions themselves to help
them comprehend the text immediately in the reading process without waiting help from their
teachers. Another element which contributes to reading comprehension is vocabulary (Shieh &
Freiermuth, 2010). At the first glance, one may believe that learners who know the meaning of
all lexical items are expected to comprehend the texts successfully. In a similar vein, Harmer
(2001) in his definition of reading stresses students’ ability of decoding the meaning from the
text. However, good ability of decoding does not necessarily result in high reading
comprehension. In fact, readers may decode the text correctly but are unable to comprehend the

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text (Williams & Atkins, 2009). Readers may know the meaning of all the new words but fail to
see the links of the words. One possible explanation is that the meaning of the same words may
vary in different contexts ( Phakity, 2006). Thus, they cannot gasp the meaning of words in large
and new contexts for the similar lexical items. As a result, they cannot achieve a full
comprehension of the text. Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) highlighted two vital factors of
reading, namely the awareness of strategy and the ways readers monitor their reading
comprehension. The former focuses on the strategy that learners use to help them overcome
challenges occurring during the reading process while the latter is related to their efforts in
checking and evaluating reading comprehension.
Along with reading strategies, students’ background knowledge can contribute greatly to
reading comprehension (Learned, Stockdill & Moije, 2011). To construct the meaning of the
reading text, students can activate their pre-knowledge relating to the topics of the text to smooth
their reading comprehension. Students’ background knowledge can be the knowledge relating to
the language of the text, students’ skills of reading text, and so on. In many cases, readers’ preknowledge can equip students with the necessary information relating to the topics of the text.

However, one major issue is that this pre-knowledge is complex and diverse among the students.
Each student possess different levels of knowledge related to the topic of a text and. Regarding
to students’ background knowledge, Phakity (2006) pointed out a number of factors that affect
reading comprehension including learners’ language competence, personal factors, and reading
tests.
Relating to the taxonomies of reading comprehension, Anderson (2003) provided a
diagram of reading comprehension which is made up from 4 main elements reading strategies,
reading texts, the fluency, and the way readers constitute the act of reading. The author went
further to emphasize the importance of background knowledge in reading. In his opinion, to
achieve the full comprehension, students need to orchestrate their background knowledge and the
information from the text.
With inference to other factors contributing to second language reading, researchers have
shifted their focus on automaticity during reading process. Anderson (2000) indicated that the
more automatic the reading process is, the more efficient reading will be (as cited in Phaekity,
2006, p. 55). In a smaller paradigm, Rasinski and Samuels (2011) linked automaticity to the
speed of word recognition. They concluded that good readers are good at word recognition. They

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can recognize new words rapidly, which saves them from spending too much time and efforts on
such process compared to the poor readers. Readers who are low in automaticity need to spend
more time on recognizing new words, which reduces the time resource for their reading. As a
result, their reading speed is stagnating. In contrast, readers with high automaticity have more
time to attend to the meaning of the text, which means that they have greater chance to gain
higher level of reading comprehension. Related to the vocabulary of a text, language
comprehension means that students can understand what they can decode from the text (Adlof,
Perfetti & Catts, 2011). Students do not only recognize the words but also fully grasp the
meaning of the words. Hence, students’ mastering the meaning of new words can contribute
greatly to reading comprehension (Adlof, Perfetti & Catts, 2011). In short, it can be concluded

that the automaticity of word recognition possess a significant relationship with reading speed
and reading comprehension (Rasinski & Samuels, 2011). Likewise, Anderson (2000) indicated
that the more automatic the reading process is, the more efficient reading will be (as cited in
Phakity, 2006, p. 55)
Another factor of reading comprehension is reading fluency which means the “prosody”
of the text (Rasinski & Samuels, 2011). This factor focuses on the rhythm of the sentences in a
text. When reading a text, students tend not to read the text monotonously. Readers struggle to
build up their own the rhythm of the sentences and then build the whole rhythm of the text. To
do this, students need to recognize features of phonics such as the pronunciation of word,
phrases, and sentences. At the first glance, it can create the impression that students need to read
every text out loud to gain reading fluency. In contrast, fluency of reading can be gained through
silent reading. Rasinski and Samuels (2011) pointed out that students can hear “an internal
voice” when they reading text silently (p. 99). The quality of this voice tells the readers the
degree of their reading fluency.
Another characteristic of good reading comprehension is the cognitive process that
students need to go through before they can comprehend a text thoroughly (Adlof, Perfetti, &
Catts, 2011). They use their minds to guess, plan, monitor and evaluate their reading process all
the time. In addition, they have to go through other processes such as memorizing new words,
checking their answers, and so forth.
In conclusion, the analysis above provides a clearer picture of such abstract thing as
reading comprehension. There are a number of factors that contribute to reading comprehension.

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It is widely acknowledged that reading comprehension is complex and multifaceted.
Investigation into reading comprehension may help throw light on the path way to the goal of
reading comprehension.
2.4 The ways we read
When readers are reading a text, the majority of them tend to neglect the complexity of

the reading process (Scramm, 2008). The author went to state that readers need to employ their
background knowledge and develop their resources of receptive skills in order to help them
understand the meaning of a given text. Though it seems that teachers have few things to do with
students’ background knowledge, teachers in fact can give guidance to help students expand their
“pre-knowledge” (p. 231). Cook (2008) consolidated this theme by pointing out that reading
process is not limited in the text given alone, which means the meaning of a text is the derivation
of both a text and readers' background knowledge.
Harmer (2001) classified reading into two broad types: extensive and intensive reading.
The main feature that helps distinguish extensive from intensive reading is students’ choice of
reading materials. As for extensive reading, students have the right to choose for themselves the
materials to read, which is encouraged by their teachers. As for intensive reading, the materials
for reading are chosen in advance. To develop the balance of two kinds of reading, students
should be involved in two kinds of reading in order to improve their reading skills. Harmer also
pointed out the three major receptive reading skills that students need to master: (1) reading for
gist (known as skimming to get the main ideas of the text), (2) reading for specific information
(known as scanning), and reading for inference (to find out what is between the lines and
attitude) (p. 283).
The kind of reading that participants mainly encounter in the course is intensive reading
as the reading materials are decided by the department in advance. The aims of the course are
also identified with the materials. As for the aims, students are expected to learn vocabulary and
expand their knowledge of business. As for the skills, they are expected to dig deeper in reading
skills and develop the speaking through discussion.
2.5 Reading Processes
2.5.1 Bottom up and top down process
Bottom-up process is made up from low levels of reading process. Readers start with the
lowest levels such as identifying letters and sounds. And then move on to morpheme recognition

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followed by word recognition which in turns allows readers to identify larger and longer
components such as words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. And finally they can achieve the
comprehension of the text (Anderson, 2003).
As for the top-down process, Anderson (2003) stated that top-down processes emphasize
that meaning is located inside the readers. Readers activate their background knowledge and
make predictions before reading the text to find out information for their predictions made in
advance. Meanwhile, Scramm (2008) based on the amount of pre-knowledge used by students to
make the distinction between top-down and bottom-up processes. As students need to use their
background knowledge in both top-down and bottom-up processes, there is an interaction among
the two processes. Meanwhile, Wallace (2001) stated that the top-down processes in reading
mainly rest on students' bringing their background knowledge to boost their reading
performance.
When reading comprehension breaks down, students need an efficient tool to help them
repair their comprehension (Williams & Atskin, 2009). This tool aims to help learners pinpoint
the problems and find out the solutions to help them comprehend the text. The readers then need
to employ a high level of thinking so as to overcome these obstacles in reading, which means
that they are highly conscious of what they are doing. They need to plan, monitor, and evaluate
both their reading process and the strategies employed. And conscious strategies are the tool
required (Williams & Atskin, 2009).
2.6 Previous literature on features of good L2 readers
Under the strong effects of Rubin’s work of investigating features of good learners in
order to help poor learners, a myriad of research has been conducted with this paradigm in order
to demystify factors that help good learners succeed in second language learning and then apply
the factors to boost poor learners’ performance. Following this theme, a number of research into
good readers has been conducted in order to help poor readers to achieve better comprehension.
Findings from the research weaved in this theme have offer light into factors that help boosting
reading comprehension.
It is inevitable that learners encounter language tasks in their second language learning.
Wong and Nunan (2011) argued that at least a single strategy lies in every single task even
though learners are not aware of this. The significant difference is that good learners are aware of

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