Effects of collaborative learning on writing skills and attitudes of intermediate non english major students at english zone center of hoa sen university a thesis submitted in partial fulfi

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

EFFECTS OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING ON WRITING SKILLS AND
ATTITUDES OF INTERMEDIATE NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT
ENGLISH ZONE CENTER OF HOA SEN UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by NGUYEN THI THANH HUYEN

Supervisor
Dr. BUI THI THUC QUYEN

Ho Chi Minh City, August, 2016


STATEMENT OF AUTHORITY
I certify that this thesis entitled “Effects of Collaborative Learning on Writing Skills and
Attitudes of Intermediate Non-English Major Students at English Zone Center of Hoa
Sen University” is my own work.
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis does not contain material
puplished elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified
for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the
thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other
tertiary institution.
Ho Chi Minh, August 2016

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen

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RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS
I hereby state that I, Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen, being the candidate for the degree of Master
of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention of use of
Master’s Theses deposited in the Library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library
should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal
conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses.
Ho Chi Minh City, 2016

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my great appreciation and sincere feelings to all those who have
assisted me to fulfill this master’s thesis.
My first deepest gratitude is reserved for my thesis supervisor, Dr. Bui Thi Thuc Quyen
who read my thesis with care and patience, gave me insightful comments, enthusiastic
guidance and constructive suggestions. I am also grateful to her for her constant
encouragement and valuable orientation, especially in challenging moments during the
preparation of the research. I would not have finished this thesis without her valuable support
both mentally and emotionally.
Besides my supervisor, I would like to take this opportunity to thank all my devoted
lecturers who taught me a great deal and gave me the inspiration to pursue my profession

while I was taking the courses at The Open University. All of their goodness will be engraved
on my memory forever.
I am also deeply indebted to my parents and my brother who have always supported
me, encouraged me when I am down and inspired me throughout the process of completion
of the study.
I am most grateful to all of my colleagues and staff members of English Zone Center of
Hoa Sen University (EZC of HSU) for their helps, comments and encouragement during the
time I carried out the research.
Last but not least, I offer my regards and blessings to all students who were willing to
participate in my thesis. Without their contribution, the thesis would not have been
completed.

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ABSTRACT
Collaborative learning (CL) in writing is regarded as an effective method to contribute
to the success of learners in writing. A large number of previous studies investigated the use
of collaborative learning in writing and showed that collaborative learning in writing had
positive effects on learners’ performance. However, most studies were still uncertain of
which aspects of writing skills were improved significantly after applying collaborative
learning. Additionally, most of previous studies focused on investigating how collaborative
learning in writing affected learners’ writing performance or their attitudes separately, while
few studies investigated the effects of collaborative learning in writing on both learners’
writing skills and their attitudes. Also, there is no reseach related to CL in writing carried out
at English Zone Center of Hoa Sen University. Therefore, this study is designed to fill these
gaps. In particular, this study aims to investigate the influence of collaborative learning on
intermediate non-English major students’ writing skills and their attitudes towards using
collaborative learning in teaching writing at EZC of HSU.
To fulfill the aims, the quasi-experimental study was carried out from early September

to December of the academic year 2015-2016 at the head office of EZC of HSU with the
enthusiastic participation of 46 students from two classes (class EGC 2- 2700 and class EGC
2- 1200) of intermediate level. Class EGC 2- 2700 was chosen as the control group which
included 14 males and 9 females. Meanwhile, class EGC 2-1200 was chosen as the
experimental group which consisted of 16 males and 7 females. Data collection was from the
pre-test, the post-test, the questionnaire, and the interview.
The findings of the study revealed that (1) the students in the experimental group had
higher significant improvement in writing skills than those in the control group did in terms
of organization, mechanics (grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling), and sentence
variation and transitions. (2) Most of the students’ perceptions towards collaborative learning
in writing were highly positive. Especially, according to them, they highly evaluated its
significant contribution to improve their writing performance, motivation, and critical
thinking.
Based on the findings, some recommendations were given for the teachers who are
interested in applying collaborative learning in writing class to improve students’ writing
skills.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORITY .............................................................................................. i
RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS .............................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS ........................................................................................ xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ....................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the study .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Aims of the study ............................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Research questions ........................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Organization of the study ................................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 6
2.1 Writing teaching and learning .......................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Definition of writing .................................................................................................. 6
2.1.2 Reasons for teaching and learning writing ................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Aspects of writing skill .............................................................................................. 9
2.1.4 Approaches to teaching writing ............................................................................... 11
2.1.5 Writing process ........................................................................................................ 15
2.2 Collaborative learning .................................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Definition of collaborative learning ......................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Characteristics of collaborative learning ................................................................. 19
2.2.3 Benefits and drawbacks of collaborative learning ................................................... 22
2.3 Teacher’s and learner’s roles in collaborative learning .................................................. 28
2.3.1 Teacher’s roles ......................................................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Learner’s roles ......................................................................................................... 29
2.4 Collaborative learning in writing ................................................................................... 30
2.5 Previous studies .............................................................................................................. 31
2.6 Chapter summary ........................................................................................................... 34
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 35
3.1 Research design .............................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Research site ................................................................................................................... 36
3.3 Participants ..................................................................................................................... 37

3.4 Teaching material and time distribution for the implement of the material ................... 40
3.4.1 Teaching material .................................................................................................... 40
3.4.2 Time distribution for the implement of the material ............................................... 41
3.5 Lesson plans for experimental group and control group ................................................ 42
3.5.1 Lesson plan for EG .................................................................................................. 42
3.5.2 Lesson plan for CG .................................................................................................. 45
3.6 Instruments ..................................................................................................................... 46
3.6.1 Tests ......................................................................................................................... 46
3.6.2 Questionnaire for experimental group ..................................................................... 47
3.6.3 Interview .................................................................................................................. 48
3.7 Procedures of the study .................................................................................................. 49
3.7.1 Pilot study ................................................................................................................ 50
3.7.2 Training teacher ....................................................................................................... 51
3.7.3 Training students of the experimental and control group before the treatment ....... 52
3.7.4 Teaching procedure for the experimental and control group .................................. 54
3.7.5 Procedure for conducting the tests ........................................................................... 56
3.7.6 Procedure for conducting the questionnaire ............................................................ 57
3.7.7 Procedure for conducting the interview................................................................... 57
3.8 Assessing the writing paper tests ................................................................................... 57
3.9 Data analysis .................................................................................................................. 58
3.9.1 Analysis of student’s tests ....................................................................................... 58
3.9.2 Analysis of student questionnaire ............................................................................ 59
3.9.3 Analysis of student interview .................................................................................. 59
3.10 Reliability and validity ................................................................................................. 60
3.11 Ethical and legal consideration .................................................................................... 61
3.12 Chapter summary ......................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ......................................... 62
4.1 Data analysis and interpretation of tests’ scores (in response to research question 1)... 62
4.1.1 Independent samples t-test on the pre-test of the control group (CG) and
experimental group (EG) .................................................................................................. 62

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4.1.2 Pair samples t-test of control group in pre-test and post-test................................... 64
4.1.3 Pair samples t-test of experimental group in pre-test and post-test ......................... 65
4.1.4 Checking assumption about normal distribution of the tests’ scores ...................... 67
4.2 Data analysis and interpretation of questionnaire (in response to research question 2) . 70
4.2.1 Students’ attitudes towards the use of collaborative learning in writing class ........ 70
4.2.2 Students’ suggestions about the use of collaborative learning in writing................ 80
4.3 Analysis of the interview (in response to research question 2) ...................................... 81
4.4 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ..................................................................... 86
5.1 Discussion of findings on students’ writing skills (in response to research question 1) 86
5.2 Discussion of findings on students’ attitudes (in response to research question 2) ....... 87
5.2.1 The students’ attitudes towards the positive statements .......................................... 87
5.2.2 The students’ attitudes towards the negative statements ......................................... 89
5.2.3 The students’ attitudes towards other statements .................................................... 91
5.3 Chapter Summary........................................................................................................... 91
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 92
6.1 Main conclusions of the study........................................................................................ 92
6.2 Implications .................................................................................................................... 93
6.3 Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 96
6.4 Recommendations for further research .......................................................................... 96
6.5 Chapter Summary........................................................................................................... 97
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 98
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 ......................................................................................................................... 109
APPENDIX 2 ......................................................................................................................... 110
APPENDIX 3 ......................................................................................................................... 111
APPENDIX 4 ......................................................................................................................... 113

APPENDIX 5 ......................................................................................................................... 116
APPENDIX 6 ......................................................................................................................... 119
APPENDIX 7 ......................................................................................................................... 120
APPENDIX 8 ......................................................................................................................... 122
APPENDIX 9 ......................................................................................................................... 126
APPENDIX 10 ....................................................................................................................... 132
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APPENDIX 11 ....................................................................................................................... 134
APPENDIX 12 ....................................................................................................................... 135
APPENDIX 13 ....................................................................................................................... 136
APPENDIX 14 ....................................................................................................................... 137
APPENDIX 15 ....................................................................................................................... 138
APPENDIX 16 ....................................................................................................................... 139
APPENDIX 17 ....................................................................................................................... 140
APPENDIX 18 ....................................................................................................................... 141
APPENDIX 19 ....................................................................................................................... 142
APPENDIX 20 ....................................................................................................................... 143
APPENDIX 21 ....................................................................................................................... 144
APPENDIX 22 ....................................................................................................................... 148
APPENDIX 23 ....................................................................................................................... 154
APPENDIX 24 ....................................................................................................................... 160

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1: Structure of the nonequivalent control group design with pretest and posttest .....35
Table 3.2: Summary of the characteristics of the control group and experimental group…..39
Table 3.3: Structure of writing part In Supplementary Materials for Reading and Writing
book........................................................................................................................................ 41
Table 3.4: Summary of lesson plan for experimental group .................................................. 45
Table 3.5: Summary of the lesson plan for the control group ............................................... 46
Table 3.6: Schedule for the main stages of the research ........................................................ 49
Table 3.7: The teaching schedule for the EG and CG ........................................................... 54
Table 4.1: Group statistics on pre-test of control group and experimental group ................. 63
Table 4.2: Independent samples t-test on the pre-test of the control group and experimental
group ................................................................................................................... 63
Table 4.3: Paired samples statistics for control group in pre-test and post-test ..................... 64
Table 4.4: Results of paired samples test for control group in pre-test and post-test ............ 64
Table 4.5: Paired samples statistics for experimental group in pre-test and post-test ........... 65
Table 4.6: Paired samples test for experimental group in pre-test and post-test ................... 65
Table 4.7: The results of writing performance for organization, content, sentence variation &
transitions, vocabulary and mechanics (grammar, punctuation, capitalization,
spelling) .............................................................................................................. 66
Table 4.8: Test of normality in the pre-test’s scores of the control group and experimental
group ................................................................................................................... 68
Table 4.9: Test of normality in the post-test’s scores of the control group and experimental
group ................................................................................................................... 69

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Table 4.10: Students’ attitude towards their writing skills after implementing CL in writing ..
............................................................................................................................ 71
Table 4.11: Students’ attitude towards other skills after implementing CL in writing.......... 72
Table 4.12: Students’ attitude towards motivation and confidence after implementing CL in

writing ................................................................................................................ 73
Table 4.13: Students’ attitude towards collective effort and responsibility after implementing
CL in writing ...................................................................................................... 74
Table 4.14: Students’ attitude towards problem-solving and knowledge exchange after
implementing CL in writing ............................................................................... 75
Table 4.15: Students’ attitude towards academic improvement after implementing CL in
writing ................................................................................................................ 75
Table 4.16: Students’ attitude towards positive statements after implementing CL in writing .
............................................................................................................................ 77
Table 4.17: Students’ attitudes towards negative statements of collaborative learning in
writing ................................................................................................................ 78
Table 4.18: Students’ attitudes towards other statements of collaborative learning in writing .
............................................................................................................................ 79
Table 4.19: Students’ suggestions about the use of collaborative learning in writing .......... 80

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LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS

Page
Figure 2.1: The process of the writing skill by Hedge (1988) ·································· 15
Chart 4.1: Normal distribution of the pre-test’s scores in the control group and
experimental group ······································································ 68
Chart 4.2: Normal distribution of the post-test’s scores in the control group and
experimental group ····································································· 69

xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATION
EZC: English Zone Center
HSU: Hoa Sen University
CL: Collaborative Learning
ESL: English as a Second Language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
BA: Bachelor of Arts
MA: Master of Arts
L2: Second language
EGC: English for Global Communication
EG: Experimental Group
CG: Control Group

xii


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The introduction chapter helps lay background information essential for an
understanding of the issues discussed in this study. Also, it is established with the framework
of the thesis consisting of (1) background of the study (2) statement of the problem, (3) aims
of the study, (4) research questions, (5) significance of the study, and (6) organization of the
study.
1.1 Background of the study
Nowadays, English is an international language and has been playing an important role
in many aspects of life such as studying, communicating and entertaining, etc. Therefore,
learning English is becoming more importance not only to Vietnamese people but also to
people all over the world. As a result, English is considered as a key leading to success in life
when English becomes globalized. Hence, English has become one of the obligatory subjects
in most schools in Vietnam. Especially, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in
recent years has made an immense effort to reform education system including textbook

development and teaching training with the goal of learning English which is focused on how
to help learners use English effectively. It means that four English skills namely listening,
speaking, reading and writing are considered equally important and should be treated equally
among learners.
As a matter of fact, every skill has its own importance and difficulty that can make it
different from other skills. Nevertheless, among of these skills writing is generally considered
the most difficult skill for students to acquire and for teachers to teach. Kroll (1990) said that
“becoming a writer is a complex and on going process, and becoming a writing teacher is no
less complex” (p.1). Also Langan (1987) and Gunning (1998) agree that writing can be a
challenging skill for learners to learn because it is more complex and abstract than talk. In
addition, Dyson and Freedman (1991) add that “writing requires simultaneous use of
phonological, graphic, orthographic, semantic, syntactic, and discourse rule systems” (p.762).
Obviously, writing is a complicated skill to teach as well as to learn since in order to
write well learners have to face with a lot of difficulties in terms of social and cognitive
challenges. However, the writing teaching in Vietnam such as introducing new words,
reading passage, doing grammar tasks, is still common. It means the methodology seems to
lay emphasis on the product approach rather than on the process approach. Moreover, in
Vietnam, students are often asked to write individually and then get feedback from the
1


teacher. Therefore, some of the problems can be found in English writing classrooms such as
learners’ fear of writing, lack of motivation, lack of ideas, poor vocabulary, and lack of
planning (Fulwiler & Young, 1982). In fact, it is very difficult for students to learn well as
they are isolated receivers of knowledge. Hence, learning collaboratively is an essential
component of a writing classroom because it can encourage students to become more deeply
engaged in their writing.
1.2 Statement of the problem
At Hoa Sen University (HSU), students are in need of English mostly for education
requirements, career prospects and employment opportunities. In fact, there are many

subjects taught in English. Hence, students are required to be able to approach their
professional materials written in English. Moreover, benchmark for graduation is applied for
students to make sure all students are well-qualified in English language and can used it for
further studying or for their job in the future. For example, students at college have to submit
an English certificate with IELTS of 4.5, but students at University have to get IELTS of 5.0.
For this reason, English Zone Center of Hoa Sen University (EZC of HSU) is established
with the aim to inspire and empower students to develop competence as well as confidence
and progress in the educational environment of international quality. At EZC of HSU,
textbooks were chosen from international publishers and are modern and up-to-date.
Furthermore, the four skills are scheduled and taught in separated periods or classes in order
to help students have deep understanding and good practice for each skill.
For intermediate level, students are taught grammar, listening, speaking based on
Solutions 2nd edition intermediate by Oxford University Press. However, writing is taught
based on Supplementary Materials for Reading and Writing composed by experienced
teachers at EZC of HSU for internal use only. In this book, there are 5 units for writing. Each
unit is designed consisting of three main parts such as writing skill, grammar and unit
assignment. Each part includes a lot of smaller assignments for students to practice. Unit
assignment of intermediate level mainly includes writing a short paragraph of 150- 180 words
related to some paragraph types such as descriptive, opinion, etc.
In writing and reading period, teachers often have about 120 minutes for teaching both
reading and writing. However, teachers have to check attendance, students’ vocabulary
template and revise the previous lesson. Therefore, the time for teaching writing is only about
50 minutes. In reality, 50 minutes is not enough for teaching theory and asking students to do
all activities related to the theory and then write the unit assignment in the textbook. After
2


teaching theory and giving time for students to write, sometimes teachers don’t have enough
time for peer feedback as well as give correction. Therefore, many of teachers at EZC often
collect all students’ papers and give correction at home with hope that students will review

their mistakes in writing and avoid doing the same mistakes in the future. However, when
teachers give the papers back to students, many of them often put them aside or pay much
attention on how many points they get for their work without caring much about the errors
highlighted by teachers. It is evident that writing is a real obstacle for many writing teachers.
Furthermore, many teachers at EZC state that writing individually may help their
students get higher scores in the final exam because students are able to manage the whole
writing process on their own and may deal with difficulties when they get stuck in writing.
For this reason, writing is still considered as an activity which is done mostly individually
rather than collaboratively.
Through years of teaching at EZC, it is not uncommon to notify that students at
intermediate level show lack of interest as they often have to write individually which makes
writing class boring. Sometimes, they encounter some problems in transfer their thoughts into
words. In this situation, they really need help from others, but they can’t ask others because
other students have to focus on doing their own writing. Therefore, it is easier make student
get the feeling of giving up whenever they get stuck. Many teachers believe that their
students can overcome their difficulty by themselves. However, it is really difficult for nonEnglish major students. In fact, In spite of at intermediate level, students still deal with many
problems while writing such as difficulty in expressing and organizing ideas, finding
appropriate words, phrases, connectors, and changing or combining sentence structures for
writing effectively.
As a result, teachers at EZC had the common complaint that their students’ writing
achievement were generally poor compared with other skills. As a matter of fact, many
teachers realize that many students at EZC of HSU prefer to learn other skills rather than
writing. Sometimes, teachers may feel disappointed with the fact that many students are very
good at speaking, listening, but may get low scores in writing. That is why it is necessary for
teachers to find out another ways to teach writing in order to offer students a chance to
discuss and work together to help them learn from each other from the early stage. Thus,
students can arouse their interest in learning and activate their positive energy in the writing
classroom.

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Eventually, the above considerations provided the researcher with the idea of attempting
to conduct the study to help not only the students at EZC of HSU increase interest in writing
but also teachers at EZC of HSU know how to use CL effectively.
1.3 Aims of the study
This study, therefore, aims to investigate the influence of collaborative learning on
intermediate non-English major students’ writing skills at EZC of HSU and their attitudes
towards using collaborative learning in teaching writing.
1.4 Research questions
In order to achieve above purposes of the research, the study is designed to answer the
following questions:
1. To what extent does collaborative learning influence intermediate non-English major
students’ writing skills at EZC of HSU?
2. What are intermediate non-English major students’ attitudes towards the use of
collaborative learning in writing class at EZC of HSU?
1.5 Significance of the study
This study is significant because of the reasons as listed below:
Firstly, it is expected that the study will contribute to clarify to what extent
collaborative learning might promote students’ achievement and their positive attitudes in
writing.
Secondly, the most importance point of this study is that researcher based on both
theory and practical knowledge to design the useful, interesting and appropriate lesson plan
which might enhance students’ background knowledge, interest and writing skills.
Thirdly, this study in the future can be seen as a useful source of reference for the
teachers not only at the EZC of HSU but also other teachers who feel interested in this field
to consult to use collaborative learning in teaching writing.
Lastly, the findings of the result can also raise teachers’ awareness of the role of
collaborative learning while making the writing lesson plan as well as provide them with the
inspiration for teaching writing.

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1.6 Organization of the study
The thesis is organized into six chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study by introducing back ground of the study,
statement of the problem, the aims, research questions, research significant, and organization
of the study.
Chapter 2 reviews the relevant theories which can be served as the background for the
whole research.
Chapter 3 describes methodology of the study
Chapter 4 presents the results of the study, and analyzes the results to point out findings.
Chapter 5 presents discussion of the finding which consists of two main parts one in
relation to the students’ writing skills and the other to their attitudes towards learning writing
with collaborative learning.
Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by presenting a summary of the findings, making
implications, presenting limitations of the study, and giving recommendations for further
research and lastly summarizing the overview of the study.
The next chapter will focus on the literature review of the thesis.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
In the previous chapter, background information to the study has been given. Chapter 2
will review literature which is relevant to the study as a basis to formulate the research
questions and a standpoint to withdraw comments, recommendations and suggestions of the
study. This chapter includes six main parts and discusses the following issues: (1) writing
teaching and learning, (2) collaborative learning, (3) teacher’s and learner’s roles in

collaborative learning, (4) collaborative learning in writing, (5) previous studies, and (6)
chapter summary. The discussions are intended to provide a theoretical sketch of the study.
2.1 Writing teaching and learning
2.1.1 Definition of writing
Writing is one of the four basic language skills that take an important role in our life. It
is also considered as a means to create connections among people. For example, through
writing, people can tell other their feelings, carry out transactions, inform someone the latest
information, etc. In terms of definition, there have been several definitions of writing which
are defined and interpreted differently by researchers.
For example, in order to distinguish writing from other skills Rivers (1968) considers
writing as the act of conveying something that had been spoken to others by using a
conventional graphic system. In the same way, Morris (1966) assumed:
It is speech, not writing, which serves as natural means of communication between
members of a settled community, both for the expression of thought and as a form of
social behavior. Writing is primarily a means of recording of speech, even though it
must be acknowledged as a secondary medium of communication in its own right.
(Morris, 1966, p.24)

However, writing or learning to write in a language is not simply a matter of writing
down things, but writing is much more than that. According to Petty and Jensen (1980),
letters and words in writing are formed by both mental and physical act. It means writing is
not only an act of putting words into sentence, using spelling, punctuating, using conventions,
etc. but also a process in which writer focuses on inventing ideas and how to organize,
express them in an effective way in order to enable readers in understanding what the writer

6


wants to convey through the written work such as thoughts, feeling, social and personal
experiences, etc.

Brown (2001) also agrees that writing is the written products which are the result of
thinking, drafting, and revising procedures that require specialized skills. For example, some
skills are related to generate ideas, organize them coherently, revise and edit text for clearer
meaning and appropriate grammar, etc.
Besides, writing is also considered as a cognitive activity. Hayes (1996, cited in
Weigle, 2002) mentions writing involves three main cognitive activities named text
interpretation, reflection, and text production. Three cognitive processes are used in both
drafting process and revising process.
As stated by Nunan (2003), writing is considered as a means of communication that is
used to express and impress. It means that when composing writing works, writers mainly
focus on two purposes. The first one is to express the ideas which writers have in their minds.
The second one is the text which is written is used to communicate the ideas to the readers.
Thus, writers are required to have ability to communicate and express ideas in certain ways
which impress readers. In the same viewpoint, Lindemann (1995) views writing as a process
of communication that uses a conventional graphic system to convey a message to readers.
Notably, Flower (1989) points out:
Writing is a social act that can only occur within a specific situation. It is therefore
influenced both by the personal attitudes and social experiences that the writer brings
to writing and the impacts of the particular political and institutional context in which
it interviews, analyses of surrounding practices and other techniques, researchers
seek to develop more complete accounts to local writing contexts (Flower, 1989,
p.54).

In general, it is obvious that writing is a process of communication that ideas, thought,
feelings, etc are conveyed in written form. Moreover, it also enables writer to synthesize
their knowledge into an acceptable text that is suitable with the English writing conventions
such as using appropriate punctuation, vocabulary, format, structure, spelling, etc.
2.1.2 Reasons for teaching and learning writing
In fact, writing takes an important role not only in learning process but also in
multidimensional aspects of life. In terms of learning process, writing supports students in

learning process and reinforces what they have learned. Harmer (1998) emphasizes that
learners can get a number benefits from writing because writing helps them not only keep
7


language in the memories but also understand how to put words and phrases in sentences, and
connect them appropriately. In more details, Raimes (1983) highlights the importance of
writing as belows:
First, writing reinforces the grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary that we
have to teach our students. Second, when our students write, they also have a chance
to be adventurous with the language, to beyond what they have just learned to say, to
take risks. Third, when they write, they necessarily become very involved with the
new language; the effort to express ideas and the constant use of eye, hand, and brain
is unique way to reinforce learning. (Raimes, 1983, p.3)

From Raimes (1983)’ viewpoint, writing is very important linguistic skill that helps
students learn more effectively because when students put down the ideas on paper, they have
to struggle to think of what to put down and how to put it down because they have to find the
right word and the right sentence to express ideas. In addition, through writing process,
mental activity is also developed which leads to language development. Moreover, writing
helps learners to work at their own pace to learn a language, so it creates learners’ learning
style. Similarly, Hamer (2004) also agrees that writing is a useful way which helps learners
pay attention to use language accurately. Hence, it may result in their language development.
Overall, writing can be of great value in helping learners to refine, consolidate and develop
their language.
In daily life, writing is considered as a powerful instrument to convey ideas, desires
which the writers want to say to others. Hamer (2004) states that aim of teaching writing is
not just to help students become better writers, but to help them “communicate real messages
in an appropriate manner” (p.34). Harmer (2004) also highlights “being able to write is a vital
skill for ‘speaker’ of a foreign language as much as for everyone using their own first

language” (p.3). Similarly, Ramelan (1994) agrees that writing is essential in human’s culture
because it preserves thought, ideas and speech sound. Furthermore, in daily communication
language is not only focused on speaking but also in writing for example, in working place,
people often communicate via the written word such as emails, letters, notes, texts, etc. For
students, they also have to write a reports, term papers, messages, memos, directions, etc.
(Arapoff, 1969).
As a matter of fact, writing is a crucial skill which can improve learners’ writing ability
as well as a powerful tool for learners to transfer information easily. Besides, Hyland (2003)
adds that “writing is the central to our personal experiences and social identities, and we are

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often evaluated by our control of it” (p.1). Thus, writing is no wonder a skill worth teaching
and learning.
2.1.3 Aspects of writing skill
In terms of writing skill, there are three main aspects which are discussed in this part as
follows: 1) micro and macro skills of writing, 2) mechanical components of writing, 3)
cohesion and coherence of writing.
1) Micro and macro skills of writing
According to Brown (2001), micro skills are more suitable for imitative and
intensive types of writing task. In addition, Brown (2001) enumerates micro skills for
writing as follows:
1. Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
3. Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns, and
rules.
4. Use acceptable grammatical systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns,
and rules.
5. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.

6. Use cohesive devices in written discourse.

(Brown, 2001, p.343)
It means that when learners write, they should consider letters or combination of
letters, e.g f in fun or gh in laugh in order to distinguish one word from another, the time for
finishing writing, core of words, word order and rules. Besides, learners should pay much
attention to grammatical systems and rules because both of them are very important and will
occur during writing process. For example, when writers write one sentence, they should
focus on tense such as past, present, simple, agreement between subject and verb, singular or
plural for main verb, etc. In addition, writers should know how to use different grammatical
forms in order to make a result in creating a particular meaning. Last but not least, writers
should consider cohesive devices such as transitional words and phrases to help readers have
clear understanding about the relationship among ideas in a piece of writing.
For macro skills of writing, Brown (2001) states that macro skills are necessary for the
successful mastery of responsive and extensive writing because macro skills mainly focus on
the message which the writer intends for readers by using strategies in writing. Moreover,
Brown (2001) also figures out a list of macro skills as follows:

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1. Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse
2. Appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written texts
according to form and purpose
3. Convey links and connections between events, and communicate such
relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information,
generalization, and exemplification.
4. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing.
5. Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written
text.

6. Develop and use a battery, using of writing strategies, such as accurately
assessing the audience’s interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing
with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting
peer and instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing,
/…/

(Brown, 2001, 343)
Additionally, as stated by Spratt et al (2005), writing consists of several sub skills such
as spelling correctly, punctuation correctly, choosing the right vocabulary, using grammar
correctly, using correct layouts, etc.
2) Mechanical components of writing
According to Harmer (2004), mechanical components of writing involve punctuation,
spelling, handwriting, and construction of well-performed sentences, paragraphs and texts.
He also insists that mechanical components of writing take an important role in writing. Thus,
those components should be introduced in every stage of teaching and learning process of
writing.
3) Cohesion and coherence of writing
In terms of the grammatical or lexical relationship between the different elements of
the text, the concept of cohesion can be defined as relations of meaning which exist within
the text and that define it as a text (Halliday, 2002). In other words, cohesion is considered as
a linking relationship of a number of linguistics elements that can be seen in the structure of
the text surface. Moreover, Halliday (2002) identifies two main types of cohesion in English
as lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion. The grammatical cohesion is classified into
reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.
On the contrary, coherence is defined by Castro (2004) as the link in a text which
connects ideas and makes the flow of thoughts meaningful and clear for reader to read and
understand as the text follows a certain kind of logical order among elements in a text and the
organization of ideas is systematical and logical.
Cohesion and coherence are important skills for students to pay much attention to
because cohesion and coherence closely linked together. This view is shared by Harmer

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(2004) who confirms that both cohesion and coherence are necessary to make the writing
more accessible because when sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, it is easier for
readers to follow, which results in coherence in writing.
In short, the micro and macro skills, the mechanical components and cohesion and
coherence are important aspects of writing. Therefore, an awareness of all these aspects of
writing mentioned above is a key for writer to have the good paragraph compositions. As a
result, these skills of writing should be introduced to students before and during the process
of writing composition. It will help students to get used to writing more effectively as they
apply those skills of writing in each stage of the process of writing.
2.1.4

Approaches to teaching writing
There are a number of approaches implemented in teaching and learning ESL/ EFL

writing have been known to many teachers and researchers of English writing. However,
there are two most famous approaches that have been applied in classrooms and extensively
researched named product approach and process approach.
2.1.4.1 Product approach
Product approach is regarded as one of the earliest approaches in which students have
to start from pre-writing to composing and to correcting. This approach mainly focuses on
raising student awareness of grammatical structures (Tangpermpoon, 2008). Similarly, Nunan
(1999) states that the product approach focuses on tasks that learners imitate, copy and
transform models of correct language provided by textbooks or by teachers. Writing classes,
thus, involve in the sentence level and grammar exercises only. Saeidi & Sahebkheir (2011)
also agree that modeling is at the center of this approach and is considered as an effective
teaching tool as well as a beneficial source for providing feedback to students if it is used
appropriately.

Another well- defined description of this approach is provided by Pincas (1982). She
points out that in the product approach the focus is on linguistic knowledge in which great
attention is mainly based on using vocabulary, syntax and cohesive devices appropriately.
As stated by Nunan (1999), the goal of the product approach is primarily on the final
product of writing which should be a coherent, error-free text. Therefore, Pincas (1982) states
that in order to achieve the goal mentioned above, four stages in writing including
familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing should be used in learning
to write. In the familiarization stage helps learners raise awareness of particular text. In this
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stage, teacher introduces a topic by using guide in textbook and then model texts are read.
After that, most particular features of the gene are highlighted. In the controlled and guided
writing sections, learners practice the language skills provided and organize ideas with
increasing freedom until learners are ready for the free production activity. As for free
writing stage, learners have to produce a writing product based on what they have learned.
Pincas (1982) also highlights that form should be focused rather than content as teacher
grades students or gives comments. As a result, teacher takes the role as provider model of
language, guided exercises and corrector of errors when the final product is created. It means
that the process approach is thoroughly teacher-centered of the whole learning process.
The product approach is obviously appreciated for providing the learners with linguistic
knowledge in terms rules and structures and helping learners have a clear idea about the
organization of words and sentences by using model text. However, this approach still has
some limitations. Murray (1980) point outs that model texts prevent L2 learners’ creativity in
writing, especially when learners have to read the text, analyze it and start to write like the
form of the text. Moreover, Escholz (1980) has emphasized that in the product approach, the
learners are encouraged to use the same plan in different settings and the same forms without
considering content. Hence, the imitation of models is considered as the process of
“stultifying and inhibiting writer rather than empowering them or liberating them” (Escholz,
1980, p.232). Reid (1993) also agrees that following the product approach, students often

conduct writing without sense of audience and purpose which are the two crucial components
for writing.
In conclusion, the concern of the product approach is mainly on the correctness of the
learners’ final products of writing based on knowledge about the structure of language, and
writing development is mainly considered as the result of imitation of the form of texts
provided by the teacher. However, the activities of writing are controlled to avoid errors in
the text composition which causes some limitations in developing creativity and the learners’
potential, both linguistic and personal.
2.1.4.2 Process approach
Process approach was initiated as a pedagogical approach in the 1970s (MacArthur,
Graham & Fitzgerald, 2006). Unlike the product approach which is more concerned with the
final product, the coherent, and the error free text, the process approach emphasizes on the
process of writing. According to Zamel (1980), using this approach, the writer asks himself/
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