Investigating english major students beliefs in speaking skill development and their practices of using learning strategies a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements fo

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that the thesis entitled “Investigating English major students’ beliefs in
speaking skill development and their practices of using learning strategies” is my own
work.
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis does not contain
material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which
I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text
of the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any
other tertiary institution.

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2016

Nguyen Thi Kim Loan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the persons who have helped
me for the completion of this thesis.
First and foremost, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor,
Dr. Nguyen Thu Huong for his expert guidance, full support, understanding and
encouragement throughout my research. Without his patience and timely advice, my
thesis work could not have been done.
Secondly, huge thanks go to my classmates who have been so helpful and
patient to me. They are always willing to support me with any questions and are so
generous in sharing with me all priceless documents.
Finally, my special thanks go to my family members who have supported me

with everything so that I could concentrate on this research. I would not have been
able to complete this thesis without their continuous encouragement and
unconditional support.

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ABSTRACT
Speaking is always considered the most major area in the foreign language
research. It is also regarded as the most difficult skill among other language skills to
Vietnamese students. In Khanh Hoa University, speaking skill has been one of the
significant subjects focused on training for English major students. However, many
students are still not confident in using English to communicate in real life.
Researchers have found out factors affecting the teaching and learning of English
speaking skill, in which students’ beliefs and their practices of using learning
strategies are factors aimed to investigate in this study. The study was conducted on
170 English major students. The questionnaire covers two main parts: students’
beliefs and learning strategies; in which the content of beliefs covers aspects of
speaking such as linguistic knowledge, communication strategies, extralinguistic
knowledge, regular practice and language aptitude; learning strategies explored here
include memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies and social
strategies.
The results show that the participants regard most aspects important for
successful speaking skill development. Meanwhile, language aptitude is not
considered important by this group of students. In terms of learning strategies, the
results show that memory and cognitive strategies are used more than the other two,
metacognitive and social strategies. The study also indicates that some beliefs that
students hold relate to their practice of using learning strategies. However, there are
still some inconsistency between their beliefs and learning strategies. In general, the
beliefs that they hold in developing speaking skill are not erroneous but the strategies

which are helpful for their speaking learning are not utilized appropriately.
At the end of the study, practical recommendations to the administrators of the
Department of Foreign Language, teachers and students are given. Hopefully these
suggestions can help students to achieve better results in their speaking ability.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................1

1.1 Background of the study ....................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem ...................................................................................2
1.3 Aims of the study ...............................................................................................3
1.4 Research questions .............................................................................................3
1.5 Hypothesis .........................................................................................................4
1.6 Significance of the study ...................................................................................4
1.7 Organization of the study...................................................................................4
Chapter 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................6

2.1 Speaking skill .....................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Definition of speaking skill .........................................................................6
2.1.2 Aspects of speaking .....................................................................................7
2.1.2.1 Linguistic knowledge ............................................................................8
2.1.2.1.1 Vocabulary......................................................................................8
2.1.2.1.2 Grammar .........................................................................................9

2.1.2.1.3 Pronunciation ..................................................................................9
2.1.2.1.4 Pragmatics ....................................................................................10
2.1.2.1.5 Genre and discourse knowledge ...................................................10
2.1.2.2 Communication strategies ...................................................................11
2.1.2.3 Extra-linguistic knowledge .................................................................12
2.1.2.4 Regular practice ..................................................................................13
2.1.2.5 Language aptitude ...............................................................................13
2.2 Learners’ beliefs ..............................................................................................14
2.2.1 Definition of learners’ beliefs....................................................................14
2.2.2 The importance of learners’ beliefs in language learning .........................15
2.3 Language learning strategies ...........................................................................16
2.3.1 Definition of language learning strategies ................................................16
2.3.2 Classification of language learning strategies ...........................................17

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2.3.3. The importance of language learning strategies in language learning .....18
2.4 The relationship between learners’ beliefs and language learning strategies ..18
2.5 Previous studies on students’ beliefs and on the relationship between students’
beliefs and their learning strategy use ...................................................................19
2.5.1 Previous studies on students’ beliefs about language learning .................19
2.5.2 Previous studies on students’ beliefs about speaking skill development ..24
2.5.3 Previous studies on the relationship between students’ beliefs and their
learning strategy use ...........................................................................................26
2.6 Implications for the present study....................................................................34
2.7 The research model ..........................................................................................35
2.8 Summary of chapter 2 ......................................................................................37
Chapter 3:

METHODOLOGY ............................................................................38

3.1 Research design ...............................................................................................38
3.2 Setting of the research .....................................................................................39
3.3 Participants.......................................................................................................39
3.4 Data collection instruments .............................................................................41
3.4.1 Interview (pilot study) ...............................................................................41
3.4.2 Questionnaire .............................................................................................41
3.5 Procedure to collect data ..................................................................................44
3.6 Data analysis procedure ...................................................................................46
3.7 Chapter summary .............................................................................................46
Chapter 4:

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ..........................................48

4.1 Data analysis ....................................................................................................48
4.1.1 Research question 1: What are students’ beliefs about speaking skill
development? ......................................................................................................48
4.1.1.1 Students’ beliefs about the role of vocabulary in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................50
4.1.1.2 Students’ beliefs about the role of grammar in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................51
4.1.1.3 Students’ beliefs about the role of pronunciation in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................52
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4.1.1.4 Students’ beliefs about the role of pragmatics in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................53
4.1.1.5 Students’ beliefs about the role of genre and discourse in speaking

skill development ............................................................................................54
4.1.1.6 Students’ beliefs about the role of communication strategies in
speaking skill development .............................................................................55
4.1.1.7 Students’ beliefs about the role of extra-linguistic knowledge in
speaking skill development .............................................................................56
4.1.1.8 Students’ beliefs about the role of regular practice in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................57
4.1.1.9 Students’ beliefs about the role of language aptitude in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................58
4.1.2 Research question 2: What are students’ practices of using learning
strategies in developing speaking skill? .............................................................59
4.1.2.1 Students’ practices of using memory strategies ..................................61
4.1.2.2 Students’ practices of using cognitive strategies ................................62
4.1.2.3 Students’ practices of using metacognitive strategies ........................64
4.1.2.4 Students’ practices of using social strategies ......................................66
4.1.3 Research question 3: Is there a positive correlation between students’
beliefs and their practices? .................................................................................67
4.2 Discussion of the findings ...............................................................................70
4.2.1 Research question 1: What are students’ beliefs about speaking skill
development? ......................................................................................................70
4.2.1.1 Students’ beliefs about the role of vocabulary in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................70
4.2.1.2 Students’ beliefs about the role of grammar in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................71
4.2.1.3 Students’ beliefs about the role of pronunciation in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................71
4.2.1.4 Students’ beliefs about the role of pragmatics in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................72
4.2.1.5 Students’ beliefs about the role of genre and discourse in speaking
skill development ............................................................................................73

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4.2.1.6 Students’ beliefs about the role of communication strategies in
speaking skill development .............................................................................73
4.2.1.7 Students’ beliefs about the role of extra-linguistic knowledge in
speaking skill development .............................................................................74
4.2.1.8 Students’ beliefs about the role of regular practice in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................75
4.2.1.9 Students’ beliefs about the role of language aptitude in speaking skill
development ....................................................................................................75
4.2.2 Research question 2: What are students’ practices of using learning
strategies in developing speaking skill? .............................................................76
4.2.3 Research question 3: Is there a positive correlation between students’
beliefs and their practices? .................................................................................77
4.3 Summary of chapter4 .......................................................................................78
Chapter 5:

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................80

5.1 Summary of results ..........................................................................................80
5.1.1 What are students’ beliefs about speaking skill development? .................80
5.1.2 What are students’ practices of using learning strategies in developing
speaking skill? Is there a positive correlation between students’ beliefs and their
practices? ............................................................................................................80
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................81
5.2.1 Recommendation for the Department of Foreign Language .....................81
5.2.2 Recommendations for teachers .................................................................81
5.2.3 Recommendations for students .................................................................82
5.3 Limitations and suggestions for further studies ...............................................83

REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................85
APPENDIXES ..........................................................................................................90
Appendix A ............................................................................................................90
Appendix B ............................................................................................................93

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1: Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of learning strategies .....................................18
Table 2.1: Summary of previous studies on learners’ beliefs about language learning
and speaking skill development ................................................................................30
Table 2.2: Summary of previous studies on the correlation between learners’ beliefs
and strategy use .........................................................................................................33
Table 3.1: Demographic information of participants ................................................40
Table 3.2: Distribution of items in the questionnaire................................................44
Table 3.3: Cronbach’s Alpha statistics .....................................................................46
Table 4.1: Description of students’ beliefs about aspects for developing speaking
skill ............................................................................................................................49
Table 4.2: Students’ beliefs about aspects for developing speaking skill by mean
score ..........................................................................................................................49
Table 4.3: Students’ beliefs about the role of vocabulary.........................................51
Table 4.4: Students’ beliefs about the role of grammar ............................................52
Table 4.5: Students’ beliefs about the role of pronunciation ....................................53
Table 4.6: Students’ beliefs about the role of pragmatics .........................................54
Table 4.7: Students’ beliefs about the role of genre and discourse ..........................55
Table 4.8: Students’ beliefs about the role of communication strategies .................56
Table 4.9: Students’ beliefs about the role of background knowledge .....................57
Table 4.10: Students’ beliefs about the role of regular practice ...............................58
Table 4.11: Students’ beliefs on the role of language aptitude .................................59

Table 4.12: Description of students’ practices of using learning strategies .............60
Table 4.13: Students’ practice of using learning strategies ......................................60
Table 4.14: Students’ practice of using memory strategies ......................................61
Table 4.15: Students’ practice of using cognitive strategies .....................................63
Table 4.16: Students’ practices of using metacognitive strategies ...........................65
Table 4.17: Students’ practices of using social strategies .........................................66
Table 4.18: Correlations between students’ beliefs and learning strategies .............68

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ix


Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an introduction to the current study. Firstly, it briefly
introduces the history of language teaching and learning to give readers a general
background. Next, it describes the situation at Khanh Hoa University where the study
was conducted. Finally, the significance of the study and its organization are also
stated.
1.1 Background of the study
In the era of globalization as nowadays, English is considered an essential tool
in international communication and has been officially used in domains such as
government, the law courts, the media and educational system, etc. (Crystal, 2003).
This explains why the teaching and learning of English language has been paid great
deal of efforts than ever. In Vietnam, English has been taught in schools since the
Open-Door Policy in 1986 and has become a compulsory subject taught in formal

schools from primary to university level. Teaching and learning of English language
focus on ‘renovating thoroughly the tasks of teaching and learning foreign language
within national education system’, as the project entitled ‘Teaching and Learning
Foreign Language in national education system, period 2008-2020’states.
Accordingly, the goal of teaching English is to help students become successful
communicators, in which speaking skill seems to be the most essential skill since it
is considered a fundamental tool in international communication (Shabani, 2013).
However, the ability of oral communication seems to be the most challenging to both
instructors and students although innovation policies in teaching and learning have
been made. Indeed, most students do not feel confident in using English to
communicate in real life situations. It is believed that the problems relating to
speaking skill students face are caused by various factors, in which the students’
perceptions or beliefs have certain effects. Due to the incomprehensive perceptions

1


that the students hold about aspects in speaking skill, it leads to the result that learning
strategies utilized are inefficient as many researchers have suggested, that learners’
preconceived belief about language learning would likely affect the way they use
their learning strategies and learn a second language (Abraham & Vann, 1987;
Horwitz, 1987; Wenden, 1986). With regard to this issue, the researcher wishes to
explore the students’ beliefs and their practices of using learning strategies in
speaking skill development in order to have some further insights about the students,
from which it can best benefit students’ speaking ability.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Speaking is always considered the most major area in the foreign language
research. It is also regarded as the most difficult skill among other language skills to
Vietnamese students. In fact, many students who are taking English as their major at
university or college are still quite low in terms of speaking ability even though at the

tertiary level, speaking skill is taught separately for several courses during the
program. One of the most frequently seen problems is that many of them are not able
to use English to communicate with others and do not feel confident in their speaking
ability. During the teaching and learning English language in general and in speaking
skill in particular, many researchers have tried to find out factors causing speaking
problems to students (Gan, 2012; Aleksandrzak, 2011; Tran N. M., 2015, Tran
T.M.V, 2011). One of the affecting factors which leads to failure or success of
speaking relates to the students themselves, in which students’ beliefs play a vital
role.
Individual student has certain beliefs about language learning in general and
speaking skill in particular. For example, some students believe that in learning to
communicate a language, they should not speak until they make it correctly; or
mastering a good source of vocabulary and grammar structure is a determinant in
gaining language speaking. With that beliefs, those students then tend to use strategies
which help them to meet their needs without the awareness of the effectiveness of

2


those strategies. Horwitz (1987) states, “the beliefs students have about language
learning can affect how they go about doing it”, that is to say, their learning strategies
and that learners’ beliefs could clash with the teachers’ and cause conflict in the
classroom. For example, a student believes that in order to be good English speakers,
grammar should be focused more than other factors while his teacher does not believe
so and therefore, most in-class teaching activities do not focus on grammar. If this is
not recognized, it might lead to frustration in the student. In addition, in the context
of Khanh Hoa University, as observed by the author, many English major students
are not confident in communicating in English and they show not much effort in
learning aspects of speaking skill as well as factors developing speaking skill.
Therefore, the writer conducted the research in order to explore about what aspects

students believe in to develop speaking skill as well as their practices of using
learning strategies in the process of speaking skill development.
1.3 Aims of the study
The present study has three aims. Firstly, it gleans what beliefs students hold
about speaking skill development in terms of linguistic knowledge, extralinguistic
knowledge, communication strategies, regular practice and language aptitude.
Secondly, it explores learning strategies that the students use to develop their
speaking skill. Finally, it tries to explore if there is a positive correlation between
students’ beliefs and their practices of using learning strategies.
1.4 Research questions
The current study aims at seeking answers to the following questions:
1. What are students’ beliefs in speaking skill development?
2. What are students’ practices of using learning strategies in developing
speaking skill?
3. Is there a positive correlation between students’ beliefs and their practices?

3


1.5 Hypothesis
There are two hypotheses in this research. Firstly, it was hypothesized that the
students hold different beliefs in speaking skill development in five major areas to be
researched: linguistic knowledge, extralinguistic knowledge, communication
strategies, regular practice and language aptitude. Secondly, it was hypothesized that
the students use all learning strategies under the process of developing their speaking
skill, in which memory strategies will be used the most. Finally, it was predicted that
the beliefs that individual student hold would relate his practice of using learning
strategies. For example, if a student believes that in order to be able to speak well
requires regular practice, then he will put a great deal of effort on practicing.
1.6 Significance of the study

This study plays an important role in helping teachers and students be aware
of students’ beliefs towards speaking skill development and correct their practices of
using learning strategies which best serve their success in speaking ability. In
addition, the study also provides an overall insight of how students’ beliefs relate to
their practice of using learning strategies.
In a more overall view, this study provides insights to help facilitate more
effective instructional planning and implementation. Also, the knowledge of
students’ beliefs will make it possible for teachers to create a mode of instruction in
which students’ needs and goals are satisfied. In addition, knowing students’ beliefs
provides a more learner-centred approach to language teaching. Furthermore,
learning about the students’ practices of using learning strategies also help teachers
to find out the real reasons for ineffective learning, from which re-instructions and
suitable changes can be made.
1.7 Organization of the study
This study consists of 5 chapters.

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Chapter 1 introduces the general background of language teaching and
learning as well as the situation of the university where this study was conducted. It
also presents the aims, research questions and the significance of the study.
Chapter 2 is literature review. It firstly generalizes the theoretical framework
of the study. In addition, it reviews all studies related to this study. The chapter ends
with a research model.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology of the research. It describes the research
design, participants, the instruments and procedures for data collection and data
analysis.
Chapter 4 reports the results collected. It describes students’ beliefs in
speaking skill development and the practices of using learning strategies. It also

describes the correlation between students’ beliefs and their practices of using
learning strategies. The chapter ends with a discussion on the findings.
Chapter 5 provides a conclusion to the research questions. Recommendations,
limitations and suggestions for further research are also stated.

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Chapter 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the theoretical background of the study. Firstly, it
presents definitions of speaking skill and aspects of speaking. Then it continues to
present learners’ beliefs with definitions and the importance of learners’ beliefs in
foreign language learning. Next, it talks about language learning strategies, in which
definitions, classification and the importance of learning strategies are included. After
that, relationships between learners’ beliefs and language learning strategies are
described. Summary of previous studies completes this chapter.
2.1 Speaking skill
2.1.1 Definition of speaking skill
Spratt et al. defined that ‘speaking involves using speech to express meanings
to other people’. According to Shabani (2013), ‘speaking is the performance of
speakers’ competence’, that is to say, speaking shows how competent a speaker is. In
addition, as Boonkit (2010) states, ‘speaking is one of the four macro skills necessary
for effective communication in any language, particularly when speakers are not
using their mother tongue’. Consequently, Shabani (2013) concludes that ‘speaking
is fundamental and yet demanding skill to be mastered by learners of English as a
foreign language’. Indeed, speaking has been considered the most demanding and
challenging skill to develop for learners in learning a foreign language, compared to

other skills such as listening, reading and writing because it requires the ability to use
the language properly in social interactions (Latha, 2012).
Speaking skill is considered as a priority for many second language learners
(Richards, 2012). It is also believed that language learners’ competence is often
judged by their speaking ability in real life situations because it is often the first
impression to other people in everyday interaction (Liao & Chiang, 2004).

6


One of the salient features of speaking skill which makes it distinct from other
skills is the speakers need to process very quickly to transfer all the knowledge they
have in mind to produce the appropriate language under the pressure of time, whereas
other skills such as writing, the learners have time to think before producing the
language. Thus, it can be clearly explained that knowing the linguistic components
of the language is not enough to be successful speakers, as Shabani (2013) states. In
the same point of view, Chastain (1988) asserts that speaking a language involves
more than simply knowing the linguistic components of the message, and certainly
developing language skills requires more than grammatical comprehension and
vocabulary memorization.
2.1.2 Aspects of speaking
Learning to speak a foreign language requires many different aspects. It does
not mean just knowing the grammatical and semantic rules (Shumin, cited in Latha,
2012), or mastering vocabulary and grammatical structures (Shabani, 2013). Shumin
adds that beside these elements, learners must also acquire knowledge of how native
speakers use the language in the context of structured interpersonal exchange, in
which many factors interact (cited in Latha, 2012). Scrivener (2005) asserts that
sufficient knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, culture, genre, speech acts, register,
discourse, and phonology must be acquired in order to communicative effectively
(cited in Asakereh & Dehghannezhad, 2015).

According to Thornburry (2008), in order to be able to speak a language the
speakers need to master linguistic knowledge, which comprises of genre knowledge,
discourse knowledge, pragmatic knowledge, grammar, vocabulary and phonology.
Besides, extra-linguistic knowledge which includes topical knowledge and cultural
knowledge is also a very important aspect for language speakers. Regarding this
matter, Cohen (1990) adds that communication strategies are also very important in
oral communication as they are utilized to keep the conversation going on. Other than
that, while Gangal (2012, p. 285) believes that regular practice in oral communication
7


will yield increasingly satisfying results on the students’ journey which lead them to
achieving effective speaking skills, language aptitude is considered a very essential
element besides motivation in developing language skill in general and in speaking
skill in particular. As Dornyei (2005) states that language aptitude is, besides
motivation, the strongest predictor of foreign language learning success (cited in
Pawlak, Klimczak & Majer, 2011). Pawlak et al. (2011) also deem that ‘reaching a
near-native competence in speaking by a highly able foreign language learner is a
function of many and varied factors such as aptitude,…’.
2.1.2.1 Linguistic knowledge
To be able to speak well, learners must have sufficient knowledge of the
language (Richards, 2012). To put it another way, linguistic knowledge is a very
essential factor in speaking competence. Canale & Swain (1980) define four aspects
of linguistic knowledge: grammatical knowledge, phonological knowledge, lexical
knowledge and discourse knowledge. Similarly but putting it in more detailed,
Thornbury (2005) presents aspects of linguistic knowledge such as genre knowledge,
discourse knowledge, pragmatic knowledge, grammar, vocabulary and phonology.
2.1.2.1.1 Vocabulary
Vocabulary is defined as the knowledge of words and consists all of the words
speakers know and use when speaking (Stahl and Nagy, 2006, cited in Nouralian et

al., 2013). In which, words are the means speakers use to communicate with other
people. According to Schmitt (2010), vocabulary has been recognized as ‘a vital
component and a good indicator of second language performance and proficiency’
(cited in Koizumi & In’nami, 2013). Consequently, those who have wide knowledge
of words will have rich language use in speaking (Nouralian et al., 2013). In their
study, Nouralian et al. (2013) also concludes that a large and rich vocabulary
knowledge can improve speaking ability of EFL students. With the same point of
view, Milton agrees that vocabulary size is a very major contributor to success in

8


language performance. It has been always believed that it is possible to communicate
effectively with imperfect grammar if the correct vocabulary is known.
In his book, Richards discusses vocabulary knowledge in a larger term, lexical
knowledge. Lexical knowledge of language learners is developed with two levels,
according to Richards (2012). The first level relates to the number of words and their
meanings. The second one is about the semantic knowledge of relationships among
words which includes knowledge of lexical sets or chunks, knowledge about fixed
formulaic and idiomatic expressions.
2.1.2.1.2 Grammar
Though grammar is not as important as the role of vocabulary in speaking, it
is still considered a factor contributing to a successful speaker as Richards (2012)
asserts, ‘grammatical knowledge is fundamental to the development of any language
skill’. According to Richards (2012), in terms of grammatical knowledge, learners
need to know ‘how verbs are inflected to denote tense, how words are strung together
to express specific grammatical structures and meanings, how to parse utterances they
hear so that they can make further responses in conversation, etc’.
2.1.2.1.3 Pronunciation
Pronunciation is an element which is closely related to speaking because it is

a tool to produce sound to make other people hear and understand. In terms of
phonological knowledge, language learners need to know how the sounds of the
target language are pronounced; they also need to be aware of the presence of suprasegmental features of speech beyond the word such as stress, rhythm and intonation;
more importantly, they need to know what communicative and discourse functions
are served by features such as prominence and tones during speaking process
(Richards, 2012).

9


2.1.2.1.4 Pragmatics
Pragmatics describes the ‘relation between language and its contexts of use,
including the purposes for which language is being used’ (Richards, 2012). This
element discusses about the knowledge about using speech acts, what language
choices are appropriate, how turn-taking takes place, how language politeness should
be used depending on context as well as how the relationship between speakers
should be taken into account which including degree of formality, relative status and
familiarity. For instance, native English speakers know how to make a request
politely without offending the listener in such a case that the music is too loud, the
speaker might say “Would you mind if I turn the volume down?”. This is part of
pragmatic knowledge. According to Richards (2012), “politeness refers to the way
we take other speakers’ face needs into account”. Regarding appropriate word choice
while speaking, Hamilton (2012) states word choice is so important because it can
create different emotion reactions.
2.1.2.1.5 Genre and discourse knowledge
In terms of genre knowledge, Richards (2012) mentions speaking with two
main purposes: transactional function with the primary purpose is to convey
information and facilitate the exchange of goods or services; and interpersonal
function with the primary purpose is to establish and maintain social relations.
Regarding discourse knowledge, Richards (2012) defines it as a competence

to know how to organize and connect individual utterances, as well as how to map
this knowledge on to the turn-taking structures of interactive talk. In general, speakers
joining in a conversation should master communication rules which help them to
know how to open a conversation, how to reinforce openness in others, how to make
questions during conversation, how to reflect or clarify one’s understandings, and
how to close a conversation, etc. Without this kind of knowledge, interlocutor might
fall in misunderstanding about each other (Young & Travis, 2012).

10


2.1.2.2 Communication strategies
As stated earlier, communication strategies are strategies speakers use to
maintain conversations in the case the speakers have limited language resources.
Richards (2012) expresses that communication strategies are strategies that ‘enable
learners to overcome lexical gaps, negotiate meaning, repair communication
breakdowns, and enhance the discourse that they and their interlocutors are jointly
producing’. To put it another way, the purpose of using communication strategies is
to deal with the problems that the language users face when communicating by
employing appropriate techniques.
Different authors categorized communication strategies differently depending
on their purpose. However, there are still some common among them. In general,
communication strategies comprise of avoidance strategies (including topic
avoidance and message abandonment), compensation strategies (including
approximation, word coinage, , non-linguistic signal, literal translation, , code switch,
appeal for help, stalling or time-gaining strategies, etc.).
According to Tarone (1986), communication strategies include the following
techniques:
Avoidance:
Topic avoidance – the speaker tries not to talk about the topics which they

are unable to talk about (such as lacking of topical knowledge)
Message abandonment – the speaker leaves the talk in completed due to the
lack of language resources
Paraphrase:
Approximation – the speaker uses a simple nominal expression which shares
enough features with the intended referential expression to satisfy a listener.

11


Word coinage – the speaker makes up a new nominal expression to refer to
the entity.
Circumlocution – the speaker describes the properties of the entity instead of
naming it.
Elaboration: the speaker builds redundancy into the message by means of
repetition, paraphrase and explication.
Borrowing: Literal translation – a learner translates word for word from the
L1
Language switch – a learner uses an L1 expression without translating
Appeal for assistance: a speaker asks for the desired referential expression
Mime: the speaker uses nonverbal expressions/ gestures
Amongst the strategies listed above, ‘native speakers are more likely to use
circumlocution and approximation strategies since they require basic vocabulary’
(Tarone & Yule, 1983; cited in Lindblad, 2011) whereas avoidance strategies are in
still in debate whether it is a communication strategy because it does not really help
communication (Lindblad, 2011).
2.1.2.3 Extra-linguistic knowledge
According to Thornbury (2012), the ‘kinds of extra-linguistic knowledge that
affect speaking include things such as topical and cultural knowledge,…’. Some
theorists and researchers refer to what a person knows about a topic as background

knowledge (Marzano, 2004). Topical knowledge or background knowledge allows
speakers to be confident and able to actively participate in the conversation. Shabani’s
(2013) study indicated that ‘background knowledge has a significant effect on
speaking ability’. He also adds that topic familiarity is an important aspect in
improving speaking about the topic (Shabani, 2013). Meanwhile, cultural knowledge
helps speakers to ‘adapt their use of English to learn about, understand and
appreciate the values, ways of doing things and unique qualities of other cultures’
(Choudhury, 2014).
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2.1.2.4 Regular practice
As the old saying says ‘Practice makes a man perfect’. Gangal (2012) further
states that ‘regular practice in oral communication will yield increasingly satisfying
results on the students’ journey which leads them to achieving effective speaking
skills’. Indeed, practice helps bridge the gap between students’ knowledge and their
performance. Also, speaking practice can help expose gaps in students’ vocabulary,
grammar and pronunciation and eventually improve their oral fluency, according to
Gan (2012). Nouralian et al. (2013) stated that ‘time spent on studying English,
staying in English speaking countries, speaking English outside of school, speaking
English with non-native English speakers,… are correlated positively with various
aspects of speaking performance’. Obviously, spending time on regular practice out
of class such as watching television, listening to English materials, accessing
multimedia websites or speaking in English with other people can really help enhance
students’ speaking ability (Nouralian et al., 2013; Boonkit, 2010).
2.1.2.5 Language aptitude
As stated above, language aptitude is one of the important predictor of foreign
language learning success (Dornyei, 2005; cited in Pawlak et al., 2011). Many
theorists and researchers have confirmed that some people possess the special ability
for learning language which some others do not. Also, it is the language ability which

helps learners succeed in language learning.
As presented above, there are many aspects contributing to the success of a
language speaker which depends on the subjects. However, this element cannot be
controlled by the learners themselves. It is something which is believed to be gifted
by some people but others do not. Thanks to this kind of gifted ability, some learners
find learning foreign language in general and learning English in particular much
easier and faster.

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2.2 Learners’ beliefs
2.2.1 Definition of learners’ beliefs
Learners’ beliefs have been a great interest to many researchers in the field of
language learning for the last three decades. Learners beliefs are described as ‘general
assumptions that students hold about themselves as learners, about factors
influencing learning, and about the nature of learning and teaching’ (Victori &
Lockhart, 1995); or as ‘subjective ideas, assumptions, representations and notions
that learners hold to be true about language learning’. In second language field,
learners’ beliefs are defined as metacognitive knowledge and these two terms are
often used interchangeably with each other (Li, 2010). To state it more specifically,
Wenden (1991) adds that language learning belief is the ‘knowledge held by language
learner about various factors in language learning process, about how to learn a
language, language skills, and communicative competence’ (cited in Li, 2010).These
beliefs can be positive or negative which can facilitate or debilitate language learning.
However, due to the complex personal social and cultural features, beliefs
seem to be stable, strongly held and resistant to change (Asbjornson, 1991, cited in
Li, 2004). Richards & Schmidt (2002) also stated that ‘learners beliefs system are
relatively stable set of ideas and attitudes about how to learn language, effective
teaching strategies, appropriate classroom behavior, their own abilities and their

goals in language learning’ (Abid, 2002). Similarly, Gaies (1998) added that one of
the three characteristics of beliefs about language learning is that beliefs are relatively
stable over time. By contrast, several researchers believe that learners’ beliefs are
both dynamic and situation specific, which means beliefs change over time as a
product of new situational experiences (Sakui and Gaies, 1999; Ellis, 2002, 2008;
Tanaka, 2004; Zhong, 2008, cited in Agudo, 2004). Gaies further states that beliefs
are subjective understanding, and idiosyncratic, that is, beliefs systems are unique to
individuals (as cited in Agudo, 2014).
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The system of learners’ beliefs cover a number of aspects, including beliefs
about the nature of English, the speaker of English, the four language skills, teaching
activities, language learning, appropriate classroom behavior, the learners’ own
abilities and about the goals for language learning (Richards and Lockhart, 1996, as
cited in Erlenawati, 2002).
2.2.2 The importance of learners’ beliefs in language learning
Learners’ beliefs have been considered to be the most important perspective
since they were proved to have an important influence on every aspects of learning
process. It can be seen that learners’ beliefs about learning a language influence on
both styles and strategies, and they, therefore, also have a powerful impact on the
success of language learning (Horwitz 1987, Tarone & Yule 1989, Brown 1994 as
cited in Boakye). Horwitz once addressed the beliefs students hold about language
learning can influence the way they go about doing it, such as learning strategies
(cited in Bernat E., n.d.), motivation and expectation about language learning,
perceptions about what is easy or difficult (Richards& Lockhart, 1994, as cited in
Agudo) and influence the strategies students choose in learning (Richards and
Lockhart, 1994; cited in Agudo, 2014). Other than that, it is deemed that attitudes to
learning and the perceptions and beliefs may have a profound influence on learning
Cotterall, 1996, cited in Bernat, n.d.) and may directly influence or even determine a

learner’ attitude and motivation when learning the language (Riley 1996, cited in
Bernat, n.d.).With regard to this perspective, Arnold and Brown (1999) concluded
that learning outcomes seem to be greatly influenced by beliefs and attitudes (Agudo,
2014). In speaking skill development, Zedjli’s study resulted that the beliefs Omani
learners have about speaking English are likely to influence their learning and
particularly the development of their oral skills.
It is suggested that foreign language teacher should be aware of their learners’
beliefs about language learning to better understand how they actually approach the
language learning (Benson & Lor, 1999), as cited in Agudo, 2014). Indeed, learners’
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beliefs and perceptions play an important role in language learning. Therefore, these
beliefs and perceptions should be properly understood by teachers to ensure the
effectiveness of the language lessons (Haron, 2012). With regard to this perspective,
Horwitz (1999) asserted that ‘understanding learners’ beliefs about language learning
is essential to understanding learners’ strategies and planning appropriate language
instruction’ (cited in Liao & Chiang, 2004). Similarly, Rokeach (1968) also assumed
that learning about learners beliefs is important for both language instructors…
because ‘beliefs are predispositions to action’ (Rokeach, 1968 as cited in Nikitina &
Furuoka, 2006). Accordingly, knowledge of learners’ beliefs will provide teachers
with better understanding of their learners’ expectation, commitment, and satisfaction
in their classes; and above all teachers will somehow contribute to the success of
language learning (Cotterall, 1995; Yang, 1999, Chawhan and Oliver, 2000, KimYoon, 2000). At the same time, learners need to be aware of their own beliefs by
addressing them to teachers in order to avoid clash with teachers’ beliefs and by
assessing how their beliefs may affect their foreign language learning (Kalaja, 2003
as cited in Agudo, 2014).
2.3 Language learning strategies
2.3.1 Definition of language learning strategies
Oxford (1990) defines learning strategies as steps taken by learners to enhance

their own learning (cited in Zoe & Alexandros, 2012). With another perspective,
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) stated learning strategies are ‘special thought or
behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new
information’ (cited in Zoe & Alexandros, 2012). Oxford (1999) then adds that
learning strategies are “specific actions, behaviours, steps or techniques that students
use to improve their own progress in developing skills in a second or foreign
language. Hence, these strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval
or use of the new language” (cited in Zoe & Alexandros, 2012). Language learners
consciously or unconsciously employ a variety of learning strategies which refer to

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