The application of the park ride and TOD concepts to develop a new framework that can maximise public transport patronage

THE APPLICATION OF
THE PARK & RIDE AND TOD
CONCEPTS TO DEVELOP A NEW
FRAMEWORK THAT CAN MAXIMISE
PUBLIC TRANSPORT PATRONAGE

By
Simon Ginn
BSc (Hons); Dip Mkt Man; Dip Town Planning;
MEng Sc(Civil)
School of Civil Engineering
Queensland University of Technology
Australia

A thesis submitted for the degree of Masters of Applied Science
(Research) in the Faculty of Built Environment, Queensland
University of Technology

NOVEMBER 2009


ABSTRACT
With growing concern over the use of the car in our urbanized society, there have emerged a
number of lobby groups and professional bodies promoting a return to public transport,
walking and cycling, with the urban village as the key driving land use, as a means of making
our cities’ transportation systems more sustainable.

This research has aimed at developing a framework applicable to the Australian setting that
can facilitate increased passenger patronage of rail based urban transport systems from
adjacent or associated land uses. The framework specifically tested the application of the
Park & Ride and Transit Oriented Development (TOD) concepts and their applicability

within the cultural, institutional, political and transit operational characteristics of Australian
society. The researcher found that, although the application of the TOD concept had been
limited to small pockets of town houses and mixed use developments around stations, the
development industry and emerging groups within the community are posed to embrace the
concept and bring with it increased rail patronage. The lack of a clear commitment to
infrastructure and supporting land uses is a major barrier to the implementation of TODs.

The research findings demonstrated significant scope for the size of a TOD to expand to a
much greater radius of activity from the public transport interchange, than the commonly
quoted 400 to 600 meters, thus incorporating many more residents and potential patrons.

The provision of Park & Rides, and associated support facilities like Kiss & Rides, have
followed worldwide trends of high patronage demands from the middle and outer car
dependent suburbs of our cities. The data collection and analysis gathered by the researcher
demonstrated that in many cases Park & Rides should form part of a TOD to ensure ease of
access to rail stations by all modes and patron types. The question, however, remains how
best to plan the incorporation of a Park & Ride within a TOD and still maintain those
features that attract and promote TODs as a living entity.

II


TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART A

INTRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.0

Background

3

1.1

Hypothesis

5

1.2

Aim of Research

5

1.3

Influencing Factors

6

1.4

Specific Objectives of the Research

6

1.5

What does this Research Add as New Knowledge?

7

1.6

Background on the Research Subject

8

1.7

Structure of Thesis

9

Chapter 2 – Methodology
2.0

Introduction

10

2.1

Research Methodologies to Gather New Knowledge

10

LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 3 – Land Use & Transport Interactions
3.0

Introduction

18

3.1

Changing Travel Patterns and Impacts

18

3.2

Travel Demand Management Tools

27

3.3

Land Use and Transport Integration

37

3.4

Urban Consolidation and Density

43

Chapter 4 – Transit Oriented Developments
4.0

Definitions of TODs

48

4.1

The Emergence of Transit Oriented Developments (TOD) as a Concept

50

III


4.2

Images of Transit Villages

55

4.3

Contrasting Views on TODs

55

4.4

TOD Examples

56

4.5

General Opportunities & Barriers for Transit Oriented Developments

75

4.6

Experiences and Opportunities with TODs emerging out of North America

76

4.7

Barriers to Implementing TODs in North America

79

4.8

Summary of Barriers and Opportunities for TODs

82

4.9

The Impact on Transit Systems Patronage from Traditional and Neotraditional
Neighbourhood Designs

83

4.10

Joint Ventures around Public Transport Interchanges

84

4.11

Conclusion to Literature Review of TODs

85

Chapter 5 – Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure
5.0

Supporting Public Transport with Good Interchange Facilities

86

5.1

Definitions of a Park & Ride

86

5.2

The Kiss & Ride Component associated with Park & Rides

87

5.3

Park & Ride Concept, Objectives and Realities

88

5.4

Successes and Failures with Park & Rides

96

5.5

Types of Park & Rides

96

5.6

Literature Review of park & Ride Case Studies

97

5.7

Conclusions to Literature Review on Park & Rides

101

5.8

Station Design

102

5.9

Conclusion to Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure

103

IV


Chapter 6 – Transit Patronage
6.0

Introduction

104

6.1

Capacity of Transit Systems and Patronage Levels

104

6.2

Accessibility and Patronage

106

6.3

Access to Stations and Patronage Levels by Distance

107

6.4

Future Patronage Forecasts on Public Transport Systems

111

6.5

Demand Forecasting Patronage

112

6.6

Conclusions on Transit Patronage Demands

114

Chapter 7 – The Influence of Property Values and Growth near Transit Stations as a
Derivative of Patronage Demands
7.0

Introduction

7.1

The Influence of Property Values near Transit Stations

7.2

115

and the Derived Patronage Demands

115

Conclusions

118

Chapter 8 – Summary of Literature Review and Implications for Hypothesis &
Framework Development

8.0

Summary of Literature Review

119

8.1

Hypothesis against Literature Review

121

8.2

Key Gaps in Literature Review for Examination

8.3

and Incorporation into an Integrated Framework

121

The Influence of Emerging Technologies on the Hypothesis and Research

122

V


PART B FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 9 – Establishing a Conceptualized Setting for a New Integrated Planning
Framework to Promote Patronage Levels
9.0

Introduction

127

9.1

Evidence derived from Decisions with Key Experts and Opinion Leaders

128

9.2

Conclusions

134

9.3

Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research
Objectives and the Framework Development

135

Chapter 10 – Institutional, Planning and Attitudinal Issues Affecting TODs Patronage
Levels
10.0

Introduction

137

10.1

Ability to Commit to a TOD style of Development and Living
as a Prerequisite to Promoting Patronage

137

10.2

Australian TOD Case Studies

144

10.3

World Wide TOD Case Studies

152

10.4

Conclusions

155

10.5

Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives
and Model Development

156

Chapter 11 – Institutional, Planning and Attitudinal Issues Affecting Park & Rides
Patronage Levels
11.0

Introduction

158

11.1

Commitment to Park & Rides

158

11.2

Demand for Access to Park & Rides

159

11.3

World Wide Park & Ride Case Studies

167

11.4

Mixing Park & Rides and TODs to Promote Patronage

170

11.5

Combining TODs and Park & Rides and Associated Infrastructure to
Increase Patronage Demands

171

11.6

Conclusion

172

11.7

Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and

VI


the Framework Development

173

Chapter 12 – How Distance Impacts on Access to Transit – Affecting Patronage Levels
from TODs and Park & Rides
12.0

Introduction

174

12.1

Empirical Data on the Inter-Relationships between Distance, Mode and Land
Use on Arrival Numbers of patrons at Fixed Guideway Stations

12.2

175

Should TODs and Park & Rides be Mixed Around the same Station /Public
Transport Interchange Site?

192

12.3

Conclusions

193

12.4

Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and
the Framework Development

193

Chapter 13 – Transit Operational and Station Design Factors Affecting Patronage
Levels from TODs and Park & Rides
13.0

Introduction

195

13.1

How Transit and Station Design Factors Affect Patronage Levels

196

13.2

Conclusions

202

13.3

Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and
the Framework Development

203

Chapter 14 – The Framework
14.0

Introduction

204

14.1

The Key Guiding Principles for TODs to Promote Patronage in Australia

205

14.2

The Key Principles for Park & Rides to Promote Patronage

209

Part C THE MODEL APPLICATIONS & CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 15 – Testing the Framework in a Real Application and the Framework’s
Limitations
15.0

Introduction

213

VII


15.1

Potential Application of the Framework to a Test Case Situation within the
Australian Setting

213

15.2

Limitations of the Framework

219

15.3

Conclusions

220

Chapter 16 – Transferability & Future Framework Applications
16.0

Introduction

221

16.1

Transferability

221

16.2

Demonstration of the Framework within a 3D Virtual Reality Environment over a
Hypothetical Location in Australia and its Application to China

221

16.3

The model as a Research and Teaching Tool

223

16.4

Conclusions

223

Chapter 17 – Conclusions
17.0

Introduction

224

17.1

The Hypothesis under Examination

224

17.2

Summation

230

REFERENCES

234

VIII


APPENDICES
Appendix 1

Practioners Interviewed on Land Use and Transport
Integration around Rail Stations

252

Appendix 2

World Opinion Leaders (Experts) Surveyed by Email

254

Appendix 3

Questions for World Opinion Leaders by Email

257

Appendix 4

Questions for Meetings with Councils, Developers and Operators

259

Appendix 5

Initial Telephone Survey of Households to Engage in
Main Household Survey

260

Appendix 6

Demographic Questions of Households in Main Household Survey

261

Appendix 7

Survey of Scale of Life Style Preferences in Main Household Survey

263

Appendix 8

Main Household Survey Using Questions and Images

264

Appendix 9

Perth Station’s Patronage by Origin, Data Collection Form

281

Appendix 10 Surveyor’s by Perth Station, Date and Start Time

282

Appendix 11 Photo of Test Site for Application of Model to Fitzgibbon

284

IX

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:

Travel Demand Management Classifications

Figure 2:

Suggested Mix of Housing Types in a Development to Promote

31

Public Transport Usage

44

Figure 3:

Population Densities in 1980 per Person per Hectare

46

Figure 4:

Total Demand Requirements by Access Mode - Helensvale

89

Figure 5:

Capacity Ranges of Different Modes

104

Figure 6:

Patronage Levels in Europe and North America

105

Figure 7:

Operating Cost Recovery

106

Figure 8:

LRT Population and Employment Catchment

110

Figure 9:

Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable Developments by Gender

140

Figure 10:

Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable
Developments by Age Group

Figure 11:

141

Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable
Developments by Cars per Household

Figure 12:

141

Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable
Developments by Respondent Suburb

142

Figure 13:

Key Advantages of a TOD

143

Figure 14:

Key Desirable Features within a TOD

144

Figure 15:

Preference to Drive to Station Park & Rides,
then take Train to Work

Figure 16:

160

Preference to Drive to Station Kiss & Ride,
then take Train to Work

160

Figure 17:

Preference to Provide Park & Rides at Rail Stations

161

Figure 18:

Support the Provision of Park & Rides and
Kiss & Rides at Rail Stations

162

Figure 19:

Park & Rides are Conveniently Located

163

Figure 20:

Free Parking Important at Park & Rides

163

Figure 21:

No of Parking Bays Available Important at Park & Rides

164

X


Figure 22:

Park & Rides Provide the Ability to Live Further away
from a Rail Station

165

Figure 23:

Electronic Information on Freeways to Attract Patrons to Park & Rides

166

Figure 24:

Desirable Features to Using a Park & Ride

167

Figure 25:

Park & Rides Should be Incorporated within a TOD

172

Figure 26:

Currambine Station Arrivals by Mode

178

Figure 27:

Joondalup Station Arrivals by Mode

179

Figure 28:

Warwick Station Arrivals by Mode

181

Figure 29:

Fremantle Station Arrivals by Mode

184

Figure 30:

Midland Station Arrivals by Mode

185

Figure 31:

Distance Traveled to Each Station by Walking Patrons

186

Figure 32:

Mode Walk by Distances

187

Figure 33:

Distance Traveled to Each Station by Patrons when Parking & Riding

188

Figure 34:

Mode Park & Ride by Distances

189

Figure 35:

Distance Traveled by Patrons to Each Station when Kiss & Riding

190

Figure 36:

Mode Kiss & Ride by Distances

191

Figure 37:

Level of Train Service & Frequency Important at Park & Rides

197

Figure 38:

Feel Safe and Secure when Traveling

198

Figure 39:

Security is an Issue Affecting Use of Railway Stations

199

Figure 40:

Security Alarms at Rail Stations Promote Security

200

Figure 41:

Rail Station Lighting Promotes Security

200

Figure 42:

Security Important at Park & Rides

201

Figure 43:

Security Important at Park & Rides by Suburb

202

XI


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1:

The Thesis Structure

1

Illustration 2:

The Thesis Structure

9

Illustration 3:

The TOD Concept Illustrated in Broad Principle

49

Illustration 4:

The Framework within the Thesis Structure

126

Illustration 5:

The Key TOD Principles& Supporting Factors
to Promote Patronage

Illustration 6:

207

The Key Park & Ride Principles & Supporting
Factors to Promote Patronage

Illustration 7:

211

The Framework Application within the Thesis
Structure

212

XII


LIST OF MAPS
Map 1:

Perth Stations

176

Map 2:

Warwick Railway Station Park & Ride Catchment

180

Map 3:

Fremantle Railway Station Walkers Catchment

183

Map 4:

Brisbane Suburban Rail Network

214

XIII


STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL
AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma
at any tertiary educational institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis
contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due
reference is made.

Signed:

Date:

XIV


PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM
THIS THESIS

Reports and Journals

Ker I. and Ginn S. (2003) Myths and Realities in Walkable Catchments: The Case of
Walking and Transit, Road and Transport Research. Vol 12 No 2, June 2003.

Gilbert D. and Ginn S. (2001) Transit Oriented Sustainable Developments, Built
Environment Research Unit, Queensland Department of Public Works, August 2001

Ginn S. (1998) An Evaluation of the Options for Light Rail within the Australian
Urban Environment, a report presented to and published by the Western Australian
Planning Commission, August 1998.
Conferences
Bucolo S. and Ginn S. (2004) Using Virtual Reality Models to Better Communicate How
Decisions are made to Build Future Cities paper jointly presented at the Planning on the
Edge- National Planning Institute of Australia Conference, Hobart, Australia, February 2004

Ginn S. (2003) Determining Future Patronage Demands in New Urban Growth
Corridors and the Implications for TOD and Park & Rides, paper presented at the RailVolution Conference, Atlanta, USA, September 2003

Bucolo S. and Ginn S. (2003) Using Virtual Reality Models to Better Communicate How

Transit Infrastructure can Interface and Interact with the Built Environment paper
jointly present at 21st ARRB Transport Research Conference in Cairns, Australia, May 2003

XV


Ginn S. and Kerr I. (2003) Myths and Realities in Walkable Catchments: The Case of
Walking and Transit paper jointly present at 21st ARRB Transport Research Conference in
Cairns, Australia, May 2003

Ginn S. (1998) Transit Oriented Developments or Park & Ride: Which Land Use will
Promote a More Efficient Demand for Public Transport?, Royal Australian Planning
Institute Conference, Brisbane, July 1998

XVI


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my wife, Christine Ginn and family, for their continual support in the
time and effort required in researching, staying focused and preparing this thesis.

A special thanks goes to my principal supervisor, Luis Ferreira, for his continual support and
guidance to help moderate and direct my efforts towards developing a worthy piece of new
knowledge. I would also like to thank my associate supervisor, Phil Heywood, for his very
enduring enthusiasm and support to take the subject matter to a higher dimension.

The collection of the research findings presented is this thesis were supported by the Western
Australian Department of Transport, the Queensland Department of Public Works and the
Queensland University of Technology.

In addition, I would like to express by deepest gratitude and thanks to the family of the late
Peter Pritchard without whom the use of cartoon images to present concepts of various urban
forms around railway station would have been almost impossible to present.

XVII


PART A

INTRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW
Part A is the introduction and literature review to this Masters of Applied Science research
thesis. The first section covers chapter 1 on the following introductory topics:
•

Background

•

Hypothesis

•

Aim of Research

•

Influencing Factors

•

Specific Objectives of the Research

•

What does this Research add as New Knowledge?

•

Background on Research Subject

•

Structure of the Thesis

Chapter 2 covers the research methodologies applied to gather new knowledge.
Illustration: 1
The Thesis Structure
Introduction

Part A

Chapter 1 & 2

Literature Review
Chapters 3 - 7

Original Data

Intro to Framework

Part C

New Knowledge
Part B

Chapter 9

Institutional
& Planning
Chapters 10 & 11

Conceptualization
with Experts

Access to
Transit

Operational
Factors

Chapters 12

Chapter 13

Public Attitudes
Developer &
Council Attitudes
Key Opinion leaders

The Framework Chapter 14

Station Access
Survey

Testing & Limitations
Chapter 15

Transferability & Development
Chapter 16

Conclusions

1

Australian Case
Studies
Rail Volution


The second section covers the main literature review chapters on:
•

Land Use and Transport Interactions (Chapter 3)

•

Transit Oriented Developments (Chapter 4)

•

Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure (Chapter 5)

•

Transit Patronage (Chapter 6)

•

Influence of Property Values near Transit Stations as a Derivative of Patronage Demands
(Chapter 7)

•

Summary of Literature Review Implications for Hypothesis and Framework
Development (Chapter 8)

2


Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.0

Background

Since the Second World War, humanity’s desire to urbanize increasing proportions of the globe
has continued to increase. The trend towards very large collectives of people living in close
proximity to many others has brought with it numerous benefits; but it also brings increasing
limitations that are slowly, and in some cases alarmingly, coming to the forefront with much
domestic and international debate.

Central too much of this debate is the need for sustainable cities and communities that better
manage the use of all natural, non-renewable resources. Urban sustainability is the supply of
amenities such as water and sewerage, food, transportation, health and housing, in a way that
minimizes the use of all non-renewable resources to improve the existing and future living
standards of all urban dwellers. The aim of sustainability is complicated by the fact that any
improvements to make one element more sustainable can, if not carefully managed, impact on
the capacity for other elements to achieve sustainability. A holistic approach to urban
sustainability within our cities and communities is the ideal goal.

This research will investigate how to better meet the need for sustainable transport within our
cities as a function of urban planning, through seeking to formulate a framework that can
promote increased use of rail based or fixed guideway public transport systems. The need to
achieve a more sustainable focus on urban transport has been largely driven by the continued
growth of our cities since the Second World War. The expansion of the population into the
middle and outer suburbs has been facilitated by cheap and ready access to the private car and
the desire to own a large home within easy commuting distance of most cities. In the 1950’s and
1960’s, most government agencies happily promoted the development of these new suburban
communities, connected by large freeways to the cities, as the answer to the baby boom demand
for family housing. In the last twenty to thirty years, increasing concern has been expressed on a
local, national and international level at the rate of car growth in our cities, and the consequences

3


of this growth in terms of congestion, air pollution and the contribution of car emissions towards
greenhouse gases and global warming.

With growing concern over the use of the car in our urbanized society, a number of lobby groups
and professional bodies are promoting a return to public transport, walking, cycling and urban
villages as a means of making our cities’ transportation systems sustainable. It has been

recognized that the way urban planners and society design and manage urban development can
make a significant contribution towards reducing the magnitude of car based trips. A trip is
simply the need to connect people or goods with one urban form and another. If these urban
forms could be brought closer together or made less dependent on road vehicle trips via public
transport, cycling or walking, less vehicle trips would occur. Whilst recognition exists that there
is a link between reducing car based urban trips and the way we plan our urban development,
limited research and development has followed to develop models capable of delivering better
outcomes with institutional support.

This research is aimed at developing a framework that can facilitate the increased passenger
patronage of rail based urban transport systems from adjacent or associated land uses. It
addresses whether the existing models and frameworks of transit oriented urban developments
commonly applied in North America and Europe, and the existing world wide examples of park
and ride station facilities, can be applied together or separately in Australia to promote rail based
public transport and reduce car dependency in our urban cities.

The culmination of these research interests, supported by current literature and communications
with key world experts, draws the focus of this research towards developing an understanding of
the issues surrounding the introduction of transit oriented developments around rail stations in
Australia. This research will investigate the scope for a framework to accommodate both a
Transit Oriented Development (TOD) and a Park & Ride, or a combination of both
configurations, and their suitability and adaptability within the Australian urban, operational and
institutional setting.

4


Whilst this work concentrates on the interactions between transport and land use planning with
the aim of maximizing public transport patronage, the long term goal is to develop a model
concept for planning sustainable transit oriented developments that can incorporate communities

that are not only transport efficient, but also aim to minimize pollutants and to maximize energy
efficiency in water, waste, building design and telecommunications.

1.1

Hypothesis

Testing the application of the Park & Ride and TOD concepts within the Australian setting,
allows for the development of a new integrated planning framework that can maximize public
transport patronage. This new framework examines the best configurations of land uses in
association with public transport interchanges to promote public use of fixed guideway systems.

1.2

Aim of Research

The primary aim of the research is to formulate and test a new Australian integrated planning
framework, looking at the relationships between different forms of fixed guideway systems and
changing land use patterns, which can maximize modal shifts towards public transport. This new
integrated planning framework of urban forms will focus upon a public transport interchange that
can maximize patronage demand, rather than let the existing or proposed strategic urban forms
derive the demand. The framework will specifically evaluate Transit Oriented Developments and
Park & Ride facilities around public transport interchanges as a means of increasing public
transport patronage.

The research aims to answer the question: what are the appropriate transport and land use
interactions, within an Australian context, that can facilitate improved patronage onto heavy rail
or light rail transit?

It is not the intent of this research to evaluate busways, due to the greater variability in the

operation of bus systems, which brings a lack of public and developer certainty as to its reliable
delivery.

5


1.3

Influencing Factors

The design and form of land uses in and around the receiving public transport interchange may
vary patronage demand, as will the quality of the transit system itself. Operational qualities of
the transit system in terms of rolling stock, frequency of service, route network, pricing and
marketing factors, have a significant impact upon the degree to which the traveling public
embraces public transport, no matter what the proposed land use configurations. Economic,
social, environmental, administrative and institutional arrangements all impact upon patronage
outcomes through their influences on land use patterns and their take up, and on the quality of
transit systems. The potential opportunities and constraints presented by non-fixed guideway and
major road based systems will also need to be investigated as controlling factors.

1.4

Specific Objectives of the Research

The research will increase the understanding of:
1. The transport and land use inter-relationships present in developing mixed use
residential land uses adjacent to public transport interchanges, which can promote
the use of public transport systems for trips between centres and encourage the use
of walking and cycling for more local trips;
2. The inter-relationships between land uses and trip ends and modes available to the

user, that may or may not promote access to Park & Ride facilities and associated
transit services from lower density urban land uses, for part of a trip;
3. What is a reasonable walking and Park & Ride catchment for a rail station to
maximize patronage?
4. Developers’, councils’ and consumers’ attitudes to promoting and accessing
different transit supportive land uses (including barriers and opportunities);
5. The form and elements of a Transit Oriented Development (TOD) to promote
patronage;

6


6. The form and elements of a Park & Ride facility to promote patronage; and
7. The potential scope for combining both a TOD and Park & Ride facility to
maximize patronage from both local and more distant land uses.

To develop such an integrated planning framework and test its application, it will be necessary to
undertake detailed research into past case studies, as well as to collect new data from all the
major interested players and draw on surveys of key worldwide opinion leaders.

The third specific research objective is the central and key research objective to proving
the hypothesis to maximizing public transport patronage.

1.5

What does this research add as new knowledge?

The new integrated planning framework will offer a better understanding of the parameters
required to plan for residential land uses around public transport interchanges, within the
Australian setting, that may facilitate maximum patronage demands on fixed guideway rail or

busway transit systems.

The use of Park & Rides and TODs to integrate residential land uses with a transit mode and help
maximize transit demands, has been the subject of as much myth-making as robust research to
justify a solid policy or modelling background. For example, in suburban areas, 400-metre and
600-metre ‘ped sheds’ have been incorporated in many planning documents as a basis for
enhancing the ‘liveability’ and sustainability of proposed residential developments. These
distances roughly equate to 5 and 10 minute walking times. In the case of fixed guideway transit
systems, a 600-metre catchment is commonly applied to rail stations; however in practice, people
are willing to walk significantly further than this to a rail station which provides a good, regular
service.

The research will evaluate developer and general public attitudes and willingness to encompass
new urban land uses like TODs.

7


Whether that land use configuration is as a TOD and/or Park & Ride will be based on case
studies and surveys, and then developed as a conceptual integrated framework that could be
applied within the Australian urban setting. A greater understanding of the potential catchment
area that a TOD and/or Park & Ride may take to maximise patronage demands. In the case of
this latter factor, the actual size and form of a TOD may differ, based on observed patronage
catchments, from the currently suggested 400 - 600metre radius around a rail station, to
accommodate greater walking distances. Finally, whereas Park & Rides are well established in
the Australian urban setting, this is not the case with TODs. This work will identify the factors
needed to facilitate TODs in Australia by over coming barriers and seeking opportunities to
maximise patronage demands.
1.6

Background on Research Subject

Mitchell and Rapkin’s 1954 publication, ‘Urban Traffic – A Function of Land Use’, pioneered
the integration of land use and transport planning. Since this report, a new breed of professional
has emerged, the transportation planner. Transportation planners are interested in the interaction
between travel demand and the type and location of activities, as a factor in land use. The form
and extent of travel demand is determined not only by the kinds of land uses, but also by the
varying densities at which these lands are used. Land use can be influenced by the level of
accessibility and quality of the transportation system.

In the last decade, there has been renewed interest in seeking better ways to integrate land use
and transport around public transport systems to reduce car dependency and promote public
transport. In Australia, the concept of the ‘Urban Village’ of intensive land uses configured
around public transport interchanges has been strongly promoted by Newman and Kenworthy
(1992), building on the ideas of Peter Calthorpe’s ‘Transit Oriented Developments.’ Some
authors (Cairns, 1997; Roberts et al., 1996) still advocate more extensive use of Park & Ride
style interchange configurations. Within the Australian urban setting of lower density housing
and dispersed employment nodes, access to a car is still a major requirement for mobility. This
further aids urban sprawl and promotes vehicle travel. Increasing environmental concerns are
being expressed about the car’s influence on local air quality and global greenhouse gas
warming. Urban consolidation is starting to occur in the inner cities; yet the outer suburbs
8