Approaches to learning and learning values an investigation of adult learners in malaysia

APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND LEARNING VALUES:
AN INVESTIGATION OF ADULT LEARNERS IN
MALAYSIA

TAN, PO LI, B.A., MMLS

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
November 2005

School of Learning and Professional Studies
Centre for Learning Innovation
Faculty of Education
QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

1


KEYWORDS

Adult Learning, Professional Development, Approaches to Learning, Cultural Values,
Asian Values, Cross-Cultural Studies, Cross-Cultural Methodology, Cultural Awareness
and Training

II


ABSTRACT
This research was inspired by a pressing question which formed the main aim of the
current study--What factors contribute to the differential academic performance of
adult learners in the formal setting in Malaysia? It is hoped that by addressing this

question, insights obtained may be useful for the Malaysian policy makers in attempting
to implement the government’s initiative—Malaysia Vision 2020. The current literature
informs that in order to achieve the desired goals, Malaysian adult learners, must now
more than ever be conscious of the effect of learning values and approaches to learning.
Hence, there is a need to develop a more holistic understanding of the interrelated
dynamics between learning values and approaches to learning.

The current study adopts a transdisciplinary, etic/emic approach, using two culturally
sensitive questionnaires, Revised Study Process Questionnaires-2 Factors Malaysia (RSPQ-2FM) and Learning Values Survey (LVS) on 858 Malay and Chinese adult learners
in Malaysia.

The study found the significant others can have substantial influence on the ‘face value’
for both Malay and Chinese adult learners generally, but was more pronounced for the
Malay adult learners. This in turn may encourage Malay adult learners to submit to
pressure from others in influencing how they perceive the importance of learning and
motivation in learning. Because Malay adult learners are constantly driven by external
factors to compete with other cultural groups in education or economic achievement, they
may tend to avoid challenging tasks such as deeper approaches to learning in order to
rapidly achieve their immediate learning goals. Engaging with deep approaches and
meaningful learning are effortful and the pressure to save face may result in the
likelihood of adopting surface approaches. This coupled with the finding that they do not
appreciate the middle way principles as much as the Chinese adult learners suggest that
they may be less flexible and/or pragmatic learners. The findings suggest that practice of
middle way principles (such as ‘Willing to compromise one’s own values to suit the
situation/issues when I learn’) can indeed enhance certain positive learning approaches
III


which implies that Malay adult learners may be disadvantaged in the learning settings
due to their lack of appreciation of the middle way principles. It is also interesting to find

that Malay adult learners appreciate time factor more than their Chinese counterparts
when engaging with Deep Approaches to learning.

In contrast, the middle way principle practiced as a way of life by the Chinese culture has
made Chinese adult learners more malleable, resulting in a relatively less face conscious
cultural group. Being less externally driven and less restrictive, Chinese adult learners are
more likely to adopt deep approaches to enhance meaningful learning. In addition, the
Chinese culturally ingrained learning approach, Understand and Memorization was found
to be more likely to produce positive learning outcome. Unlike their Malay counterparts,
Chinese adult learners view work experiences more essential in helping them to engage
with Deep Approaches to learning.

The above findings are novel and add to previous studies on approaches to learning by
introducing the effect of learning values. While previous research has referred to cultural
variable in learning, they have not sufficiently explored the effect of culture. Learning
values is one significant cultural variable that is considered in the study.

The findings underpin the different emphasis placed by the two cultural groups as they
engage with professional development activities. It is hoped that by identifying values
pertinent to learning in this competitive globalized economy, the study has provided
insights for Malaysian policy makers to develop holistic future education plans to assist
in achieving Malaysian Vision 2020. Insights gained can also support plans where Malay
can be encouraged to become competent global leaders and workers, capable of
competing in this knowledge economy.

IV


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One: Introduction

1

1.1 The Global Scene

1

1.2 The Malaysian Scene

4

1.2.1 The Current Educational Policy

5

1.2.2 The Definition of Adult Learners

7

1.2.3 The Neglected Adult Learners in Malaysia

7

1.2.4. The Academic Performance of the Malay Learners

9

1.3 Aim of the Study and Research Questions

14

1.4 Outline of the Study

16

Chapter Two: Literature Review

17

2.1. Section One

19

2.1.1 Adult Learning Theories and Their Application in Malaysian Context

19

2.1.2 Explicit Learning and Implicit Learning

24

2.1.3 Implicit Learning from Adult Learners’ Perspective

24

2.1.4 Explicit learning in a Formal Environment, the Adult Learners’ Perspective

27

2.1.4.1 Students Approaches to Learning (SAL) and Its Relevance to Adult Learning

28

2.1.4.1.1 A qualitative paradigm to SAL theory and its relevance to adult learning

31

2.1.4.1.2 A quantitative paradigm to SAL theory and its relevance to adult learning

33

2.1.5 Biggs’s 3P Model with Malaysian Adult Learners as Context

34

2.1.5.1 Presage Factors

35

2.1.5.2 Process Factors

36

2.1.5.3 Product Factors

36

2.1.6 Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ)

40

2.1.7 Relevance of SPQ for Asian Adult learners

42

2.1.7.1 Presage Factors

45

2.1.7.1.1 Conceptions of learning and Approaches to Learning

45

2.1.7.1.2 Socio-economic status, travel/work experience and
V


Approaches to Learning

46

2.1.7.1.3 Age and ‘Approaches to Learning’

49

2.1.7.2 Product Factor

50

2.1.7.2.1 Assessment/learning outcome and ‘Approaches to Learning’

50

2.2 Section Two

53

2.2.1 Cultural Factors as an Important Concept in Understanding Learning

53

2.2.2 Cultural Factors and Adult Learning Studies

54

2.2.3 The Findings of Cross-Cultural Research on Learning

56

2.2.3.1 Discrepancy in Performances

56

2.2.3.2 Inappropriateness of Western Constructs and Models

57

2.2.3.2.1 On repetition and memorization

57

2.2.3.2.2 On teaching method and behavior

68

2.2.3.2.3 On western instrument

68

2.2.3.2.4 On self-regulation and self-efficacy theories

68

2.2.4 SAL Theory, Memorization, and Adult Learners

60

2.2.5 Cross-Cultural Studies on Motivation and its Relevance to Asian Adult Learners

64

2.2.6 The Significance of Values in Cross-Cultural Research

71

2.2.7 What are Values?

72

2.2.7.1 Universal Values

72

2.2.7.2 Values and Attitudes

73

2.2.7.3 Values and Motivation

74

2.2.7.4 Values and Adult Learners

74

2.2.7.5 Values and Cultures

75

2.2.7.6. Learning Values

78

2.2.8 The Study of Cultural Values and Learning

80

2.2.9 The Influence of Confucius Values Today and in Malaysia

81

2.2.10 The Relationships of Confucius Values and Learning

82

2.2.10.1 The Importance of Education

82

2.2.10.2 The Belief of Effort and Human Malleability

85

2.2.10.3 Pragmatic Learning

88

2.2.11 The Influence of Social Groups in the Environment

91

VI


2.2.11.1 People with Confucian Heritage as Collectivist Society?

91

2.2.11.2 Family Influence

93

2.2.11.2.1 Parental expectation

93

2.2.11.2.2 Parental involvement

94

2.2.11.2.3 Peers Involvement

95

2.3 Section Three

98

2.3.1 Issues Regarding Studies on Malaysian Learners

98

2.3.1.1 Generalizations about Malaysian Learners

98

2.3.1.2 Inaccurate and Bias Report

99

2.3.1.3 General Findings did not Differentiate Three Major Cultural Groups

101

2.3.2 Issues Regarding Value Research in Malaysia

103

2.4 Conclusion

108

Chapter Three: Methodology

110

3.1 The Nature of Human Enquiry

110

3.2 Criteria for Selecting an Approach

111

3.2.1 Rationale for Selecting Quantitative Approach in the Current Study

113

3.2.1.1 Based on Research Aim of the Current Study

113

3.2.1.2 Based on the Audience(s) of the Current Study

114

3.2.2 Rationale for Excluding a Qualitative Approach

117

3.3 Cross-Cultural Research Methodology

118

3.3.1 Some Cross-Cultural Methodological Issues Relevant to the Current Study

119

3.3.1.1 Issues of Cross-Cultural Methodology in Learning

119

3.3.1.2 Complexity of Cross-Cultural Research

120

3.3.1.3 The Effect of Power Relation

121

3.3.1.4 Sampling Issues in Cross-Cultural Research

122

3.3.1.5 Culturally Sensitive Instrumentation—Equivalence of Language & Concepts
and, Etic/Emic Approach

123

3.3.2 Strategies of Inquiry and Method

124

3.3.2.1 Relevance of Self-Administered Questionnaire to the Current Study

124

VII


3.3.2.2 The Adoption of Self-Administered Questionnaire

126

3.3.2.3 Rationale for Adapting SAL Instrument for Malaysian Adult Learners

127

3.3.2.4 Rationale for Adapting ‘Learning Values Survey’ (LVS) for
Malaysian Adult Learners

128

3.3.3 Variables in the Current Study

129

3.3.4 Scales Construction for Self-Administered Questionnaire

131

3.3.4.1 Validity and Reliability

132

3.3.4.2 Scale Construction Process

134

3.4 Details of Scales Construction for the Current Study

137

3.4.1 Section one of the Questionnaire- Demographic Data

137

3.4.2 Step One: Scale Development for R-SPQ-2FM

138

3.4.2.1 Rationale for Adapting R-SPQ-2FM from SPQ and R-SPQ-2F

138

3.4.2.2 Scale Tailoring for R-SPQ-2FM—Malaysian Adult Learners.

139

3.4.2.2.1 Addition of Career Motive Subscale

141

3.4.2.2.2 Adaptation of Achieve Motive Subscale

142

3.4.2.2.3 Addition of Understanding and Memorizing Subscale

144

3.4.2.2.4 Items relevant to adult learners in Deep Strategy subscale

145

3.4.2.3 Description of Scales for R-SPQ-2FM in Preliminary Study

145

3.4.2.4 Cultural Sensitivity – Adaptation of Language

146

3.4.2.4.1 Language use in items for R-SPQ-2FM

147

3.4.2.4.2 Language in scoring scale for R-SPQ-2FM

148

3.4.3 Step One: Scale Development for LVS

149

3.4.3.1 Rationale for Adapting LVS from CVS and CCVs

149

3.4.3.2 Adaptation of LVS for Learning Context

152

3.4.3.3 Scale Tailoring for LVS—Malaysian Adult Learners

152

3.4.3.3.1 Item related to ‘face saving’ in LVS

152

3.4.3.3.2 Items related to ‘religious-secular’ influence in LVS

153

3.4.3.3.3 Items related to values of knowledge workers

153

3.4.3.4 Description of Scales in LVS

154

3.4.3.5 Adaptation of Scoring Scale for LVS

155

3.4.3.6 Translation and Back Translation for Cultural Sensitivity for LVS

155

VIII


3.4.3.6.1 Translation

155

3.4.3.6.2 Back-translation of Malay and Chinese Versions of LVS

157

3.4.4 Content Validity and Face Validity Assessment of the Whole Instrument

168

3.5 The Preliminary Study for Validation of Instrument

168

3.6. The Main Study

159

3.6.1 The Sample

159

3.6.1.1 Purposive Sampling

159

3.6.2 The Characteristics of the Sample

160

3.6.3 The Procedure

161

3.6.4 Data Analysis

162

3.6.4.1Data Screening

162

3.6.4.2 Statistical Analyzes

163

3.7 Limitation of the Methodology and Future Research

165

3.7.1 Measurement issues

165

3.7.2 Sampling Issues

165

3.7.3. Response Style Bias

166

3.8 Ethics

168

Chapter Four: Validation of the Instruments

170

4.1 Methods of Analyzes

170

4.1.1 Explanation of Stage One Analysis-Exploratory Factor Analysis &
Establishing the values of Cronbach’s Alpha

170

4.1.2 Explanation of Stage Two Analysis-Confirmatory Factor Analysis

171

4.1.3 Data Screening

172

4.1.4 Missing Data

172

4.1.5 Outliers

172

4.2 Sample Description

173

4.2.1Sample Used for Stage One Analysis-The Pilot Sample

173

4.2.2 Sample Used for Stage Two Analysis-The Main Sample

173

4.3 The Results of EFA-Stage One Analyzes

174

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4.3.1 R-SPQ-2FM

174

4.3.2 LVS

178

4.4 Other Feedback and Observation from the Stage One Pilot Study

181

4.5 Results of CFA-Stage Two Analyzes

182

4.5.1 R-SPQ-2FM

182

4.5.2 LVS

184

4.6 Conclusion

185

Chapter 5: Results and Data analysis

186

5.1 Section 1-Analysis Consider all participants

186

5.1.1 Demographic Data of the Main Sample

186

5.1.2 Data Screening

190

5.1.2.1 Check for Normality, Missing Data and Outliers

190

5.1.2.2 Addressing Response Bias

190

5.2 Section 2-Analysis of R-SPQ-2FM and LVS

197

5.2.1 Research Question 1

197

5.2.2 Research Question 2

198

5.5.2.1 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference Between Groups
and Difference Between Groups on Each of the Approaches to Learning
(the Dependent Variables)

199

5.5.2.2 Results of MANOVA comparing total difference between Groups
and Difference between Groups on Each of the Dependent Variables when
Loaded with the Moderating Variables

201

5.2.2.3 Comparing Approaches to Learning of Malay and Chinese
using Structural Equation Modeling

205

5.2.3 Research Question 3

209

5.2.4 Research Question 4

211

5.2.4.1 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference between Groups
and Difference between Groups on Each of the Learning Values Dependent Variables

211

5.2.4.2 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference between Groups

X


and Difference between Groups on Each of the DV when Loaded with

the Moderating Variables (Learning Values)

212

5.2.4.3 Comparing Learning Values of Malay and Chinese using
Structural Equation Modeling

214

5.2.3 Research Question 5

218

5.2.4 Research Question 6

220

5.2.4.1 The Differences in the Relationships of Learning Values and
Approaches to Learning for Malay and Chinese Adult Learners—
Using Structural Equation Modeling

226

5.3 Summary of Results

231

Chapter Six: Discussion

235

6.1 Section 1-Approaches to Learning

235

6.1.1 An Overview

235

6.1.2 Career Motives/Achieve Motives

237

6.1.3 Understand and Memorizing Approach

239

6.2 Section 2-Learning Values

242

6.2.1 Others and Self

242

6.2.2. Malay and Significant Others

243

6.2.3 The Influence of Others on the Values of Learning for Malay

244

6.2.4 Chinese and Self

245

6.2.5 Chinese and the Practice of Middle Way Philosophy

257

6.3 Section 3-Relationships of Learning Values and Approaches to Learning

253

6.3.1 Self→Meaning Orientation

253

6.3.2 Others→Reproduction Orientation

256

6.3.3 The Relationships of Values of Learning, Qualities of Learning,
Deep Approaches, Memorization and Surface Approaches

257

6.3.4 Face and Approaches to Learning

259

6.3.5 Malay, Face and Approaches to Learning

263

6.3.6 Chinese, Middle Way and Approaches to Learning

268

XI


Chapter 7: Conclusion

271

7.1 An Overview

271

7.2 Implications of the Study

275

7.1.1 Practical Implication-- Cultural Awareness of Adult Learners

277

7.1.2 Research Implication

280

REFERENCES

283

APPENDIX A

315

APPENDIX B

321

APPENDIX C

324

APPENDIX D

326

APPENDIX E

328

APPENDIX F

343

APPENDIX G

356

APPENDIX H

360

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List of Tables
Table 1: Similarities and differences of National Schools and Chinese National Type
schools .................................................................................................................. 12
Table 2: Consistency between literatures on cultural values presented by educational
psychologists and value items developed by social psychologists .......................... 79
Table 3 : Description of scales for R-SPQ-2FM in Preliminary Study.......................... 146
Table 4: Language Adaptation for R-SPQ-2FM........................................................... 148
Table 5: Adaptation of Scoring Scale for R-SPQ-2FM ................................................ 148
Table 6: Consistency between literature on learning values and value items developed by
social psychologists ............................................................................................. 151
Table 7: Modification of LVS ..................................................................................... 152
Table 8: Six main scales of the 26 items based on the CVS (Chinese Culture Connection,
1987) and the CCVS (Fan, 2000)......................................................................... 155
Table 9 : Summary of Scales & Items for R-SPQ-2FM (N=101) ................................. 175
Table 10 R-SPQ-2FM Factor Values (N=101)............................................................. 176
Table 11 Summary of Scales & Items for LVS (N=101).............................................. 178
Table 12: LVS Factor Values (N=101)........................................................................ 179
Table 13: Demographic Data of Malaysian Malay and Chinese Adult Learners in

percentage ........................................................................................................... 188
Table 14: Response Distribution of Malay & Chinese in % ......................................... 192
Table 15: Independent Samples Test of acquiescence index for Malay and Chinese .... 195
Table 16: Mean, Standard Deviation, and Mean Ranking of Approaches to Learning for
Malay and Chinese Adult Learners ...................................................................... 198
XIII


Table 17: Multivariate Tests for Approaches to Learning ............................................ 200
Table 18: Effects of Seven Moderating Variables on Factors of Approaches to Learning
for Malay and Chinese Adult Learners with MANOVA....................................... 202
Table 19: Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese R-SPQ-2FM Models ............ 207
Table 20: Mean, Standard Deviation, and Ranking of Learning Values for Malay and
Chinese Adult Learners ....................................................................................... 210
Table 21: Multivariate Tests for Learning Values........................................................ 212
Table 22: Effects of Seven Moderating Variables on Factors of Learning Values for
Malay and Chinese Adult Learners with MANOVA ............................................ 213
Table 23: Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS Models ........................ 215
Table 24: Correlations between Subscales of LVS and Subscales of R-SPQ-2FM for
Malaysian Adult Learners (n=858) ...................................................................... 219
Table 25 : The Latent Structure Correlations between Subscales of LVS and Subscales of
R-SPQ-2FM for Malay Adult Learners (n=532) .................................................. 220
Table 26: Correlations between Subscales of LVS and Subscales of R-SPQ-2FM for
Chinese Adult Learners (n=326).......................................................................... 221
Table 27: Testing the Statistical Significance of the Differences between Correlation
Coefficient for Malay and Chinese Cultural Groups............................................. 223
Table 28: Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Models.... 229
Table 29: Research Questions, Variables, Sections in Questionnaire and Statistical
Analyzes.............................................................................................................. 324
Table 30 : Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Models

before and after respecification............................................................................ 359

XIV


List of Figures
Figure 1: An Overview of chapter 2 .............................................................................. 18
Figure 2: Bigg’s 3P model – With Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia as
Context.................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 3: Model 5 postulated by Kember et al. (1999) ................................................. 141
Figure 4: Higher order latent structure of R-SPQ-2FM at scales level.......................... 182
Figure 5: Higher order latent structure of LVS at scales level ...................................... 184
Figure 6: Conceptual Design of Data Analysis ............................................................ 196
Figure 7: Malay/Chinese R-SPQ-2FM higher order latent Structure model. The
standardized path coefficients and correlation coefficient for Malay are in bold and
for Chinese are in parentheses and italised and also in bold ................................. 206
Figure 8 : Malay/Chinese LVS higher order latent Structure model. The standardized path
coefficients and correlation coefficient for Malay are in bold and for Chinese are in
parentheses and italised and also in bold.............................................................. 216
Figure 9: Higher order structural model of Malay LVS/R-SPQ-2FM........................... 227
Figure 10: Higher order structural model of Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM ...................... 228
Figure 11: Malay LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Model before respecification .............................. 357
Figure 12: Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Model before respecification............................ 358

XV


Statement of Original authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief,
the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except
where due reference is made.

Signed……………………………………………………………………………………….

Dated………………………………………………………………………………………...

XVI


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Special Thanks:
To Associate Professor Hitendra Pillay and Dr Fiona Spencer. Thanks for your constant
advice, guidance, encouragement, and extraordinary support. Working under your
supervision has been a privilege and pleasure for me.

To all my friends and colleagues, who have helped me in my difficult times.

To all the adult learners who willingly participated in this study.

To University Technology MARA, for funding my study

Finally, to my beloved mother, Madam Tan Kim Hau for her endless support.

Most of all, I dedicated this study to my beloved husband, Cheong Kin Seng, my
daughter Phoebe Cheong Hui Dynn and son, Peyton Cheong Phey Denn—for their
undying love and support.

Tan, Po Li
School of Professional Studies
Centre for Learning Innovation
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
2002/2005

XVII


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter first examines major global changes and issues before relating them to some
of the strategies adopted by Malaysia, a developing country, to prepare itself to change
and compete in the global market. It goes on to examine two major issues which are
crucial in shaping Malaysia to become a fully developed country by the year 2020,
enabling it to be one of the major global players. These two issues are 1) the neglected
adult learners and 2) the differential academic performance of the Malay learners. These
two issues eventually shape the rationale and objectives of the current study.

1.1 The Global Scene
The change in the global scene as a result of the advancement of information technology
is so rapid that it has led to many countries in the world embarking on major discussions
about their future. Common themes that emerge as a result of these discussions are: the
importance of being able to compete, the importance of understanding the knowledgebased economy, and the importance of developing life-long learning capacities. The
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001) in recognizing the close relationship
between knowledge and learning, has reconceptualized the term knowledge-economy to
call it learning economy (Falk & Smith, 2002; Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development, 2001). Any country which does not want to lose out in this global
market will have no choice but to change in order to be able to compete in this daunting

but inevitable process of globalization (Martin & Porter, 2000; Sopiee, 2002).

Amidst the discussion on the pertinence of a knowledge and learning economy, it is now
recognized that economies are directly based on the production, distribution and use of
knowledge and information. Technology and knowledge are now the two significant
factors of production. Although knowledge has long been an important factor in
economic growth, economists are now exploring ways to incorporate knowledge and
technology more directly in their theories and models. Inevitably, this has affected the
1


employability of workers. Employment in the knowledge-based economy is characterized
by increasing demand for more highly-skilled, multi-skilled workers; individual workers
who have global mobility, who are highly competitive, flexible, independent and critical
thinkers who can use knowledge as a commodity to survive in the intensified competition
in the global scene (Drucker, 1999; Pillay & Elliott, 2002; Robinson, 2001). When
working for Shell, de Geus studied the common characteristics of the world’s most
enduring corporations, and concluded that these surviving corporations are similar to
individual human beings. Two of the four major common characteristics for corporate
survival are an ‘ability to learn and adapt’, and ‘an awareness of the environment’
(Stephenson, 1999) . This intense focus on the importance to learn and adapt inevitably
calls for a greater demand for knowledge-workers who see learning as part of their lives.
Ultimately, it leads to a stronger implication for the value of life-long learning required
by knowledge-workers.

A greater demand for knowledge-workers concerns adults, as adults make up the majority
of the productive knowledge-workers. Given the fact that the aging population (i.e., the
majority of the knowledge-workers) in the world generally has risen as a result of the
baby boom phenomenon (Jarvis, 2001), the governments around the world, particularly in
developed countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and

Finland are taking heed of the demands of this rapid change in employability of these
adult knowledge-workers (Jarvis, 2001; Martin & Porter, 2000; Merriam & Caffarella,
1983). It was noted by Jarvis that in the United states, for example, the number of
educational institutions for adults is increasing much more rapidly than the number of
schools; third age learning was regarded as one of the major educational issues in the
Finnish European Union Presidency Seminar, 1999. With the emergence of a knowledge
society and the process of globalization, the nature of education is evolving into a
complex mix of formal and informal education and life-long education. This according to
Jarvis is a major conceptual shift from education to learning in the past decade.

There is also little doubt that the intersection of the globalization of financial markets,
and innovation in information and communication technology has a strong influence on

2


global culture in the world. Many multinational companies in the world are
acknowledging the importance of learning to excel in a multicultural world, learning how
to cross the new invisible borders of national culture (Harris & Moran, 1996; Rosen,
Digh, Singer, & Phillips, 2000). People are now constantly traveling beyond their home
countries, either as tourists or expatriate workers, or to take flight from their countries as
refugees, interacting with others from other cultures. Hence, there is an urgent need not
only to understand adult learners but also to learn to be culturally sensitive and aware of
the diversified cultures in the world to facilitate performance. Intercultural management
researcher Hofstede (1991) remarked that the ability of current managers to cope with
cultural diversity is an important survival skill, more so in the borderless world today.
Such an opinion is echoed by Rosen, a management consultant, when commenting on the
borderless economy in a multicultural world. He emphasized that ‘not everyone is
equipped to run fast, but some are - and they respond by opening up, soaking up cultural
differences in order to maximize their own awareness and learning’ (2000, p. 21). Put

differently, the outcome of globalization demands knowledge-workers to be highly
sensitive to changes in the environment and to be able to learn and capitalize on changes
in culture. This confirms one of the main propositions of surviving corporations
identified in de Geus’ study (Stephenson, 1999).

The need to be culturally sensitive has also undoubtedly been the central discussion for
educational programs planners and professional practitioners (Julia, 2000), particularly
on the issue of internationalization of curriculum in institutions of higher learning in the
developed countries, where international students are their main clients. For example, the
issue of cultural diversification of Australian higher education lies at the heart of the
goals of an internationalized curriculum (Brendon, 2002; Rizvi & Walsh, 1998; Smith &
Smith, 1999b). It was suggested that in order to be ‘client focused’, the internationalized
curriculum has to be culturally sensitive and responsive to the needs of the clients.
Admittedly, globalization and the emergence of knowledge and the learning society have
not only centered the attention on the value of life long learning, but they have has also
called for cultural synergy and awareness in the global village.

3


1.2 The Malaysian Scene
As a global player, Malaysia has no choice but to change according to the world
economic climate with the aim of achieving the nine challenges of Vision 2020 (a plan to
build Malaysia into a developed country). The nine challenges are (Ahmad, 1998),

1. Establishing a united Malaysian nation with a sense of common and shared
destiny.
2. Creating a psychologically liberated, secure, and developed Malaysian society
with faith and confidence in itself. This Malaysian Society must be distinguished
by pursuit of excellence.

3. Fostering and developing a mature democratic society, practicing a form of
consensual, community-oriented Malaysian democracy that can be a model.
4. Establishing a fully moral and ethical society, whose citizens are strong in
religious and spiritual values and imbued with the highest of ethical standards.
5. Establishing a matured, liberated and tolerant society in which Malaysians of all
colors and creeds are free to practice and profess their customs, cultures and
religious beliefs and yet feeling that they belong to one nation.
6. Establishing a scientific and progressive society that is innovative and forwardlooking.
7. Establishing a fully caring culture, a social system in which society will come
before self.
8. Ensuring an economically just society.
9. Establishing a prosperous society, with an economy that is fully competitive,
dynamic, robust, and resilient.

To accomplish these, the Malaysian government has mapped out various strategies. The
two major strategies are: 1) The creation of a Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), a new
development model designed to catapult the country from the Industrial Age to the
Information Age; and 2) The establishment of a knowledge-based economy (K-economy).

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The objectives of the knowledge-based economy are to ensure that the managers or the
‘drivers’ in every sector, need not only to make efforts to learn new skills and techniques
to face new challenges in the ‘global village’, but also to inculcate the values of life-longlearning, flexible thinking, self-management of professional and social development to
their subordinates.
1.2.1 The Current Educational Policy
Underpinning the above expectation of achieving the nine challenges of Vision 2020
should be the development of an education and training system that suggests the
development of disposition, knowledge and skills and the inculcation of life long learning

to meet the challenges of a knowledge and learning society in the global village.
However, the issue is whether the current or future educational policy in Malaysia is
adequate and comprehensive in preparing Malaysians, in particular the adult learners in
Malaysia, to face the challenges ahead.

The current educational policy is very much influenced by the history of the country. In
the past, Malaysia’s political economy, shaped by colonial capitalism, had created certain
patterns of uneven development, economic disparities and social division. As a result of
British colonialism, the Chinese, who were initially brought in to work in the tin mines,
eventually seemed to dominate the banking, small-scale manufacturing, retailing and
service areas; the Malay aristocrats were trained for civil service by the colonial state;
and the Indians were recruited in the rubber plantations. The Malay peasantry, who
refused to work in the tin mines and the rubber plantations escaped the harsh conditions
of colonial capitalism but were also locked into a closed subsistence sector. On the other
hand, the Chinese and the Indian migrants took advantage of gaining upward mobility
through commerce and education. This created economic disparities and social divisions
(Khoo, 2001).

In an attempt to ensure that there is an economically just society in which there is a fair
and equitable distribution of the wealth of the country, various economic and educational
plans have been developed and implemented by the government through initiatives like

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the New Economic Policy (NEP)(1970-1990) in the past to ensure equity. Currently, the
now-expired NEP has been replaced by the National Development Policy to meet the
eighth challenge of Vision 2020; that is to continuously ensure that there is an
economically just society (Ranawana, 2000).

Realizing the importance of education in bridging the economic gap between the
indigenous people and the more successful Chinese (Snodgrass, 1980), the Malaysian
government has been allocating a large portion of its national budget to education. For
example, in the 7th Malaysian Plan, the government spent about 15.4% of the budget on
Education and Training (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Malaysia, n.d.), compared to 7.9%
by the Indonesia government and 13.5% by the Australian government (UNESCO, 1999).
Since the initiation of the NEP, the Malaysian government has created aggressive training
and educational programs to increase the number of qualified indigenous people (i.e.,
bumiputra or mainly the Malay) (Shamsul, 1999). The funding allocated has also enabled
the Malaysian government to send more students overseas for further education and
training than any of its regional neighbors (Vitikiotis, 1993, cited in Saibi, 1995).
Ultimately, it is hoped that these affirmative actions will help to narrow the social and
economic gap when more professionally trained bumiputra participate in the economic
sector.

As part of the plan of MSC to bring Malaysia toward the Information Age, there is a
introduction of ‘Smart Schools’, with the projection that approximately ten thousand
schools in Malaysia will be smart schools by the year 2010. The smart schools concept
involves the use of technology as the key enabler in teaching and learning in schools.
This is in line with the goals of the national philosophy of education, equipping
Malaysians with technological skills necessary in the borderless world (Saibi, 1995).

Despite constant educational reform such as the introduction of Smart Schools, and 30
years of implementation of the NEP to ensure equity, there are still two issues which have
not been directly addressed: 1) the lack of attention on the increasing number of adult

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learners who engage in learning in institutional environments and, 2) the academic

performance of the Malay learners in Malaysia.

1.2.2 The Definition of Adult Learners
Adult learners in Malaysia who are potentially involved in the creation of the knowledgebased economy and decision making, are adults who are contributing actively in the
Malaysian economy. This group of adults, according to the literature, are defined on the
bases of their socio-cultural roles, status and responsibilities (Alkin, 1992; Jarvis, 1990;
Tight, 1996; Tuijnman, 1996). Knowles (1998) stated that, “we become adult
psychologically when we arrive at a self-concept of being responsible for our own lives,
of being self-directing” and “ we become adult socially when we start performing adult
roles, such as the role of full time worker, spouse, parent, voting citizen, and the like”
(p.64). Hence, the ‘functions’ and ‘roles’ of these adults, (not their ‘biological age’),
determine the definition of adulthood in the context of the knowledge-based economy in
the current study. This definition of adult learners is also endorsed by the recent statistics
on the most active participation age group in adult education. The age group between 30
and 54 years were found to be the most active adult participants in both Finland (see
Blomqvist, Niemi, & Ruuskanen, 1995) and the United States of America (see Merriam
& Caffarella, 1999). Hence, it is highly possible that a similar age range of Malaysian
adults (i.e., age between 30 and 54), who have professional work experience, also belong
to the group who are actively seeking continuing professional education or other form of
formal education to enhance knowledge and learning in view of the changing scene in the
global market.

1.2.3 The Neglected Adult Learners in Malaysia
Whilst the Malaysian government has launched Malaysia Vision 2020, with a revelation
that Malaysian workers will become more skilful, more competitive, and more innovative,
the same amount of attention is not given to exploring how Malaysian adult learners learn;
and whether or not the educational policies are adequate and integrative in nature to cater

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to the needs of these adults. As pointed out in a study by Merriam and Mohamad (2000)
on Malaysian adult learners:

The country’s priority is on formally educating its youth. Even middle-aged adults
have little opportunity to pursue formal education; for older adults there are no
policies, resources, or support for education. Access to higher education and
programs such as Eiderhostel, Learning-in-Retirement Institutes, Universities of
the Third Age, senior centers, and retirement communities with educational
programs are nonexistent in Malaysia. (p.10)

Though the above observation was made on older adult learners, similar assumptions is
valid for adults who have professional work experience and who are engaging in formal
learning in the formal setting such as the university. Such neglect is likely as Malaysia
has been concentrating on educating its youth and hence most research has been targeted
at school children or fresh undergraduate learners.

Establishing a K-economy however concerns the adult learners in Malaysia, as they are
the main drivers in the country who make crucial political, economic and social decisions
in navigating the country to achieve Vision 2020. Merriam and Caffarella (1983) have
noted that it is important to meet the learning needs of the adults, as they are the decision
makers over the next two decades who will shape the Information Society. Even though
there are no official statistics on the number of adult learners engaging in professional
development in Malaysia, judging by the number of MBA courses available now and the
mushrooming of part-time courses available for busy adults over the past few years, one
can confidently conclude that the number of adults participating in professional
development in Malaysia has increased significantly. This trend of participation of the
adult learners is also clearly evident in the international scene. For instance, it was
reported in the United States of America that adult learners aged 25 or above represented
nearly half of the credit students in higher education; and during the past 30 years, adult

learners’ enrolment in post secondary education increased dramatically from 2.4 million
in 1970 to 6.5 million in 2000 (Imel, 2001). The participation of adult education in

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