NCRP report no 111 developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical or industrial facilities

NCRP REPORT No. 111

DEVELOPING RADIATION
EMERGENCY PLANS FOR
ACADEMIC, MEDICAL O R
INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES
Recommendations of the
NATIONAL COUNCIL O N RADIATION
PROTEC'TION AND MEASUREMENTS

Issued August 30, 1991
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
7910 WOODMONT AVENUE 1 Bethesda, MD 20814


LEGAL NOTICE
This report was prepared by t h e National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements (NCRP). The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and useful
information in its reports. However, neither the NCRP, the members of NCRP, other
persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this report, nor any person
acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty or representation,
express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the
information contained in this report, or that the use of any information, method or
process disclosed in this report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b)
assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use
of any information, method or process disclosed in this report, under the Civil Rights
Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq. as amended 42 U.S.C. Section 2000e et seq. (Title VZZ)
or any other statutory or common law theory governing liability.

Library of Congress Catalogim-in-PublicationData
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements.

Developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical, or industrial
facilities : recommendations of the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Meawrements.
p. cm.-(NCRP report ;no. 111)
Prepared by Scientiic Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness, under the
auspices of Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety.
"Issued 30 June 1991."
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-929600-20-7
1. Radiation-Safety measures. 2. Nuclear facilities-United Statessafety
measures. 3. Emergency management-United States. 4. Laboratories--United
States--Safety measures. 1. National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements. Scientific Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness. 11. National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. ScientiRc Committee 46 on
Operational Radiation Safety. 111. Title. IV. Series.
[DNLM: 1. Disaster Planning. 2. Emergencies. 3. Radiation Injuriesprevention & control. 4. Radiation Protection. WN 650 N277dI
TK9152.N37 1991
363.17'99--dc20
DNLMDLC
for Library of Congress
91-23659
CIP

Copyright O National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements 1991
All rights resewed. This publication is protected by copyright. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or
utilized by any information storage and retrievaI system without written permission
from the copyright owner, except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews.

Preface
This report is part of a series prepared under the auspices of
Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety. It provides
guidance on developing radiation emergency plans for academic,
medical or industrial facilities. Information on preparing and implementing an effective plan is provided. An approach to classification
of radiation emergencies is developed and examples are provided in
the Appendices. Practical considerations in handling an emergency
are discussed with emphasis on recovery, restoration and preventing
a recurrence. These recommendations are not intended for use at
power reactors or other major nuclear facilities.
Five reports have been published in this series: NCRP Report No.
59, Operational Radiation Safety Programs, NCRP Report No. 71,
Operational Radiation Safety-Training,NCRP Report No. 88, Radiation Alarms and Access Control Systems, NCRP Report No. 105,
Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel and
NCRP Report No. 107, Implementation of the Principle of as low as
Reasonably achievable (ALARA) for Medical and Dental Personnel.
Under preparation a t this time are reports treating radiation safety
in the mineral extraction industry, survey instrument calibration
and radiation protection records.
In accordance with the recommendations of NCRP Report No. 82,
SI Units in Radiation Protection and Measurements only SI units are
used in the text. Readers needing factors for conversion of SI to
conventional units are encouraged to consult Report No. 82.
This report was prepared by Scientific Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness which operated under the auspices of Scientific
Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety.
Serving on Scientific Committee 46-7 were:
George R. Holeman, Chairman
Yale University
New Haven, Connecticut

David E. Drum
Brigham and Women's Hospital
Boston, Massachusetts

Martha M. Malter
University of California,
San Diego,
La Jolla, California


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1

PREFACE

Ronald L. Frederickson
Kenosha, Wisconsin
Daniel B.Howell
Rutgers University
Piscataway, New Jersey

Kenneth W. Price
University of Connecticut
Farmington, Connecticut
Gerald T. Lonergan
University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa

Scientific Committee 46 Liaison Member

Robert G. Wissink
Minnesota Mining and
Manufacturing Company
St. Paul, Minnesota

NCRP Secretariat
Robert T. Wangemann (1986)
James A. Spahn Jr. (1986-1991)
Serving on Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety
were:

Charles B Meinhold, Chairman
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Upton, New York

William R. Casey (1983-1989)
Brookhaven National
Laboratory
Upton, New York

Thomas D. Murphy
GPU Nuclear
Parsippany, New Jersey
David S. Myers
Lawrence Livermore
Laboratories
Livermore, California

Robert J. Catlin

University of Texas
Houston, Texas

Keith J. Schiager
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah

William R. Hendee
Medical College of Wisconsin
Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Ralph H. Thomas
Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory
Livermore, California

Kenneth R. Kase
University of Massachusetts
Worcester, Massachusetts

Robert G. Wissink
Minnesota Mining and
Manufacturing Company
St. Paul, Minnesota

Ernest A. Belvin (1983-1987)
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chatanooga, Tennessee

PREFACE

James E. McLaughlin
University of California,
Los Angeles, California

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v

Paul L. Ziemer (19&1990)
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

The council wishes to express its appreciation to the committee
members for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of this
report.
Warren K. Sinclair
President, NCRP
Bethesda, Maryland
7 February, 1991


Contents
Preface ..........................................
1 Introduction ....................................
1.1 Scope and Objective of this Report ................
1.2 Development of a Plan .........................
1.3 Types of Facilities .............................
1.4 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel .......

2 Preparing a Radiation Emergency Plan ............
2.1 Introduction ..................................
2.2 Emergency Plan Development ..................
2.3 Management Support and Assignment of
Responsibility ................................
2.4 Emergency Organization Structure ...............
2.4.1 Emergency Coordinator ...................
2.4.2 Emergency Director ......................
2.4.3 Other Members of the Emergency Response
Team ..................................
3 Preparing Emergency Plan Implementing
Procedures .....................................
3.1 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) . .
3.1.1 Contents of Emergency Plan Implementing
Procedures ..............................
3.2 Emergency Facilities. Supplies and Equipment . . . . .
3.3 Emergency Organization Personnel ...............
3.4 Maintaining Emergency Reparedness ............
3.4.1 Maintenance of Emergency Plan ............
3.4.2 Training ................................
4 Classification of Radiation Emergencies ...........
4.1 Sources of Radiation ...........................
4.1.1 Sealed Sources ...........................
4.1.2 Unsealed Sources ........................
4.1.3 Machine Produced Radiation ...............
4.2 Emergencies for Which a Plan May Be Necessary ...
4.3 Associated Hazards ............................
4.3.1 Biohazards (Infectious Agents) ........ : .....
4.3.2 Toxic and Flammable or Explosive Materials . .
4.4 Emergency Planning Guidelines and Classification . .

4.5 Using the Emergency Classification System ........
4.5.1 Incident ................................
4.5.2 Level One Emergency .....................

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viii

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CONTENTS

4.5.3 Level Two Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.4 Precaution in Applying Classification Schemes

5 Practical Considerations in Handling an Emergency
5.1 Personnel Notification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Evaluation of Emergency .......................
5.3 Plan Activation Levels .........................
5.4 Emergency Response ...........................
5.4.1 Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Level One Emergency .....................
5.4.3 Level Two Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Recovery and Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 Exposure Control During Recovery and

30
30
33
33
34
34
34
34
35
36
36

Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5.2 Dose Assessment ......................... 37
5.5.3 Restoration Management .................. 37
5.6 Preventing a Recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5.7 Documentation and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.8 Media Releases ............................... 39
5.9 Other Considerations .......................... 39
5.9.1 Management Involvement ................. 39
5.9.2 Training Aids ........................... 39
40
6 Implementation and Evaluation of the Plan
6.1 Plan Approval ................................ 40
6.2 Testing and Modification of the Plan .............. 40
6.2.1 Elements of the Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.2 Initial Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.3 Review of Exercise ....................... 42
6.2.4 Unannounced Exercise .................... 42
6.3 Exercise Scenario ............................. 42
6.3.1 Scenario Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3.2 The Roles of Controllers and Evaluators
44
6.4 Evaluation of the Exercise ...................... 45
6.4.1 Analyses of Deficiencies and Weaknesses ...... 45
6.4.2 Implementation of Solutions ................ 46
7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
APPENDIX A Glossary ............................. 48

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APPENDIX B Sample Emergency Plan for a n Industrial
Research Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
APPENDIX C Sample Emergency Plan for a Medical
Facility .............................. 74
APPENDIX D Emergency Classification Examples ....... 97
References ....................................... 106
The NCRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
NCRP Publications ..................................116
INDEX ...........................................126


1. Introduction
The widespread use of radioactive materials and ionizing radiation
in education, research, medicine, and industry has made it essential
to prepare in advance for potential radiation emergencies. Radiation
emergencies may vary from minor contamination to significant
whole body exposures, and it is important for managers and administrators to ensure that appropriate, effective procedures are in place
to cover the range of possible radiation emergencies. A viable plan
designed to minimize the impact upon patients, employees, visitors,
and the public should be available to managers and administrators.
Offsite emergency planners and offsite emergency response personnel are an integral part of any viable plan, and effective interface
between facility personnel and offsite personnel in the planning and
emergency phases is extremely important in order to protect the
health and safety of all involved.
An effective radiation emergency plan will be an integral part of
a facility's or institution's overall emergency plan covering all types
of emergencies. An effective radiation emergency plan will also
match appropriate available resources to control the consequences
with the emergency's potential effects. The response of the radiation

safety personnel must be planned to correspond to the potential
impact of the emergency. It is not intended that the entire plan be
activated for each emergency and provisions for a graded response
should be included. For example, the full emergency plan will not
need to be invoked for every minor spill of radioactive material where
there is no potential for significant personnel exposure or the spread
of contamination.
There is considerable emergency planning literature available for
major installations such as nuclear power plants and major government facilities. However, there is minimal guidance for academic,
medical and industrial facilities. Hospital accreditation groups, such
as the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), require hospitals to have emergency plans which
detail management of, and acceptance criteria for, accident victims
exposed to radiation or contaminated with radioactive material. The
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP)
has issued several related reports, such as Report No. 65 Manugement of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides,


(NCRP, 1980) which gives guidance in managing patients. This
report has been written to provide generic guidance for development
of a plan and implementing procedures to respond to a radiation
emergency which may occur in these facilities. It is not intended
for emergency planning at power reactors or other major nuclear
facilities.

1.1 Scope and Objective of this Report

In recognition that the requirements for radiation emergencyplanning a t academic, medical and industrial facilities have not been
well defined, this report has been prepared to assist a planner in:
defining a range of credible emergencies that could develop at
these types of facilities;

determining the radiological impact for a potential range of
emergencies; and
developing the implementing procedures to prevent, mitigate
and remedy the adverse consequences of the emergencies.
This report is intended to assist in preparing plans t o cope with
emergencies having a potential for exposure to radiation. In assessing local circumstances, factors other than radiation may dictate
a more intensive response than may be required by the radiation
emergency alone, e g . , a life-threatening traumatic injury of a radiation contaminated worker.
Terms used in the report are defined in Appendix A. Two terms
used in the report have a special meaning as indicated by the use of
italics:
1) Shall and shall not are used to indicate that adherence to the
recommendations is considered necessary to meet accepted
standards of protection.
2) Should and should not are used to indicate a prudent practice,
exceptions to which may occasionally be made in appropriate
circumstance.

1.2 Development of a Plan

To develop a plan, several questions must be addressed:
What types and quantities of radioactive material or radiationproducing devices are actually being used, and what procedures
are likely to lead to serious accidents?


1.3 TYPES OFFACILlTIES

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3

What are the associated procedures, facilities, and equipment
and their complexity?
Are the status, education, and experience of the workers appropriate to the tasks being performed?
Which emergencies involving radiation have previously occurred a t this or similar facilities?
Which procedure or failure of equipment may lead to significant
radiation exposures or radionuclide releases?
Which are the most severe emergencies likely to occur which
would have an impact on workers, the public andlor the environment?
Information is presented in this report for use in the classification
of emergencies based solely on radiological exposure and designed
to be conservative, i.e., prevent under-classification of an emergency
involving radiation. The tables represent condensed versions of the
guides and limits in the literature and therefore should be used with
caution in determining emergency classification. Extreme caution
should also be used in applying these values to actuul dose assessments, without further supplemental data.

1.3 Types of Facilities
This guide is applicable to academic, medical, and industrial facilities. Academicfacilities may range from a single radionuclide laboratory in a small college to extensive radionuclide receiving, storage,
dispensing, and research laboratories in major universities. Larger
academic facilities may also have onsite particle accelerators andlor
research reactors. Medical facilities may range from small community hospitals with a clinical laboratory and a small nuclear medicine
section to a multi-hospital medical school complex. Some medical
facilities may operate small accelerators and/or research reactors.
Industrial facilities include manufacturers or users of sources and
irradiators, radiochemicals, and operators of accelerators and
research reactors. Industrial radiography is included within this
tzroup.
The purpose of emergency planning is to anticipate potential problems and devise a plan and its implementing procedures that will
successfully prevent or remedy adverse consequences. Different

emergencies require varying levels of response. This report has been
developed as a guide so that an effective plan can be formulated to
suit the needs and requirements of each individual facility, large or
small.


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1. INTRODUCTION

1.4 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel

Academic, medical and industrial organizations which use radioactive materials and radiation-producing devices are required both
by statutes and sound judgement to provide for the radiation protection of employees and to minimize exposure of the general public.
The magnitude and sophistication of the radiation protection program are dictated by the potential risk associated with the use of
radioactive material or radiation-producing equipment, the operations involved, and the regulatory requirements (NCRP, 1978). A
Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) is generally appointed by the management of an institution ta oversee the radiation protection program. The training and experience of the RSO should be commensurate with the potential radiation risks. The RSO should be a health
physicist or have an academic degree in the physical or biological
sciences or engineering with appropriate training and experience in
radiation health sciences. The RSO's professional experience should
include application of this training to management and administration of a radiation safety program.
The RSO should be designated by management in the emergency
plan as the individual responsible for the functional area ofradiation
protection. The existing radiation protection program should form
the core of the emergency response preparedness. If adequate emergency radiation protection expertise is not available on site, then the
emergency plan should make appropriate provisions for obtaining
such expertise on a timely basis.

2. Preparing a Radiation
Emergency Plan
2.1 Introduction
The emergency plan must be brief. Specific actions required by
the plan are as described in the Emergency Plan Implementation
Procedures. The body of the Plan should describe the emergency
organization.
The emergency plan should clearly address the range of emergency
conditions that could occur at the facility. The purpose of the emergency classificationsystem is to provide a basis for defining the level
of response based on the potential for radiation exposure (See Section
4).

2.2 Emergency Plan Development
An emergency plan provides a framework for immediate response
to a wide range of emergency conditions. The degree of development
of each implementing procedure specified in the plan will depend on
the potential consequences of &hehazard as well as the availability
of resources. The following subjects need to be considered in the
development of an emergency plan:
evaluation of accident potential
management support
emergency organization
emergency facilities and equipment
implementing procedures
emergency training and retraining
coordination with outside agencies
public relations
legal assistance
termination of the emergency

restoration of the facility
testing and critiquing the plan.


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2. PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

All institutions, whether academic, medical or industrial should
develop some type of plan for responding to emergencies. The degree
of planning necessary for each institution can be determined only
through careful evaluation of the potential for an emergency, as well
as its severity.

2.3 Management Support and Assignment of Responsibility
At any institution, the level of management that makes the decisions necessary to implement policy and commit resources must
ensure that there is an appropriate level of emergency preparedness
a t the institution.
An individual should be appointed as the overall coordinator of
the emergency preparedness program. This should be a formal
appointment, and appropriate authority should be granted to the
Emergency Coordinator (see Section 2.4.1) to perform assigned
duties.
Coordination between the institution and outside assistance organizations, such as fire, police, the public, and the news media, is
the responsibility of management. Management should appoint a
contact person to interact with offsite planning and response organizations. This would probably be the Emergency Coordinator. All
such coordination must be clearly documented.
Criteria must be established for selection of personnel assigned to

emergency preparedness positions. A mechanism should be provided
for input to the emergency preparedness program by all employees
who will have an active role in the plan. Professional development
training should be made available to emergency personnel to maintain state-of-the-art knowledge in emergency preparedness planning. Such training is available through a number of universities,
government laboratories and private consulting firms.

2.4 Emergency Organization Structure

A necessary part of any emergency preparedness plan is to define
the lines of authority and functions of all individuals that will be
involved. The emergency organization should account for absences
and be flexible enough to handle a wide range of events. Duties of
key personnel should be designated so that the required level of
response to an emergency can be determined quickly. Decisions
regarding when to escalate the response must be made as quickly as


2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

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7

possible. The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for developing
the emergency plan.
The emergency preparedness organizational structure should
specify by title or position the individuals who will be assigned to
various functions. For example, the Chief Administrative OfEcer for
a medical institution might be the Emergency Director (See Section
2.3.2). In the case of an industrial organization, the plant manager

might be designated as the Emergency Director.
All or some of the following functional units should be included in
an emergency response team:
radiation safety
security and traffic control
public information
fire, safety and hazardous substance control
physical plant services
medical services
legal counsel.
In certain situations it may be appropriate to involve operations
personnel (personnel associated with operation of the affected area)
as members of the emergency response teams.
At the time of an emergency, the manager or director of each of
the functional units listed in the emergency plan should report to the
Emergency Director (See Section 2.4.2). These individuals, together
with the Emergency Director, will comprise the emergency organization depicted in Figure 2.1 and may be physically located in one
central area during the emergency response.
The introduction to the emergency plan should contain concise
statements which describe:
the type of facility
the address or location
the purpose and objectives of the emergency plan
management's commitment to the purpose and objectives of the
plan, and delegation of authority to key personnel.
2.4.1 Emergency Coordinator

The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for developingan emergency plan, for maintaining the document and related distribution
lists. The Emergency Coordinator should be included in all routine
matters that have an impact on emergency planning, such as budget

meetings, facility planning, modifications and procedural changes.
The Emergency Coordinator may or may not be assigned a role in
responding to an emergency. The duties of the Emergency Coordina-


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2. PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN
ADMINISTRATION

RADIATION
SAFETY
GROUP

~

EMERGENCY
DIRECTOR

MEDICAL
GROUP

I
OFFSITE
COMMUNITY
AGENCIES

PUBLK:

INFORMATION
OFFICER

SECURINIGROUP
TRAFFIC
CONTROL

LEGAL
COUNSEL

1:;:: 1 1 EEZ;: 1
FIRE. SAFETY AND

Fig. 2.1 Concept of an Emergency Organization.

tor shall be detailed in an Emergency Plan ImplementingProcedure
(EPIP).Section 3 discusses in detail the format and content of specific
EPIPs. It is possible, and may be desirable, that the functions of
Emergency Coordinator and Emergency Director will be performed
by the same person.
2.4.2 Emergency Director

The Emergency Director exercises command and control over all
of the institutional emergency response personnel in the event of a
declared emergency and works in close liaison with the offsite
response agencies. The position carries the responsibilityand authority to initiate any emergency action within the emergency plan
necessary to correct or mitigate hazards created by the emergency
situation.
The Emergency Director should provide a point of contact between
the offsite and onsite response personnel to assure coordination.

It is essential that offsite emergency response personnel are not
prevented from performing their normal legal responsibilities to
protect the health and safety of the public and to assure that these
personnel have the proper information to perform their responsibilities safely and in the best interests of the public.


2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

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The individual designated as the Emergency Director may not
always be immediately available when an emergency arises. Hence,
it is essential that the call list for initial contact and the levels of
responsibility be clearly defined. The initial responder will be the
person in charge until the Emergency Director or the designated
alternate arrives, at which time the leadership will be transferred
and responsibilities appropriately divided. In many smaller institutions, the supervisory security personnel or the individual assigned
to the position of night supervisor could be the designated Emergency
Director until properly relieved. The emergency plan should clearly
specify the lines of authority, not only for the Emergency Director's
position, but also for the team leader of each functional unit shown
in Figure 2.1. The duties of the Emergency Director shall be detailed
in an EPIP.

2.4.3 Other Members of the Emergency Response Team

In addition to the Emergency Director, the emergency response
team should include a radiation safety officer, an institutional security officer, a plant services or facilities operations supervisor, fire

marshal, and public information officer. The team may also include
other safety professionals, such as an industrial hygienist, biohazards expert and a physician or allied health care professional. The
duties of each member of the emergency response team shall be
detailed in an EPIP. Any one of these individuals may also be the
Emergency Director. The radiation safety expert may be the institutional radiation safety officer or a consultant health physicist. Many
of the above responsibilities and individuals may overlap in their job
functions. In a small facility many responsibilities might be borne
by one individual. The team may also include operational personnel,
when needed. The type of emergency, location or time of day of the
emergency would dictate who would first assume the responsibility
of Emergency Director.
The Radiation Safety Officer and other radiation safety staff
should be available to respond to the radiological aspects of any
emergency. The Radiation Safety Officer is responsible for immediate assessment of actual or potential exposure to radiation, in order
to determine the appropriate level of emergencyresponse. The Radiation Safety Officer should determine requirements for dosimetry,
bioassay and environmental monitoring activities as required to
assess the radiation exposure potential and to activate special assistance teams as rapidly as possible.


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2. PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

The experience and general knowledge of the institutional Security Officer can provide an essential capability in the control of most
emergency situations. Among the emergency response functions
often assigned to the security department are evacuation of personnel, establishment and control of assembly areas, personnel accountability, access control, rescue and f i s t aid, provision of transportation and communication for emergency teams and liaison with local
law enforcement agencies and medical facilities.
The responsibility for ensuring the availability of essential services, such as electricity, water, ventilation, heating, and cooling is

commonly assigned to Physical Plant Services. The provision and
maintenance of such services normally requires an around-the-clock
availability of personnel familiar with these operations. The Plant
Services Director or Supervisor should be designated as one of the
emergency response team members. Among the emergency response
functions of Plant Services are facility damage assessment, repair
work, technical support and liaison with public utilities suppliers.
Plant services personnel provide the emergency director with an
essential first response capability for the Emergency Organization.
In addition, they are a trained and experienced resource for repair
of facilities and equipment throughout an emergency situation.
Most institutions do not have a full-time fire marshal or fire department and must rely on response from local fire departments. Whatever the degree of development of this function within the institution,
the individual assigned the responsibility for fire protection must be
included among the primary advisors to the Emergency Director.
This individual will provide broad knowledge of the institution's
fire potential, facility layout, engineered fire protection systems and
availability and capabilities of equipment and personnel. The training and experience of the fire protection personnel can also be useful
in coordination with local governmental fire protection agencies. The
role of the offsite support agencies, such as fire and police, may vary
considerably and should be factored into the emergency plan.
Frequently, an emergency involving radiation would also involve
other hazardous substances, such as chemical, biological and infectious agents, carcinogens and cytotoxic substances. Many institutions have an industrial hygienist on staff who would be in charge
of hazardous substance control, and could provide valuable assistance to the Emergency Director.
The institution's Public Information Officer is responsible for
timely release of all information to the media and public. A community's perception of radiation often creates anxiety and it is essential
that accurate information be given to the media. All contacts with
the news media should be reviewed and released by the Public Infor-


2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

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11

mation Officer. It is important that this individual is aware, and
keeps the media apprised, of all current information. The Public
Information Officer must have a basic understanding of radiation
and its terminology. All information should be transmitted to the
Public Information W c e r by the Emergency Director or designee.
The public information responsibility should not be left to staff members who are dealing with the emergency or providing emergency
medical care. The Public Information Officer should be considered
an indispensable member of the Emergency Director's staff in any
emergency and should be involved in all preliminary emergency
preparedness planning.
A health professional is a valuable member of an emergency
response team. If medical facilities are not available within an institution, it is of paramount importance to set up arrangements with a
hospital designated to accept patients that might be involved in a
radiation emergency. It is the institution's responsibility to ensure
that the hospital staff members are provided training and are
included in drills. The duties of each member of the emergency
response team shall be detailed in an EPIP.


3. Preparing Emergency
Plan Implementing
Procedures
3.1 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs)

If the emergency plan is complex, it shall be implemented through

the use of emergency plan implementing procedures (EPIPs). EPIPs
are documented instructions which describe the actions necessary to
achieve the emergency plan objectives. The EPIPs should be written
to cover the range of emergency classifications (see Section 4). These
procedures should be attached to the plan and available for reference
during an emergency. Sample EPIPs are contained in the sample
plans in Appendices B and C. Implementation of simple emergency
plans, for example, a plan appropriate for a small manufacturing
concern using small amounts of radioactive materials of low potential for radiation exposure, do not require the use of EPIPs.
The EPIPs should address the actions needed during restoration
of the facility, as well as during the emergency. In this respect,
certain routine administrative, radiation protection, and maintenance procedures should not be restated as EPIPs, but merely referenced in the emergency plan.
The EPIPs should be developed using input from the individuals
who will be using the procedures and should not be placed into
service until they have been thoroughly tested. It is also necessary
that the EPIPs be compatible with existing documents, such as an
institution's existing plan to deal with any type of emergency.
The EPIPs should identify individuals and their designated alternates by title and assigned responsibilities.

3.1.1

Contents of Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures

The following should be considered in developing each EPIP:
description of the purpose of the EPIP


3.2 EMERGENCY FACILITIES, SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT

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identification of the individual or the organizational unit which
has both the authority and responsibility for implementing the
EPIP
identification of appropriate means of communications including telephone numbers
description of the action sequence to achieve the purpose
description of any prerequisites to the performance of the specified actions
specification of the precautions and limitations to be observed
during the performance of the prescribed task(s)
specification of guidelines to be followed in the exercise ofjudgment on the part of an individual, either in the interpretation
of results, action levels, or recommendation of protective actions
specification of training requirements
reference any routine procedure in an EPIP and make available
to the user of the EPIP
attach copies or examples of forms to be used in carrying out
tasks to the EPIP
include sign-off sheets, checklists and/or data sheets to document completion of the actions prescribed in the EPIP.

3.2 Emergency Facilities, Supplies and Equipment

The institution should make available to the emergency response
teams the facilities and equipment necessary as required in the
EPIPs. The facilities and equipment should be supplied only to the
extent required by the most serious credible emergency classification. Adequate emergency equipment, such as radiation detection
instrumentation, sampling equipment, personnel dosimeters, personal protective equipment, decontamination supplies and communication systems should be readily available and operable. Measurement and sampling equipment must be calibrated and consistent
with the requirements described in the emergency plan.
Following is a listing of recommended items that should be available for dealing with radiation emergencies:
copies of the emergency plan and EPIPs

space for Emergency Director and staff
communication links between team members
cummunication links with outside public agencies
personal protective equipment
radiation detection equipment
air sampling and counting equipment


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3. EMERGENCY PLAN IMPLEMENTINGPROCEDURES

data display modes, such as status boards, and maps
facility floor plans
reference material
computer or calculator.
The communication system must be able to maintain communication between members of each response team and the control center,
as well as communication with outside emergency forces such as
police, fire, hospital, health department and public information officials. Communication equipment should include as a minimum a
dedicated telephone and two-way radios. It may be advisable to
install some type of restricted communication system, such as telephones dedicated for emergency use only. The use and installation
of such equipment and communicationnetworks must be appropriate
for the level of emergency deemed credible for the facility.
Data display, such as message boards, maps and status boards
are necessary to indicate facility, radiological and meteorological
conditions. Copies of pertinent regulatory agency licenses and regulations and a listing of regulatory reporting levels should be maintained and readily available.
The configuration of facilities and buildings a t many medical,
academic and industrial institutions may mean that the radiation

protection office is not centrally located. Consideration should be
given to either preparing an emergency response kit for transport to
the emergency site or the establishment of an emergency supply
locker in a more central location. In particular, a separate radiation
emergency supply locker should be prepared and located for use in
the emergency room of a hospital.

3.3 Emergency Organization Personnel
EPIPs should be prepared for each of the following functional
positions.
emergency director
security/police personnel
radiation safety officer
public information officer
plant services director
institutional fire marshal
medical officer
legal counsel.
The Emergency Director must make an immediate assessment of
the situation and make the decision that there is an emergency


3.4 MAINTAINING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

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situation. If there is a true emergency situation, the Emergency
Director's responsibilities are to bring the emergency situation under

control as effectively as possible and to institute remedial action to
permit safe return to routine operations.
When an emergency occurs, the designated representative of each
functional unit should report to the Emergency Director to provide
consultation and information to the Emergency Director and other
officials as necessary (Figure 2.1). Individuals should be in direct
communicationwith their own hnctional unit. The radiation protection staff should normally be alerted and directed to report as
required by the EPIP. Similarly, all other units should report as
required by their EPIPs.
The emergency plan should define each responding group and
indicate by title the individuals responsible for directing each group.
This listing should provide the Emergency Director with a selection
of capabilitieswhen structuring a specific emergency response team.
The composition of each team should allow specificemergency tasks
to be accomplished ranging from initial assessment to preparation
of the incident report. Each individual assigned to an emergency
response team should:
be thoroughly familiar with the institution's emergency plan
know the elements of radiation protection in practice at the
facility
be aware of assigned functional group assignments
be knowledgeable of emergency site procedures
be trained in performance of assigned tasks
be familiar with appropriate protective equipment
be involved in plan rehearsals, drills and exercises
know when to involve offsite emergency response agencies.

3.4 Maintaining Emergency Preparedness
The emergency plan should describe how emergency preparedness
will be maintained and how the effectiveness of the emergency plan

will be routinely tested.

3.4.1 Maintenance of Emergency Plan
The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for updating and maintaining the emergency plan, as well as scheduling and documenting
drills and exercises. The emergency plan should provide for periodic
update of the emergency plan, EPIPs, and agreements with offsite


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3. EMERGENCY PLAN IMPLEMENTING PROCEDURES

support organizations and agencies. This should include reviews
by those responsible for emergency planning, the incorporation of
modifications resulting from drills or changes in the facility or environment, and the distribution of amendments to the plan.
3.4.2

Tmining

Emergency situations can cause changes in reporting pathways,
in the scope and nature ofduties and in the perceptions of individuals,
particularly when radiation is involved. When under stress, individuals may exhibit counterproductivebehavior. Proper training helps
establish acceptable behavior patterns and minimizes abnormal
response.
The objective of an emergency plan training program is to ensure
that all personnel assigned emergency response tasks are trained to
perform their respective duties. The EPIPs should describe initial
training and periodic retraining programs for all individuals who

could be involved in response to an emergency, including backup
personnel. The training should include familiarity with each individual's role in the overall response plan to an emergency. Response
team members requiring training include those persons responsible
for:
decision making
communications
accident assessment
radiation safety
first aid and rescue
medical support
police, security, ambulance and fire fighting services
public information
hazardous substances control (chemical, biohazards).
The training should include demonstrations and actual hands-on
use of equipment, as well a s classroom instruction. The emergency
plan training program should also include training, as needed, for
those outside agencies which may be required to respond to an emergency, such as police, fire, ambulance and emergency medical personnel. This training should include specific instruction in the institution's procedures for notification, basic radiation protection, site
access and the expected role(s) of the trainees.
After emergency personnel are trained to manage radiation accidents, continuous positive feedback must be provided for their learning experience.Photographs and videotapes ofactivities during drills
are valuable aids in accomplishing this objective.


4. Classification of Radiation
Emergencies
An emergency is an event which results in an actual or potential
threat to the safety of personnel and/or the facility and which
requires immediate response. The Emergency Director is placed in
the position of deciding the level of action required, which must
include the avoidance of overreaction to trivial situations. In order
to assist the Emergency Director, a method for classifying radiation

emergencies according to the potential for radiation exposure is discussed in this section. It should be emphasized that this information
is provided as guidance for the Emergency Director, and that professional judgment plays an important role in the final emergency
planning for a specific facility.

4.1 Sources of Radiation

To assist in planning for the consequences of an emergency, it
is appropriate to categorize and identify the location of sources of
radiation as follows:
sealed or encapsulated sources
unsealed sources
machine-produced radiation.
Classificationof the source in this way aids considerably in evaluating the type of radiation hazard which may exist in the event of
an emergency. The individual responsible for each source should be
identified.
4.1.1

Sealed Sources

Sealed sources of radioactive material generally meet strict performance tests. Such source evaluations are conducted on sealed source
designs and ensure source integrity when source is subjected to
specified temperatures, external pressure, impact, vibration, and
puncture stresses. Consequently, sealed sources should maintain
their integrity for most accident conditions. However, they may pose


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4. CLASSIFICATION O F RADIATION EMERGENCIES

a significant external exposure hazard. If sealed sources are subjected
to unusual stresses, (i.e., stresses beyond those for which they were
designed) radioactive material may be released.
4.1.2

Unsealed Sources

Many facilities use radioactive materials that are in a solid (e.g.,
powder), liquid or gaseous state. Such facilities include hospitals,
universities, and manufacturers of radionuclide products. Unsealed
sources of radioactive material are more easily dispersed into the
facility and the environment than are sealed sources. Contamination
by, and ingestion or inhalation of, radioactive material must be
considered in planning for emergencies involving unsealed sources.
4.1.3

Machine Produced Radiation

This category includes x-ray machines, x-ray fluorescence equipment, x-ray diffraction equipment, particle accelerators, and any
other electronic equipment which may produce ionizing radiation.
Except where activation of components is possible, the radiation
exists only while the machine is operating. Emergencies associated
with radiation-producing equipment usually involve a limited number of individuals.

4.2 Emergencies for Which a Plan May Be Necessary

Radiation emergencies are unplanned events which reduce the
level of radiation safety for individuals working in the facility or for

the general public. Unexpected events which have the potential for
release of radioactive material beyond the bounds of a facility or
have the potential for exposure or involvement of the general public
should be considered in constructing an emergency plan. All potential emergencies require a plan of action.
There is a large variety of potential emergencies which may occur.
In planning for these, it is important that plans not go beyond a
credible worst case situation to ensure an appropriate level of
response. This section provides information which the emergency
planner can consider in constructing an emergency plan. A number
of emergency situations are discussed in Section 4.5. These are presented as typical and are not intended to include all possible emergencies.