A COURSE OF a SURVEY OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE (COLLEGE STUDENTS INTERNAL USE)

QUANG BINH UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
................    ..............

A COURSE OF A SURVEY OF ENGLISH
AND AMERICAN LITERATURE
(COLLEGE STUDENTS - INTERNAL USE)

Compiled Vo Thi Dung, Ph.D

QUANG BINH 2016

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PREFACE

A course of a Survey of English and American Literature is intended
chiefly for college students and the general reader who is interested in the
history of literature.
This course aims at encouraging students to gain an insight into, and
broad awareness of, the development of English and American literature from its
perceived origins in the beginning until the end of the twentieth century. All the
topics have been selected carefully from the different sources. Some examples
of examination questions at the end of each chapter hopefully are helpful guide.
We would be very happy if this material proved to be helpful for
providing students with a door to your own research and study. We highly
appreciated to receive the ideas and comments from the readers so that it will be
corrected and used in an effective way.
The author
Vo Thi Dung, PhD

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TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Part 1:
CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

I. Historical background
II. The formation of the language
III. Division of English literature history
- The Old English literature
- The Middle English literature
- The Modern English literature
CHAPTER 2: THE OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

I. The making of England
II. Features of the Old English literature
III. Typical work: Beowulf
CHAPTER 3: THE MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE

I. Language and literature
II. Typical poet: George Chaucer
CHAPTER 4: MODERN ENGLISH LITERATURE

I. Periods of Modern English literature
II. Typical authors:
- William Shakespeare
- John Milton

- Daniel Defoe
- Charles Dickens
III. English literature in the 20th century
Part 2:
CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF AMERICAN LITERATURE

I. Historical background
II. The literature of exploration
III. Typical authors:
- William Byrd
- James Fennimore Cooper
CHAPTER 2: THE MIDDLE AMERICAN LITERATURE
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I. Historical background
II. Literature:
- The Romantic period
- Typical authors:
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Edgar Allan Poe
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain)
CHAPTER 3: THE MODERN AMERICAN LITERATURE

I. Historical background
II. Literature:
- Modernism
- Prose writing
- Typical authors:

William Faulkner
F.Scott Fitzgeral
Ernest Hemingway
Review

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PART I
ENGLISH LITERATURE

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CHAPTER 1
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
I. HISTORYCAL BACKGROUND
The time period of about 500-1100 AD in British history was
characterized by foreign invasions and internal struggles. This resulted in the
mixing of several races, tongues and cultures.
After the Romans departed from the British Isles in 407 AD fighting
continued between the Picts and the Scots who had lost their common enemy.
The fifth century also saw conquests and the gradual occupation by Germanic
tribes - Angles, Jutes and Saxons - who had moved north to Scandinavia and
from there to Britain. Apart from making conquests, these tribes preferred
agricultural life, had strong family and tribal ties, and were very loyal to their
king or chief. The legendary King Arthur defeated the Saxons in 490 AD and for
about a decade halted their advance.
At the end of the sixth century, the Anglo-Saxons accepted Christianity
after Pope Gregory sent Saint Augustine to Britain in 597 AD. (The Romans had

introduced Christianity to the Celts centuries earlier.) This gave rise to some
religious writings. At the end of the eighth century the Vikings (also known as
Norsemen or Danes) invaded the country, easily overcame the local inhabitants,
and plundered their estates. It was not until the reign of King Alfred the Great
(871 - 900) that their advance was stopped. With their acceptance of
Christianity, the Danes partially blended in with the local people.
Alfred's successors, Edgar and Ethelred II were in 1016 followed by
Danish King Canute (reigned 1016-1035), after whose death the empire fell
apart Alfred's great-grandson, Edward, son of the French Emma of Normandy,
took over the throne. The fact that Edward had no descendants led to a power
struggle between his brother-in-law, Harold, and Emma's nephew, William of
Normandy. William's victory over Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 led
to the Norman conquest and occupation of England, which then opened a new
chapter in British history. The language of this whole period (500-1100) is
known as Old English. No exact date exists for its beginning. The first written
records of the language date from around 690 AD (however, people had spoken
it long before then). Most Old English words were Germanic, having come from
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the languages of the Angles, Jutes and Saxons. Latin, however, also had a strong
influence on early English. Later, the Scandinavians (Vikings) contributed many
words to Old English. By the end of the Old English period (marked by the
Norman Conquest), Old English had been established as a literary language with
a remarkable polish and versatility.
Old English literature consists of poetry, prose, charms, riddles, maxims,
proverbs, and various other wisdom sayings. It is a mixture of pagan traditions,
thoughts about life, the universe and nature, as well as Christian thought and
moral values. There is often no clea - cut delineation between religious and nonreligious poetry or sometimes even between poetry and prose.
The terms anno Domini (AD or A.D.) and before Christ (BC or B.C.) are

used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term
anno Domini is Medieval Latin, which means in the year of the Lord but is often
translated as in the year of our Lord. It is occasionally set out more fully as anno
Domini nostri Iesu (or Jesu) Christi ("in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ").
II. THE FORMATION OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE COUNTRY
The first tribes inhabiting England were of Celtic and pre-Celtic stock.
The Celts spoke the Celtic language. The Roman invasion took place in 43
A.D. The Romans came to stay until 410 A.D. The language of the land then
consisted of Latin and Celtic. Latin was the language of the upper classes and
the government, while Celtic remained that of the populace. Today we can find
the traces of Celtic language in many place-nations like London, Dover, York,
Thames Avon, Severn, Trent. The common nouns bin, crag, curse, dun are
Celtic.
After the Roman invasion came the invasion of many Germanic tribes in
the fifth century. Of these tribes the best known were the Angles and the
Saxons. The Angles and the Saxons displaced the Celtic-speaking inhabitants.
The dialect used by the Saxons became the dominant language. However,
because the Angles were more numerous than the Saxons, they gave their name
to that dominant language, which has been called English since.
* The development of English language has gone through three periods:
a) The Old English period (c450 –c1066)
Specimen: Cwom ϸa to flode

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(Came then to the flood)
b) The Middle English period (c1066 – c1500)
Specimen: Whan that April with his showres soote
The drought of March hath perced to the roote

And bathe every veine in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flowr
(When that April with his showers swept
The drought of March has pierced to the root
And bathe every vein in such liquor
Of which virtue engendered is the flower)
c) The Modern English period (after c1500)
Specimen: When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes
I all alone beweep my outcaste state
And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries.
(From sonnet xxix by William Shakespeare 1564-1616)
During the first five centuries of our era and long before that Britain was
inhabited by a people called Kelts, who lived in tribes.
Britain’s history is considered to begin in the 5th century, when it was
invaded from the Continent by the fighting tribes of Angles, Saxon and Jutes. At
the very end of the 5th century they settle in Britain and began to call themselves
English (after the principal tribe of settlers, called Englisc). Through the
influence of the British Empire, the English language has spread around the
world since the 17th century.
* What is English literature?
English literature term is very popular that means writing in English
language. Formerly, it was meant to be British writing. With the course of the
time, the concept has changed and now it means writing produced in English
language by any one at any place in the world. There are countries such as India,
Africa etc… have given great literature in English and continues to contribute to
world literature.
III. THE DIVISION OF ENGLISH LITERARY HISTORY
The literary history of England may be divided into three periods:
a. The Old English period 450 AD – 1066 (Anglo-Saxon)

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The so-called "Dark Ages" (455 CE -799 CE) occur when Rome falls and
barbarian tribes move into Europe. Franks, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Goths
settle in the ruins of Europe and the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrate to
Britain, displacing native Celts into Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Early Old
English poems such as Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer originate
sometime late in the Anglo-Saxon period. The Carolingian Renaissance (800850 CE) emerges in Europe. In central Europe, texts include early medieval
grammars, encyclopedias, etc. In northern Europe, this time period marks the
setting of Viking sagas.
During this period the language of the country was called Old English
(abbreviated OE), or Anglo – Saxon. Its vocabulary was limited. Old English
was very different from the English we read and hear today. However, we have
to remember that scholarly works during this period were written in Latin. It was
not until in the second half of the ninth century that there was a serious attempt
to establish a written prose literature in English.
b. The Middle English period 1066 – 1500 (c.1066-1500CE)
In 1066, Norman French armies invade and conquer England under
William I. This marks the end of the Anglo-Saxon hierarchy and the emergence
of the Twelfth Century Renaissance (c. 1100-1200 CE). French chivalric
romances--such as works by Chretien de Troyes--and French fables--such as the
works of Marie de France and Jeun de Meun--spread in popularity. Abelard and
other humanists produce great scholastic and theological works.
Late or "High" Medieval Period (c. 1200-1485 CE): This often
tumultuous period is marked by the Middle English writings of Geoffrey
Chaucer, the "Gawain" or "Pearl" Poet, the Wakefield Master, and William
Langland. Other writers include Italian and French authors like Boccaccio,
Petrarch, Dante, and Christine de Pisan.
During this period the language of the country called Middle English.

Middle English was in a state of continuous change. The vocabulary of the
language was enriched borrowing many words from French and Latin.
c. The Modern English period after 1500

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In this period, the English is substantially very much like the English used
today. It has been called Modern English. But there is one thing we should know
not until the 18th century did English spelling come to be standardized.
Corresponding to these three periods, there are the Old English literature;
the Middle English literature and the Modern English literature.
Although we know very little of this period from literature some poems
have nevertheless reached us. In those early days songs called epics were created
in many countries. The epics tells of some events from a people history, sings
the heroic deeds of a man, his courage and his desire of justice, his love for his
people and self-sacrifice for the sake of his country.
IV. PRACTICE
* For each statement, write T if the statement is true or F if it is false
1. English followed Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the
year number. However, BC is placed after the year number (for example:
AD 2016, but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order.
2. BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes
incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of
Jesus.
3. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, usage of AD gradually became
more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 15th to the 17th
centuries.
4. Oral tradition was very strong in early English culture. Beowulf is the
most famous work in Old English, and has achieved national epic status in

England, despite being set in Scandinavia.
5. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to
Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called
Middle English.
6. Old English literature, or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses the
surviving literature written in the period after the settlement of the Saxons
and other Germanic tribes in England (Jutes and the Angles) c. 450, after
the withdrawal of the Romans, and "ending soon after the Norman
Conquest" in 1766.
* Answer the following question

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1. What is the epic?
2. When did Britain’s history begin?
3. How many periods can English literature be divided?
4. When was Anglo - Saxon language (Old English) brought to England?
5. What is English literature?

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CHAPTER 2
THE OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE
The Anglo-Saxons were a pagan society, but information about their lives
and culture has been told by Christian writers. The Anglo-Saxons maintained
order in their society through social means. Society was led by powerful leaders
(a ring-giver, lord or lady) who rewarded their servants for various activities.
Anglo-Saxons enjoyed serving their lords and found it hard to survive if they

were not supported by their lords.
Songs and poetry were very important components of Anglo-Saxon
society. Poems were conveyed orally but started appearing in written form in
733. Archbishops were known to sing songs to attract crowds for their sermons.
One of the most valued members of Anglo-Saxon society was the scop, or poet,
who discussed social and cultural values in his work. Scops were responsible for
maintaining a person's reputation through song after his or her death.
In 313, Constantine legalized Christianity, and it became a central part of
education in the Anglo-Saxon period. But Christian concepts differed from
traditional Germanic culture, which caused conflict in Germanic society.
Germanic culture emphasized materialism, honor and accomplishment in life,
and other things that happen while a person is living. Christianity placed an
emphasis on peace rather than war, and life after death was the most important
part of living. To Christians, materialism was not important. Christians believed
in praising God rather than praising themselves.
I. ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE MAKING (450 – 1066)
The expansion of the Anglo-Saxon period marked from the invasion of
Celtic England by Germanic tribes in the first half of the 5th century to the
conquest of England in 1066 by the Norman French under the leadership of
William the conqueror. After they had been converted into Christianity the
Anglo-Saxons whose literature was in oral form, began to develop literature in
written form. Anglo-Saxon poetry emphasizes the negative aspects of life
including the sorrows and senseless actions of human beings. 'The Wanderer'
and 'The Seafarer' are two of the most popular poems about the difficulties of
life.

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This age gave "Beowulf" the greatest Germanic epic in the world of

literature. There were two major poets Caedmon and Cynewulf contributed to
literary writing. Moreover, the churchmen Bede and Alcuin were the leading
scholars. They wrote in Latin which was considered the standard language of
international scholarship. Alfred the Great, a West Saxon king, loved literature
very much. He translated various books of Latin prose into Old English and
instituted the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles as the contemporary record of important
issues in England.
II. FEATURES OF THE OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE
There is not much to say about Old English literature. Almost like the
draw literature of any land, Old English literature has the following features:
1. The prevalence of poetry over prose
This is easy to understand. The ear liked to hear rimes sung, which,
thereby, could be memorized more easily.
2. Oral
The songs and the stories of these early days were not written but
completely oral. They were composed, preserve, and sung by professional
minstrels called Scops. Scops were men of importance in society.
3. Anonymous
The authors of any literature works in Old English are unknown. The
antiquity of the works, the manuscript origin, and the traditional nature of the
dawn literature testify to this anonymity.
4. Translation
Most literature works, poetry and prose, were translation from Latin
models. The Bible and the lives of saints were books that people liked to read
most.
5. Religious inclination
Nearly all the literature was religious in content. Even the story of
Beowulf, pre-Christian in its origin, also assumed a religious character. Note
also that this period is a period in which the monks were the only educated class.
This well explains the clerisy preponderance in literature activity.

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The most notable of the earliest English literature is BEOWULF. This is
an old Christianity and Paganism. The events of Beowulf took place in Denmark
and Sweden, but the customs am manner those of the Anglo-Saxons people.
III. THE OLD ENGLISH POETRY
Old English poetry included long epic heroic poems, which drew on the
Bible as well as on pagan sources for their content. Some poetry was also based
on historical events. With a history of invasions and occupations, many writings
of this era are chronicles, annals, and historical records. Some are in the forms of
poetry and describe various battles, for example, "The Battle of Maldon" and
"The Battle of Brunanburh". The themes are war, conquest and bravery. Many
eighth-century works depict Anglo-Saxon resistance against the Vikings.
Lament and melancholy are frequently present in describing man's struggles
against his environment, life's difficulties, and the passage of time. Life is
fleeting. Often a prologue and epilogue express hope in God's compassion and
mercy. Examples of such poems include "The Wanderer", "The Seafarer" and
"The Ruin". Other poems depict the separation of a man and a woman and the
accompanying sadness, such as in "The Wife's Lament" and "The Husband's
Message". In these types of poem the man may have been exiled and sometimes
there is hope, sometimes not. Collectively, Old English poems that lament the
loss of worldly goods, glory, or human companionship are called elegies.
Beowulf is the best-known and best-preserved Old English verse. Caedmon and
Cynewulf were well-known Old English religious poets in the 7th and 9th
century respectively. Much Old English poetry is difficult to date and even
harder to assign to specific authors.
* Typical Old English Verse:
BEOWULF

Beowulf is an epic poem of over 3,000 verses, whose manuscript dates
from about the 10th-century. The poem is the only epic from the time that has
been preserved as a whole. Its author is unknown, but he seems to have had a
good grasp of the Bible and other great epics, such as Homer's Odyssey. The
work glorifies a hero and the values of bravery and generosity. The story is set
in Scandinavia around 500-600 AD - a time of battles and conquests by
Germanic Anglo-Saxon tribes in Denmark and southern Sweden. Its sources are
old legends of these tribes who had moved north from Germany over

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Scandinavia and into Britain. It also reflects the acceptance of Christianity by
these new British settlers at the end of the sixth century.
The first part of the story takes place in Denmark. King Hrothgar is being
pestered by a water monster, Grendel, who is killing his men. Beowulf comes to
his aid and kills Grendel and later, at the bottom of the lake, also Grendel's
mother, who comes to avenge her son. The second part happens in southern
Sweden about fifty years later. Beowulf himself is a king and has to fight a firebreathing dragon.
As with other Old English literature, this epic incorporates both pagan and
Christian ideas. The monster-slaying hero has his origin in two ancient fairy
tales. From the pagan traditions also come a love of war and the virtue of
courage. The biblical Old Testament supplies the idea about giants and monsters
having descended from Cain's line. The poem is sometimes seen as a conflict
between good and evil. From the Christian tradition, it incorporates morality,
obedience to God, and avoidance of pride.
There are many contrasts, for example, water and fire, youth and old age,
life and death, rise and fall of nations and individuals, friendship and desertion,
faithfulness and betrayal, heroism and cowardice, hope and resignation, good
and evil, as well as the past, present and future.

Elegy is apparent throughout - life is passing and is full of struggles and
suffering, (This theme has an application also for modern life and the struggles
of mankind.) This is contrasted by the courage of the main hero, said to be the
"kindest and noblest of earthly kings and the most desirous of praise and glory".
The poem begins and ends with the funeral of a king.
The work, written in characteristic Old English verse style, has artistic
maturity and unity. It uses alliteration (words beginning with the same sound),
kennings (metaphorical descriptive phrases or compound words), and internal
rhyme (a word within a line rhyming with a word at the end of the line). Each
line has two beats or stressed syllables. The style of poetical descriptions and
word pictures with much repetition makes the action move slowly.
The poem is an important source of historical information which was later
confirmed by archaeology. The tone and descriptions capture the rough, cold
and gloomy North Sea atmosphere, as well as life's struggles of the people of

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that time who had to deal with many trials and obstacles. The poem was
originally recited by a court singer and poet called "scop", who accompanied it
with music and made occasional changes according to the inspiration of the
moment.
* The story
Once upon a time, in the far north of what is now called Europe, there was
a kingdom known as Geatsiand, and its ruler was named Hygelac. It was a harsh
country, with high mountains and narrow stony valleys, and it had a long
seacoast with many harbors and inlets, and the men who lived there were
famous for their bravery on both sea and land.
Now, for many years Hygelac ruled over his people with a stern but kind
hand. Beside him was his queen, named Hygd, and called the Wise and Fair.

About the king and queen were gathered the finest lords of the land. All. were
valiant warriors whose courage had been proved.
Among the number of youths who were in thrall to Hygelac was Beowulf,
the son of the king’s sister. As a small boy, Beowulf had shown such strength of
body that Hygelac had early named him one of his thanes. So his mother and
father gave him up, and young Beowulf went to live with his uncle, to learn the
arts of war and the handling of ships.
For several years he led a lonely life, for so great was the strength of his
limbs that even among those men of vast vigor he was a youth to be marveled at.
As the years slipped by and he grew to manhood, he became more and more
sullen in his strength, and his companions dubbed him “The Silent.” His
movements were clumsy. He tripped over his sword. He broke whatever he
touched. The other youths laughed at him for his awkwardness, but in secret
they envied the immense spread of his shoulders and the terrible swiftness of his
stride.
When Beowulf had at last reached the full tide of his manhood, a feast
was held one night in the king’s drinking-hall. From all over Geatsland famous
warriors and earls gathered at the drinking-benches of their king to hear the
songs of the minstrels and take part in games and feats of strength.

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At the feet of the royal couple sat Beowulf, at a table especially prepared
for the king’s earls. But Beowulf, unmindful of the talk about him, sat in gloomy
silence, brooding.
His strength was great, but there was no use for him to put it to, and he
longed for wild adventure and the chance to stretch his muscles to the limit of
their power.
Then, at a signal from Hygelac, the minstrel came forward with his harp.

He was a tall rugged man, with a beard streaked with gray. He had the air of one
who had traveled long distances, and his blue eyes were wide and fixed like one
used to watching the far horizon.
Around him was wrapped a cloak of deep blue, held together by a curious
clasp of gold. Beowulf, noting the clasp, thought it resembled a coiled snake, for
there were two green stones set in it which glittered. This man, Beowulf thought,
has been in far-away places. He will chant us a good song.
Then the Wanderer (for so he was called) sat down upon a wooden stool,
threw back the cloak from about his arms, and with long thin fingers struck the
resounding strings of his harp.
He sang in a sharp voice that was like the crying of birds on the gray sea,
hut there was sweetness in it at the same time which held his hearers, and the
lords of Geatsiand leaned forward on their benches in eagerness to catch every
word.
He sang of the vast and frozen North, where winter lay upon the land for
many, many months, and men fight in the gloomy light of the night-burning sun.
He sang of endless forests stretching black and forbidding in a sea of snow; of
mountains higher and bleaker than the highest mountains of Geatsiand; of the
strange and fearful demons that inhabited this ghostly region.
Then the tune of the Wanderer changed. His voice fell to a lower note,
and he sang of Hrothgar who was king of the Danes, that country not far from
Geatsiand, across the water.
He told a sad story of desolation and despair in Hrothgar’s land, because
of a beast which had struck mortal fear into the hearts of the lords of Daneland.
For on one cruel night, twelve years before, there had come a monster, part
animal, part man, part bird. The lords of Daneland were sleeping soundly, and

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the monster, who was called Grendel, had forced open the solid doors of the
king’s ball and carried away in their sleep thirty of the greatest earls of the
Danes.
There had been lamentation throughout the land, and many were the
attempts to slay Grendel, but none had succeeded. And for twelve long years
Grendel repeatedly visited the king’s hall and wrought destruction there. Now
the land was despoiled of its youthful strength, and there remained to the king
only those fighters whose early vigor had long since passed, and Daneland had
become a country of old men and defenseless women.
Now, all the while that the Wanderer was singing, Beowulf sat as one
bewitched.
He leaned forward upon the table, his arms folded under his still beardless
chin, his eyes fixed upon the minstrel. Now and again he lifted his head and
shook out the fair hair that hung beneath the golden band encircling his wide
white forehead. The huge bracelets that weighted his wrists gleamed like his
eyes, and the jeweled collar about his throat was tight because of the swelling
veins of his neck. One thought possessed him:
He would seek out this monster, Grendel, and slay him - yes! slay him
with bare hands!
He saw himself face to face with the monster Grendel, and suddenly a
wild cry broke from his lips and he leaped from his seat.
“Lords of Geatsiand and earls of Hygelac,” he shouted, as the minstrel
finished the song, “I am the son of Ecgtheow and of Hygelac’s sister, and in
olden times this Hrothgar was a war-brother of my father. Therefore I claim
kinship to him, and I will go to the land of the Danes and I will slay this
Grendel!”
Then there was great confusion in the hail of Hygelac, and the earls called
to one another, and dogs barked. But Hygd the queen stood up amid the turmoil,
and holding a jeweled cup in her two hands because of its weight, stepped down
to where Beowulf was, and offered him the cup, and smiled at him in affection.

Once again Hygelac commanded silence among the guests in the
drinking-hall, and turning to Beowulf said: “The time has come, Beowulf, for
you to prove your worth. The gods have gifted you with the strength of thirty

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men, and this strength you should use to the advantage of your fellows, our
neighbor Hrothgar is in sore need. Go forth, then, from Geatsland to the land of
the Danes, and do mortal combat with this Grendel-fiend.”
For seven days and seven nights there were great preparations in the halls
of Hygelac the Great, that Beowulf might go on his adventure fully equipped for
whatever a aited him in Daneland. From the group of companions who had
come to manhood at the same time as himself, Beowulf selected fourteen earls
to accompany him. He had winched to go alone to the land of the Danes, but his
uncle the king had commanded that he be suitably companioned on such a
voyage, so that at the court of Hrothgar it could not be said that Hygelac had
sent the, youth upon a fool’s errand and badly equipped.
Special shields were made, of stout wood covered with thick hides and
bound with iron and studded with golden nails. Rich cloaks of scarlet and blue
there were for the warriors, and massive bracelets of fine gold for their arms and
wrists, and collars of gold wire.
When at last they stood ready in the meadhall of Hygelac, they were a
fine company of young men, whose like was not to be seen in all the countries
of the North. Each stood well over six feet in height, with broad shoulders and
sturdy legs; and each was swift as a deer.
Then came the signal for the journey down to the beach whre a ship lay in
readiness to receive Beowulf and his earls, and with torches flaming in the
grayness of approaching dawn, they departed.
They came at length to the coast of Daneland and the sea boiled white

between them and the land, and the land itself was scarred and pitted with a
thousand narrow inlets, which were treacherous to seafarers unfamiliar with
them. The forests that clung to the shore line were half hidden in gray mists that
moved and twisted like smoke about the trees, but as the storm lessened, they
beached their boat on a tiny strip of sand at the edge of a deep forest hung with
gray fog and silent as death.
That night, after Beowulf and his companions had rested, for the first time
in twelve years there was a great banquet in the hall of Hrothgar. The place was
decorated with fine hangings, the gold-bright roof burnished until it shone like
the sun, and the benches had been scraped and polished by many willing hands.

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Huge fires were built on the hearths, and the smell of roasting meats pervaded
the hall.
The fires were burnt out on the hearths when the last of Hrothgar’s train
had departed. Then Beowulf and his companions set themselves to fastening
tightly the door of the hall. They secured it with wooden bolts and tied it with
leathern thongs, and so strong was it that no mortal could have passed through.
Then the warriors of Geatsland unfolded their cloaks upon the benches
and laid themselves down to slumber, and Beowulf stretched his great length
upon the dais of the king, and resolved that through the long night he would
never once close his eyes. Near the door lay the young Hondscio, Beowulf’s
favorite earl, who swore that if anyone broke through the door he would be the
first to give the intruder battle.
Silence crept over the shrouded forms where they lay upon the floor and
benches, and there was no sound save their steady breathing and the faint
sighing of the night wind in the trees about the hall.
Beowulf, upon his couch, lay still as death, but his eyes moved here and

there in the deepening gloom of the hail.
Outside, a fog was creeping up from the sea, obscuring the moon in milky
eclipse, and at last there was not even the sound of the wind in the trees. To
Beowulf the deep silence seemed full of moving things invisible to human eyes.
Gradually there came over him a kind of drowsiness that he fought to ward off.
His eyelids fluttered against his eyes, and then he swooned with a sleep that lay
upon his limbs like a heavy garment.
But suddenly there was a rustling among the wet trees, and a noise like
the deep grunt of a pig, but soft and low, startled the fog- bound night, and the
drops of mist-water on the trees fell sharply to the ground like heavy rain. Then
the fog parted evenly, and in the wide path it made through the night a Shadow
loomed gigantic in all that was left of moonlight.
Slowly, slowly it neared the great hail and the night shuddered at its
coming, and behind it, as it moved, the fog closed again with a sucking sound.
And the Shadow stood before the great door of the hail, and swayed hideously in
the ghastly light.

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Within there was a deep stillness, and Beowulf and the Geatish earls slept
soundly, with no knowledge of what stood so evilly beyond the door. For the
monstrous Shadow was the fiend Grendel, and standing there in the fog- strewn
night he placed a spell upon those who slept to make them sleep more soundly.
But Beowulf hung between sleeping and waking, and while the spell did not
completely deaden his senses, it so ensnared his waking dream that he fought
desperately against it in his half-sleep and was not quite overpowered.
Little by little the thongs that secured the door gave way, and the huge
wooden bolts yielded under the pressure that was strained against them, but no
sound broke upon the silent struggle that went on between Grendel and the door.

Beowulf tossed and turned in waking, but the other earls of Geatsiand fell
deeper and deeper into the swooning sleep.
Then with a rush, the door flew wide, and the fog and salt-smelling night
swept in. And in the doorway, swaying this way and that, stood Grendel, huge
and dark against the dark night, the fog weaving about him in white veils, and
the door of the hail limp on its hinges.
And Beowulf came out of his dream-spell and saw what stood so vast and
evil in the doorway. But his eyes were heavy with the spell that clung to him as
the wisps of fog clung about the body of Grendel, and only slowly was he able
to distinguish the monster. Through his nightmare, now, there came the sense of
what had befallen him, and he strove to cast the last remnant of the magic from
him as he saw the great form of Grendel swoop down upon the innocent form of
young Hondscio, catch him up in enormous hands, and tear him limb from
sleeping limb. And now at last Beowulf saw what manner of thing this Grendel
was. His legs were like the trunks of trees and they were covered with a kind of
gray dry scale that made a noise like paper as the fiend moved this way and that.
The body of the beast was shaped like that of a man, but such a man as no
mortal eyes had ever before beheld, and the size and shape of it were something
to be marveled at.
The head was the head neither of beast or man, yet had something of the
features of both, and the great jaw was filled with blunt fangs that ground the
bones of the unhappy Hondscio to pulp. Shaggy matted hair hung over the low
forehead, and the eyes in the face of Grendel were the color of milk.

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Horror-struck upon his couch, Beowulf felt his limbs in thrall and could
move neither leg nor arm to raise himself as Grendel devoured the body of the
young Hondscio.

And when Grendel had finished his horrid meal, the beast straightened a
little his vast form and looked now to the left, now to the right, until his gaze fell
upon the length of Beowulf. Then the milk-white eyes burned with a dull light
that was like the light of the moon, and slowly, slowly Grendel moved toward
the dais. But Beowulf, stung with loathing, leaped from his bed.
Silently they fought in the fog-strewn hail. Silently their bodies twisted
and bent, this way and that, and Beowulf kept Grendel’s huge hands with their
long claws of sharp bone from him, and Grendel in turn sought to tear apart the
quick body that slipped so easily through his arms and legs.
Their bodies wove in and out among the sleepers, and Beowulf felt the hot
reek of Grendel’s breath upon his cheek, and the sweat stood out on Beowulf’s
broad brow and ran down into his eyes and blinded him. And Grendel’s huge
hands sought over and over again to clasp his opponent’s head, to crush it in
their grip.
Then the fight became a deadly struggle in one far corner of the hall, and
neither one gained any advantage over the other. Then Beowulf slipped. On the
earthen floor they fell together and the force of their fall made the earth tremble.
But Grendel’s hold lessened, and fear smote the heart of the fiend. He strove
only to free himself from Beowulf’s grasp and flee into the night away from this
white youth whose strength was the strength of thirty men.
And now Beowulf had the upper hand, and flew at the giant’s throat. But
here his hands clutched at thick scales upon which he could get no grip. Grendel
nearly took the advantage, but before he could seize Beowulf, the lord of
Geatsiand had fastened both mighty hands upon the monster’s arm, and with a
sudden twist that forced a groan of agony from Grendel’s lips, leaped behind
him.
Now came the final struggle, and sweat poured from Beowulf, while from
Grendel there oozed a slimy sap that smelled like vinegar, and sickened
Beowulf. But he clung to the monster’s arm, and slowly, slowly he felt its great
muscles and sinews give way, and as his foot found Grendel’s neck, he prayed

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to all the gods for help, and called upon his father Ecgtheow for strength to
sustain him in this desperate effort.
And the mighty arm of Grendel gave way in the terrible hands of
Beowulf, and, with a piercing shriek that shook the gilded rafters, Grendel
stumbled forward, leaving in Beowulf’s hands the gory arm.
Beowulf fell back upon the dais, the bleeding arm of Grendel in his hands.
And Grendel, with a prolonged and ghastly wail, his blunt fangs gnashing
together in dumb fury, stumbled toward the door, and before Beowulf could
recover, the fiend was away into the fog which swallowed him as surely and
completely as though he had plunged into the everlasting sea.
IV. THE OLD ENGLISH PROSE
Prose developed later than poetry - in the ninth century - but sometimes it
also partly contained the characteristics of poetry. It was influenced by Latin, the
language of the church and the educated. It consisted of factual, historical, and
religious writings.
4.1 King Alfred's Works
King Alfred the Great (reigned 871-900), one of the most significant
rulers of the first millennium, after making peace with the Vikings, made his
kingdom into a cultural centre. He translated many works from Latin, especially
in the areas of religion, history and philosophy. This was the foundation of the
written national language. The first translated works included The Pastor's Book,
containing ideals for a pastor, with which Alfred as a secular ruler identified. He
also translated Baede 's Church History and other historical accounts. In
addition, Alfred compiled medical information, annals, chronicles, and
information for law books. His works lacked originality, and were more
instructive and educational than artistic and beautiful.

4.2 Later Annals and Religious Writings
The first half of the tenth century saw Alfred's successors expand
politically and militarily, but not culturally due to exhaustion from frequent
battles with the Vikings. Only the annals continued and some poetry about
victories over the Vikings. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the best-known work
of historical records spanning even beyond the Norman conquest. It contains
both prose and poetry. In the second half of the tenth century came cultural

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enlivenment through the Benedictian reform, a monastic reform which resulted
in a religious revival. The main literary styles included homilies, sermons,
stories of saints' lives, and Bible translations. The chief authors were Aelfric and
Wulfstan.
4.3 Aelfric and Wulfstan
Aelfric, abbot of Eynsham, wrote three cycles of forty homilies each (two
volumes of Catholic Homilies and Lives of the Saints), as well as other
homilies, pastoral letters, and several translations. His writings were clear to
understand and beautiful in style. His alliterative prose, which loosely imitated
the rhythms of Old English poetry, influenced writers long after the Norman
conquest. Wulfstan, the archbishop of York, wrote civil and church-related legal
codes as well as homilies. He denounced the morals of his time and exhorted
people to repentance. The belief was that the Viking occupation and the
resulting oppression and suffering were the result of sin, and that the end of the
world was at hand.
V. THE OLD ENGLSIH DRAMA
The origin of drama goes back to brief scenes that monks acted out in
churches to illustrate Bible stories. These later developed into full-length plays.
Sources of drama were primarily Catholic traditions and ceremonies that were

gradually becoming worldlier. The Catholic Church throughout Europe
controlled almost the entire ideological sphere, including literary art. Drama was
developing in churches where the whole society from the king to the lowest
citizen gathered. It therefore had to cater to the broadest audience; hence its
tendency toward secularity and language understood by the masses. Two strong
undercurrents influenced early drama: Folk plays based on ancient nature culls
and pagan traditions; and classic Greek and Latin drama which were preserved,
at least in rudimentary form, throughout the Dark Ages. Catholic services were
often in the form of drama- with colorful robes, recitation, singing and acting.
Easter and Christmas ceremonies developed into major dramas in the ninth and
tenth centuries. Herod's murderous acts often became a focal point of Christmas
plays with horror and violence.
VI. PRACTICE
* For each statement, write T if the statement is true or F if it is false

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1. The Anglo-Saxons worshipped pagan/heathen Gods like earth, heaven
and powers of nature. The doings of these powers were made into
mythical stories and when a great hero arose. This was the origin of
the old stories.
2. The Old English Period or the Anglo-Saxon Period (450-1066)
produced from the invasion of Celtic England by Germanic tribes in
the first half of the fifth century to the conquest of England in 1066 by
William the Conqueror.
3. One of the most well-known eighth century Old English pieces of
literature is Beowulf, a great Celtic epic poem.
4. Old English literature started with the Anglo-Saxons in the sixth
century, and it provides the foundation for all English literature.

5. The Anglo-Saxons formed the basis of English culture, religion, and
language and ruled England for 600 years. The term Anglo-Saxon
refers to a group of settlers from the German regions of Angeln and
Saxony who took over England after the fall of the Roman Empire.
6. Much of the literature of medieval times is written in either totally
incomprehensible Old English, or slightly less incomprehensible
Middle English. It kind of seems foreign to modern readers, and it can
be hard to really access it.
* Choose the word or phrase which best completes each sentence. Circle A, B,
C, D to indicate the correct answer.
1. When did Old English literature become popular?
a. In the fourth century

c. In the seventh century

b. In the fifth century
d. In the eleventh century
2. What is one of the most popular books in Old English literature,
containing 131 stories?
a. The Wanderer

b. The Seafarer

c. Beowulf

d. Exeter Book

3. What is a good example of a poetry piece from Old English literature?
a. Beowulf
b. The Wanderer

c. The Seafarer

d. The Wife's Lament

4. Two old English authors that are known by are ………, the author of a
short hymn, and ………, the author of four long poems.

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