Methods toward a science of behavior and experience 10th edition ray test bank

Chapter 2 – Introduction to the Methods of Science
Chapter Outline
Naturalistic Observation
The Correlational Approach
The Experimental Method
Definitions in the Experimental Method
Causation
Exploratory Research
Logic and Inference: The Detective Work of Science
Validity
Propositional Logic
Scientific Observation: The Raw Data of Science
Evaluating Scientific Research
Communication in Science
Chapter Overview
Science is an extension of how we go about exploring the world. Naturalistic observation
involves observing and describing what occurs. In the correlational approach, the
scientist examines the association between variables; this method does not imply
causality. However, the experimental method allows the testing of cause and effect
relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its effect on the
dependent variable. Hypotheses are tested using experimental and control groups; the
variables that are manipulated and measured should be operationally defined. Scientists
may also engage in exploratory research.
In testing hypotheses, science must rely on logic and inference. There is particular
interest in ensuring the validity of research; internal and external validity must be present
in the experiment. Logic, through inductive and deductive reasoning, plays an important
role in ruling out alternative explanations. Popper’s and Kuhn’s views of science have
shaped how scientists go about asking and answering questions.
It is important to communicate to the scientific community the results of research that are
accurate, capable of being replicated, and relevant to others.
Chapter Objectives

1.

Integrate these three important aspects of science: (1) idea, (2) experience, and (3)
reorganization.

2.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation? Give an example
of this type of study.

3.

When would you use the correlational approach? What conclusion is justified?
What is a positive correlation? How does it differ from a negative correlation?

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

19


4.

Describe the experimental method. Why is it the most powerful design? Discuss the
importance of operational definitions of variables.

5.

Differentiate between the independent and dependent variables.

6.

What is a confounding variable and how does it affect interpretation of the findings?

7.

Explain causation in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions.

8.

What is the balance between internal and external validity in research?

9.

A scientist relies on both deductive and inductive logic in science. Distinguish
between these reasoning methods and evaluate when they are used in the scientific
process.

10. How does modus tollens apply to testing scientific theories?
11. How are scientists influenced by paradigms? Give examples of paradigm shifts.
12. According to the text, what are the four ways to ensure the high quality of research?
13. Aristotle emphasized scientific inquiry and argument. How do they relate to
communication of science?
Teaching Points
The chapter describes other methods developed to answer specific questions (e.g., singlecase approaches, qualitative methods). In fact, there are several single-case studies that
many students might be familiar with and are worth reminding them of. For instance,
most introductory psychology courses discuss Phineas Gage as an illustration of the case
study ( In addition, you might
suggest that focus groups, commonly used in marketing research, are a type of qualitative
method. Perhaps some of your students have participated in focus groups sponsored by
your institution.

The premise of naturalistic observation is very familiar to students. Many of them have
engaged in watching others in parks, airports, and the student union. One of the famous
examples of naturalistic observation is Jane Goodall’s work with chimpanzees. Check
out her website for more information. One of the challenges in naturalistic observation is
being unobtrusive. Researches often come up with ingenious ways to deal with this
issue. For instance Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Hans Hass studied facial expressions
using a film camera that would actually record events that were occurring to the side of
the camera, not in front were the “lens” appeared to be.

20

CHAPTER 2


A problem area for students is in the use of the words positive and negative. It is
important to remind them that positive and negative, as in correlations, describe the
direction of the relationship, not any type of value statement as in a good or bad
correlation.
Students often have great difficulty distinguishing between the independent and the
dependent variables as well as formulating operational definitions. One helpful trick is to
use “ICED” where the Independent variable is Cause and the Effect is the Dependent
variable. Offer lots of practice identifying variables and creating operational definitions.
A good starting place is to give students hypotheses to test:
 It is harder to concentrate when there is loud music playing.
 People feel sad in rooms painted blue.
 Depression impairs memory.
 People recall more pleasant than unpleasant experiences when happy.
It is useful to have students know the pros and cons of each research method that is
described. For example, the naturalistic observation method is very good for studying
natural behavior, but the researcher has no control over what happens. Control is a

strength of the experimental method, but control can make conditions artificial and hence
unrealistic.
Teaching Activities
Role of the Scientist
The scientist plays a different role in each of the methods described in the chapter. Use
Handout 2-1 to help students identify those roles as well as to better understand the
methods.
Doing Naturalistic Observation
One effective way to illustrate the challenge inherent in naturalistic observation is to
assign students the task of observing behavior in a public setting such as a cafeteria or
park. Inform them that they must simply describe what they observed. Of course, they
should operationally define the variables they are observing. Many students will initially
interpret and attribute the observed behavior to some cause. Moreover, having students
make these observations in pairs allows for a discussion of interrater reliability and may
augment this activity.
Correlation in the Popular Media
One of the most often-made mistakes regarding correlation is describing the relationship
in terms of causality. Scour the popular media for articles that use the term “correlation.”
Have students examine these articles for direct or indirect references to causation.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

21


Testing Old Wives’ Tales using the Experimental Method
An effective way to help students better understand the experimental method is to test
common sayings. Ask students to select a saying and then to develop an experiment to
test its validity. Part of the task is to identify the independent and dependent variables,
create operational definitions of variables, and to indicate the experimental and control

groups.
Test a Memory Drug
As a class, design a simple experiment to test a fictional memory drug. Ask the students
to identify the experimental group, control group, independent variable, dependent
variable, placebo, and means of assigning subjects to groups.
Infomercials and the Scientific Method
Record an infomercial and show it to your class. Alternatively, visit a website that
describes some of the products pitched on infomercials (see below). Have students evaluate
the claims. Discuss how they would go about testing the claims from a scientific approach.
Philosophy of Science: Sir Karl Popper (Falsification Approach)
One helpful activity to teach falsification is to claim that photographs move when we
don’t look at them. The claim continues that people and objects return back to their
original location as we observe the picture. To emphasize the point, ask students to find a
photograph in the textbook and then close the book. Comment that the characters in the
photograph are moving. In unison, the students are to open up the book and look at the
photograph and report what they see or don’t see. Challenge students to develop a
method to test this hypothesis, which appears to be untestable.
Philosophy of Science: Thomas Kuhn
James Burke’s PBS series “Connections” can be helpful to illustrate how paradigm shifts
and discoveries in one field “trigger” change in another field.
Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop
/>psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html
The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop has a link entitled Experimental Methods
that focuses on the types of variables that are present in experiments. First, experimental
methods are distinguished from non-experimental approaches. Then, general types of
variables are reviewed, including independent, dependent, and subject variables (as well as
quantitative and categorical variables). The notion of confounds is introduced, and students
are afforded practice with the provided research examples in recognizing and eliminating
confounds. Several examples also are provided to give students guidance on how to select
levels of an independent variable.

22

CHAPTER 2


Internet Resources
The Jane Goodall Institute (www.janegoodall.org)
Jane Goodall represents an effective and worthwhile illustration of naturalistic
observation. The website describes her work and her current activism for chimpanzees
and the environment.
Infomercials (www.infomercial.com)
This site describes top selling infomercial products and is good fodder for practicing
developing methods to test the product’s claims. Especially intriguing are the exercise
products that claim incredible health benefits.
The Karl Popper Web ( />Popper’s contributions to science are described on this website. In addition, an email
based open forum is offered to those who are interested in discussing Popper’s ideas.
Web Center for Social Research Methods (www.socialresearchmethods.net)
Here there are some links to various useful resources pertaining to research methods. The
methods tutorials are especially beneficial for this chapter.
National Undergraduate Research Clearinghouse ( />Undergraduate students often engage in research and produce scholarly works. This site
allows the user to search for research. You may wish to use this site to search for
examples of different types of methods.
The Fallacy Files (www.fallacyfiles.org)
Given that the chapter speaks to the role of logic in science, it might be interesting to
peruse this site for its collection of logical fallacies (e.g., the masked man fallacy, fourterm fallacy, and red herring).
Suggested Readings
Anderson, S.J., & Verplanck, W.S. (1983). When walls speak. What do they say?
Psychological Record, 3, 341-359.
Arluke, A., Kutakoff, L., & Levin, J. (1987). Are the times changing? An analysis of

gender differences in sexual graffiti. Sex Roles, 16, 1-7.
Interesting research on the content of graffiti in public restrooms.
Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D.T. (1976). Altruism as hedonism: A social development
perspective on the relationship of negative mood and helping. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 34, 907-914.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

23


Latane, B., & Darley, J.M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystanders intervention in
emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221.
Classic research on bystander behavior.
Levine, R. V. (1990, September-October). The pace of life. American Scientist, pp.
451-459.
A summary of Levine's work on the pace of life across cities in the U.S. and six
other countries. Explains the Pace of Life Index and how measurements were
made by the researchers.
Research Activities for Students
The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 2 on an applied learning
dimension, and (2) get students involved in research.
1. Altruism Research: Library Activity. Go to the library and find two articles on
altruism. Answer the following questions separately for each: (a) How was altruism
operationally defined? (b) Was the study conducted in the field or a laboratory? (c)
Was the study correlational or experimental? (d) What were the author's conclusions?
Comment on the generalizability of these findings. See the Suggested Readings list for
more on the subject of altruism and the generalizability of this issue (Cialdini & Kenrick,
1976).

2.Children and Shyness: Design your own research study. Go to the library and find two
research articles on shyness in children. Through examination of the operational
definitions and descriptions of shyness within the articles, identify five behaviors that you
could observe in a naturalistic study of children on a school playground. Finally, after
researching this topic in the library, generate a hypothesis related to shyness. Design a
correlational or experimental study that tests this hypothesis.
Hypothesis checklist: Address the following issues.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e
f.

24

What is the independent variable?
Is the independent variable manipulated by the investigator?
What is the dependent variable?
What outcome are you predicting?
What relationship are you expecting between the variables?
What types of conclusions will be appropriate?

CHAPTER 2


3. Pace of Life Research. Naturalistic Observation. Conduct a naturalistic observational
study on the pace of life in your city. Go to a shopping mall or the downtown center of
business, and measure the following behaviors: (a) percentage of people wearing
watches, (b) walking speed. Begin by operationally defining how you will measure these

variables. Next, describe your procedure--that is, how you will collect data. Design a
coding sheet for your observations that includes: (a) location, (b) date, (c) time of day
you begin and end observation, (d) behaviors to be observed. You may also be interested
in demographic information like gender and age. Be observant of patterns and trends.
Note any limitations. Was it difficult to remain unobtrusive? Include graphs and tables
to illustrate your findings. Be prepared to discuss your findings in class. See the
Suggested Readings list for more on Levine's (l990) Pace of Life study.
4. Graffiti in Public Restrooms. Design a Coding Sheet and Conduct a Naturalistic
Study. Design a coding sheet that will be used to conduct a naturalistic observation of
graffiti content found in public restrooms. The coding sheet should consist of simple
categories (e.g., sexual versus non-sexual) and more complex categories (e.g.,
homosexual, heterosexual, and political). Identify the categories as column headings.
Observe several public restrooms for graffiti to collect data. Mark the frequency of
observations in each category. Specify information about the setting (e.g., women's
restroom on a university campus, etc.). Be prepared to discuss your observations in class.
Compare the findings of those who observed male versus female restrooms to determine
if the graffiti content is similar in both settings. Find two research articles that address
this issue (See the suggested reading list).
5. Media and Violence: Cause and Effect. Research Activity. Research online references
such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find titles of scientific studies on media and violence.
What words other than cause and effect are used to imply a cause and effect? List three
examples.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

25


Handout 2-1
The Role of the Scientist

Method

Description

Naturalistic Observation

Correlational Approach

Experimental method

26

CHAPTER 2

The role of scientist


TESTBANK
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. A formally stated expectation concerning the outcome of an experiment is called:
a. a theory.
b. induction.
c. a hypothesis.
d. empiricism.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. If you learn about the world through observation and experimentation, you are relying upon:
a. a hypothesis.
b. inference.
c. deduction.
d. empiricism.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. A scientist will evaluate a hypothesis by using:
a. empiricism.
b. a theory.
c. naturalistic observation.
d. exploratory research.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

MSC: WWW

4. If little is known about a psychological phenomenon, then ____ is the most appropriate method to
use to study it.
a. the correlational approach
b. the experimental approach
c. the post hoc approach
d. naturalistic observation

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

5. Professor Campbell is studying memory by using mathematical operations. She is using:
a. a correlational approach.
b. modeling.
c. a post hoc approach.
d. a retrospective approach.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

6. A scientific approach that attempts to establish an artificial system which can produce behaviors
similar to those observed in humans or other animals is called:
a. exploratory research.
b. the correlational approach.
c. the experimental method.
d. modeling.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

27


7. If we were interested in knowing whether early childhood experiences contributed to the later
development of personality disorders, we would likely use:
a. the experimental method.
b. exploratory research.
c. naturalistic observation.
d. the retrospective method.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

8. Behavior is to experience as ____ is to ____.
a. correlational; experimental
b. experimental; qualitative
c. quantitative; qualitative
d. naturalistic; experimental
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

MSC: WWW

9. An approach that emphasizes the subjective aspects of experience uses:

a. qualitative methods.
b. quantitative methods.
c. the retrospective method.
d. modeling.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

10. To engage in a scientific approach to the study of human behavior, we would use:
a. the experimental method.
b. the correlational approach.
c. naturalistic observation.
d. any of these
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

11. In the ____ approach, individuals are videotaped discussing a particular topic. They then watch
the video separately and comment on how they thought or felt during specific segments.
a. naturalistic
b. quantitative
c. action-project
d. film interview
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

12. Dr. Nathan wants to study how pythons behave in their native habitat. He sets up hidden cameras
in the rain forest to observe the snakes while he remains undetected. Dr. Nathan is using the ____
method of conducting research.
a. experimental
b. inferential
c. correlational
d. naturalistic observation
ANS: D

28

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

CHAPTER 2


13. Which of the following best describes naturalistic observation?
a. You calculate internal and external validity.
b. You look for an association between two variables.
c. You just watch.
d. You determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship.
ANS: C
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

14. If you wanted to study play behavior in preschool children, the ideal approach would most likely
be:
a. modeling.
b. naturalistic observation.
c. the retrospective method.
d. the experimental method.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

15. In naturalistic observation, the experimenter ____, whereas in the experimental method, the
experimenter ____.
a. is passive; is active
b. is active; is passive
c. observes; does not observe
d. influences the participant's behavior; does not influence the participant's behavior
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

16. Naturalistic observation tends to be:
a. theoretical rather than empirical.
b. concerned with determining causes of behavior.

c. descriptive rather than explanatory.
d. deductive rather than inductive.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

17. In naturalistic observation, the participant ____, whereas in the experimental method, the
participant ____.
a. is passive; is active
b. is restricted; is not restricted
c. is not restricted; is restricted
d. interacts with the experimenter; does not interact with the experimenter
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

18. Tim is conducting naturalistic observation. He finds that the behavior of his subjects changes
when they notice his presence. Which statement best describes this situation?
a. The situation is good since the manipulation of the independent variable was successful.
b. The situation is good since that was the focus of the study.
c. The situation is not good since Tim did not record his subjects' behavior.
d. The situation is not good since Tim's behavior interfered with his subjects.
ANS: D
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

29


19. If we were interested in understanding the association between two variables, we would use:
a. the experimental method.
b. naturalistic observation.
c. the correlational approach.
d. modeling.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

20. If we were interested in the relationship between caffeine and heart disease, our most likely
approach would be:
a. naturalistic observation.
b. the correlational approach.
c. the experimental method.
d. modeling.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

21. Which of the following questions would be most appropriately answered by the correlational
method?
a. What is the most effective treatment for depression?
b. Why do people tend to help in emergency situations if there are few eyewitnesses?
c. What can be done to help learning disabled students learn?
d. Does high school GPA predict college GPA?
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

22. Correlational research is:
a. concerned with how one variable influences another variable.
b. concerned with whether one variable influences another variable.
c. concerned with the degree to which one variable influences another variable.
d. concerned with whether there is an association between two variables.
ANS: D
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

23. Eye color and intelligence are ____ correlated.
a. not
b. positively
c. negatively
d. sometimes

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

24. If we were to find that the correlation between eating high-fat food and heart attack was positive,
we would conclude that:
a. eating high fat foods causes heart attack.
b. eating lots of high fat food is associated with high incidence of heart attack.
c. eating lots of high fat food is associated with low incidence of heart attack.
d. people who have heart attacks do not eat many foods with high fat content.
ANS: B

30

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

CHAPTER 2


25. Consider this: As the price of gasoline drops, people drive more miles. What type of correlation
does this describe?
a. a positive correlation
b. a negative correlation
c. a perfect correlation
d. a confounding correlation
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

26. If we were to find that the correlation between height and anxiety was negative, we would predict
that:
a. taller people would tend to be more anxious.
b. shorter people would tend to be more anxious.
c. shorter people would tend to be less anxious.
d. height and anxiety are unrelated.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

27. An unspecified variable that may have influenced the two variables in a correlational study is
called a:
a. positive correlation.
b. predictor variable.
c. third variable.
d. negative correlation.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

28. If there is a low correlation between two variables, we can say that they are:

a. not causally related.
b. probably confounded variables.
c. causally related.
d. both independent variables.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

29. When trying to determine the causal factors underlying behavior, we select an approach called:
a. the experimental method.
b. the post hoc method.
c. the correlational approach.
d. naturalistic observation.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

30. The group in an experiment that is getting the special treatment is called the:
a. correlational group.
b. experimental group.
c. control group.
d. naturalistic group.
ANS: B
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

31


31. A psychologist wants to know if classical music enhances memory. Subjects are assigned to two
groups and instructed to study a list of 20 words. One group listens to a Bach sonata and the other
group hears popular music. In this simple experiment the independent variable is:
a. the word list.
b. subsequent recall on a memory test.
c. music type.
d. the amount of time each group studied.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

32. The control group should be treated exactly like the experimental group, except for the:
a. dependent variable.
b. confounding variables.
c. factor being studied.
d. level of measurement.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

33. Operational definitions are used to specify:
a. dependent variables.
b. independent variables.
c. confounding variables.
d. both independent and dependent variables.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

34. The two types of operational definitions are:
a. inductive and deductive.
b. measured and experimental.
c. independent and dependent.
d. structured and unstructured.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

35. In an experimental design, the manipulated variable that is the presumed cause is called the ____
and the behavior that is the presumed effect is called the ____.
a. treatment; control
b. independent variable; dependent variable
c. independent variable; dependent variable
d. experimental variable; confound variable

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

36. In the experimental method, the experimenter ____ the independent variable, ____ the dependent
variable, and ____ the confounding variables.
a. manipulates; measures; eliminates
b. observes; manipulates; measures
c. measures; manipulates; eliminates
d. manipulates; measures; observes
ANS: A

32

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

CHAPTER 2


37. Professor Zeeman has conducted experiments that suggest a new study technique can enhance
memory. However, the new technique does not work for students taking real classes. The
experimental finding:
a. lacks internal validity.
b. lacks external validity.
c. is not reliable.
d. is probably due to chance.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

38. The independent variable is:
a. affected by the dependent variable.
b. not operationally defined.
c. manipulated by the experimenter.
d. measured.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

39. The dependent variable is:
a. the treatment.
b. manipulated by the experimenter.
c. the cause of the behavior.
d. affected by the treatment.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

40. The treatment effect is measured as:
a. the difference between the experimental and control groups on the independent variable.

b. the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
c. the difference between the scores of the experimental and control groups on the dependent
variable.
d. the difference between the independent variable and the confounding variables.
ANS: C
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

41. The difference in magnitude between the control and the experimental groups on the dependent
variable is called the:
a. treatment effect.
b. independent effect.
c. confound effect.
d. dependent effect.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

42. An experiment was conducted to test a new drug for anxiety. What would be a good dependent
variable for this experiment?
a. heart rate
b. the amount of drug given to each subject
c. score on a standardized anxiety test
d. heart rate and/or score on a standardized anxiety test
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

33


43. A recent experiment found that 7th graders who were taught math using a computer scored 25%
higher on an exam than those 7th graders taught with the traditional lecture format. What is the
treatment effect?
a. how the students were taught math
b. those students who were taught with the computer
c. the 25% higher scores among those taught with the computer
d. those students who were taught with the traditional format
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

44. Confounding variables are:
a. unintended dependent variables.
b. unintended independent variables.
c. unintended control variables.
d. correctional rather than casual.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

45. In an experiment to study the effects of caffeine on performance, an experimenter asked the male
students in an introductory psychology class to drink two regular Pepsis before a test and the
female students to drink two caffeine-free Pepsis. She then compared performance of the two
groups on the test. A confounding variable in this study is:
a. whether participants had studied for the test.
b. the type of drink.
c. the gender of the participants.
d. the amount of caffeine in the Pepsi.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

46. A difference between the performance of an experimental and a control group may be caused by:
a. the independent variable.
b. the dependent variable.
c. a confounding variable.
d. either the independent or a confounding variable.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

47. To investigate the effects of alcohol on driving, an experimenter gave people different amounts of

alcohol and then placed them in a driving simulator with instructions to press the brake whenever
they saw a red light. In this study, the independent variable was ____ and the dependent variable
was ____.
a. whether they saw the red light; time taken to press brake
b. amount of alcohol; whether they saw the red light
c. whether they saw the red light; amount of alcohol
d. amount of alcohol; time taken to press brake
ANS: D
MSC: WWW

34

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

CHAPTER 2


48. To test the hypothesis, "Anxiety hurts performance," anxiety would be the ____ variable and
performance would be the ____ variable.
a. dependent; independent
b. independent; dependent
c. confounding; depending
d. independent; confounding
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

49. In the hypothesis, "People feel more depressed in the winter," ____ is the independent variable
and ____ is the dependent variable.
a. season of the year; depression
b. depression; season of the year
c. depression; winter
d. people; depression
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

50. In the hypothesis, "psychology majors with high grade point averages are excited during final
exam week," ____ is the independent variable.
a. major
b. grade point average
c. time of the semester
d. excitement
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

51. Giving one group of subjects an experimental treatment and then informally observing the effects
without a control group is best described as:
a. correlational.
b. exploratory.
c. factorial.

d. single-subject.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

52. ____ is the process by which we examine evidence and then use reason to reach a conclusion.
a. Exploration
b. Inference
c. Empiricism
d. Validation
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

53. An experiment is internally valid if:
a. the outcome can be attributed to the independent variable only.
b. the results generalize to other settings.
c. the results may be attributed to either the independent variable or a confounding variable.
d. the internal variables are operationally defined.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

35


54. An experiment is externally valid if:
a. the outcome can be attributed to the independent variable only.
b. the results generalize to other settings.
c. the results are attributed only to external variables.
d. there are no alternative explanations of the findings.
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

55. In conducting research, one should try to:
a. maximize internal validity and minimize external validity.
b. minimize internal validity and maximize external validity.
c. minimize both internal and external validity.
d. maximize internal validity, external validity, or both, depending on the research questions.
ANS: D
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

56. Induction involves reasoning from:
a. data to theory.
b. theory to data.

c. premise to conclusion.
d. hypotheses to outcomes.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

57. Deduction involves reasoning from:
a. data to theory.
b. theory to concept.
c. premise to conclusion.
d. theory to data.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

58. If you reason that a false premise leads to a false consequent, you will have engaged in a(n) ____
argument that is called ____.
a. invalid; affirming the consequent
b. invalid; denying the antecedent
c. valid; denying the antecedent
d. valid; modus tollens
ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

59. Confirmatory reasoning is to disconfirmatory reasoning as ____ is to ____.
a. modus ponens; modus tollens
b. antecedent; consequent
c. independent variable; dependent variable
d. consequent; antecedent
ANS: A

36

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

CHAPTER 2


60. Karl Popper's theory of science is consistent with:
a. modus tollens.
b. disconfirmatory reasoning.
c. both modus tollens and disconfirmatory reasoning.
d. paradigm shift.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 2.2

61. According to Karl Popper, science should attempt to ____ theories.
a. prove

b. support
c. falsify
d. discard
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 2.2

62. The assertion that scientists should attempt to falsify theories is most closely associated with:
a. Karl Popper.
b. Aristotle.
c. Isaac Newton.
d. Thomas Kuhn.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

63. A particular way of seeing the world is called a:
a. logical inference.
b. construct.
c. prediction.
d. paradigm.
ANS: D
MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Scientific Observation: The Raw

64. The notion that science advances through paradigm shifts is attributed to:
a. Karl Popper.
b. Galileo.
c. Thomas Kuhn.
d. Isaac Newton.
ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 2.3

65. Conclusions in science should be viewed from the perspective of:
a. the scientist.
b. the research participant.
c. the witness.
d. all of these.
ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Evaluating Scientific Research

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

37


66. The example presented in the chapter regarding negative reinforcement reveals the importance of:

a. common words may have special meanings in science.
b. negative correlations in research.
c. falsification.
d. paradigm shifts.
ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Communication in Science

SHORT ANSWER
1. What role does empiricism play in the methods of science?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. In what way is a scientist like a child?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. Contrast qualitative methods and quantitative methods.
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. Contrast the naturalistic observation approach to science with the experimental method. In what
ways do the two approaches differ?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation & The Experimental Method

5. Describe the types of questions that would be appropriate for the correlational approach and
experimental method.
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

38

REF: Correlational Approach & The Experimental Method

CHAPTER 2


6. What are the limitations of the naturalistic observation and correlational approaches?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation & The Correlational Approach

7. In the experimental method, what is the principal reason for using a control group? How does the
control group differ from the experimental group?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

8. For each of the following hypotheses, identify the independent and dependent variables:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

People who are nervous perform poorly.
Reading speed decreases as word length increases.
Highly imaginable words are more memorable.
People sleep better if they read before going to bed.
Alcohol impairs judgment.

ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

9. Describe an operational definition for the following variables:
a)
b)

c)
d)
e)

aggression
love
learning
anxiety
depression

ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

10. Define internal and external validity. In which situations does internal validity tend to be highest?
In which situation does external validity tend to be highest?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Work of Science

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

39


11. Why is treatment effect such an important consideration? What does it mean if treatment effect is

small even if the independent variable is thought to have an effect?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Method

12. Distinguish between confirmatory reasoning and disconfirmatory reasoning. According to Karl
Popper, which is the more useful in science?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

13. What is modus tollens? How is it involved in science and why is it important? Which philosopher
of science is most closely associated with the role of modus tollens in science?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

14. What is a paradigm and how is it important in the advancement of science, according to Thomas
Kuhn?
ANS:
Answer not provided.
PTS: 1

40

REF: Scientific Observation: The Raw

CHAPTER 2