DSpace at VNU: Portuguese language as matrix of the written Vietnamese( Quốc ngữ), and its historical impact on the sustainability of viet nam''s development

PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AS MATRIX OF THE
WRITTEN VIETNAMESE (QƯÓC NGỮ), AND ITS
HISTORICAL IMPACT ON THE SUSTAINABILITY OF
VIẸT NAM’S DEVELOPMENT
Isabel Augusta Tavares Mourão - Jorge Ryder Torres-Pereira
R e c e n t h i s t o r io g r a p h ic a l r e s e a r c h a llo w s u s to h a v e a m o r e c o m p l e t e p ic tu r e o f
h o w th e V i e t n a m e s e l a n g u a g e , in its u s e o f L a t in c h a r a c te r s a n d p h o n e ti c s y s te m
m a d e p o s s ib l e b y t h e u s e o f d ia c r itic s ig n s ( Q u ố c n g ữ ) c a m e a b o u t. T h e p io n e e r in g
e ffo rts o f th e P o r t u g u e s e J e s u i t p r ie s ts th a t e n g a g e d in n e w m e t h o d s a n d s y s te m s to
deal w ith a d if f ic u lt to n a l l a n g u a g e d e s e r v e a tte n tio n a n d r e c o g n itio n . T h e n a m e o f
F r a n c is c o d e P in a a n d . in p a rtic u la r, o f G a s p a r d e A m a r a l s h o u ld b e fa m ilia r to
s c h o la r s o f V i e t n a m e s e s tu d i e s a n d to th e p u b l ic at large.
A s w o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b e lo w , th e a tt e m p t s at p h o n e ti c t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f
V i e tn a m e s e w o r d s h a d to a n c h o r th e m s e lv e s in th e l a n g u a g e o f th o s e c a r r y in g th a t
a tte m p t, a n d s o th e P o r t u g u e s e l a n g u a g e w a s th e to o l to p u r s u e th a t task . In th a t
s e n se , as w e d a r e d to m a k e u s e in th e title o f th is a rticle , th e P o r t u g u e s e la n g u a g e is
a m a t r ix fo r th e w r i tt e n t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f V ie tn a m e s e .
H o w t h e P o r t u g u e s e c a m e to b e th e first E u r o p e a n s to e s ta b lis h r e g u la r
c o n ta c ts w i t h t h e p e o p l e s o f th e te rrito ry p r e s e n t ly k n o w n as V i ệ t N a m , f ro m 1515
at least, is s o m e h o w o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f this p r e s e n ta tio n . S o m e b a c k g r o u n d m ig h t
b e h e lp fu l t h o u g h t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t o n e m i g h t call th e “ lin g u is tic c u r i o s it y ” o f the
P o r tu g u e s e a r r i v in g a t th e F a r E a s t s h o re s.
T h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a , w h e r e P o r tu g a l e m e r g e d as a n i n d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m in
1143, h a d b e e n a s p a c e o f l in g u is tic d iv e r s ity a n d c o n v iv i a li ty s in c e a n c ie n t tim e s .
Rom ans

im p o sed

L a t in

language

o n ly

a fte r tw o

h u n d red years

o f w ar,

an d

a fte rw a rd s , w h e n t h e R o m a n E m p i r e d e c li n e d , n e w w a v e s o f i n v a d e r s b r o u g h t
m u ltip le l a n g u a g e s a n d w i t h it th e lin g u is tic d iv e r s ity r e t u r n e d to th e p e n in s u la ,
a lth o u g h o n l y th e A r a b l a n g u a g e p e r s is te d in a la s tin g w a y t o g e t h e r w ith th e
m u ltip le v a r i a n ts o f s p o k e n L a tin .
O n e m i g h t a r g u e t h a t a m u ltilin g u a l

e n v i r o n m e n t h a d b e e n p a r t o f th e

h isto ric a l p r o c e s s e s w h e r e th e P o r t u g u e s e id e n tity w a s fo rg e d . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f

* C H A M , N e w U n iv e rs ity o f L isb o n , P ortugal.
** Đ ạ i s ứ đ ặ c m ệ n h t o à n q u y ề n c ủ a B ồ Đ à o N h a tại V i ệ t N a m .

525


VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TẾ LÀN TH Ứ T ư

e a c h o t h e r ’s l a n g u a g e s a n d th e a c q u is i ti o n o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e e x p e r t is e w a s

u n d e r s t o o d a s a n i m p o r ta n t to o l to k e e p p e a c e a n d t o p r o v id e b e n e f i c i a l re la tio n s
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s - p r o t o - d i p l o m a t i c re la tio n s , a s o n e c o u ld p u t it.
T r a d e a n d p r o s p e r it y fo r th e p e o p le s e n g a g e d in p e a c e f u l i n te r c o u r s e a n d e x c h a n g e
w a s th e u ltim a te g o a l.
*
A p r o l o n g e d e c o n o m i c c risis in E u r o p e in t h e 14th c e n tu r y is a t t h e o r ig in o f
th e m a r i ti m e e x p a n s i o n th a t th e P o r tu g u e s e in itia te d w i t h c o n s e q u e n c e s n o o n e w a s
a w a r e o f at its in c e p tio n . T h e s e a r c h fo r n e w m a r k e t s , n e w p r o d u c t s a n d n e w a llies
t u r n e d in to w h a t m a n y n o w r e f e r to as th e “ firs t g l o b a l i z a t i o n ” .
O v e r c o m i n g in itia l m o d e s t e x p lo r a to r y i n c u r s io n s in th e N o r t h A f r ic a coast,
th e P o r tu g u e s e s ta r te d to sail in S o u th A t l a n t ic s e a s f ro m 1415. F r o m th e re , w i t h a
s y s te m a t ic p o lic y th a t w a s p u r s u e d b y s u c c e s s i v e k i n g s , th e E a s t e r n c o a s t o f A f r ic a
w a s a tta in e d , th e n I n d ia a n d f r o m th e re , e v e n fa r th e r , th e g a te s to “ s e a s at th e e n d o f
th e W o r l d ” w e r e o p e n e d .
A t th e b e g in n i n g o f th e 16th c e n tu r y , a n d a s th e P o r t u g u e s e p u r s u e d th e ir
j o u r n e y s f a r th e r E a s t, th e y b e c o m e e x p o s e d to a n e v e r e x p a n d i n g d iv e r s ity o f
la n g u a g e s , d ia le c ts a n d w a y s o f v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n - a t r u e B a b e l . A c q u i r i n g
l a n g u a g e s sk ills b e c a m e p a r a m o u n t, n o t o n ly to g a t h e r e s s e n tia l i n f o r m a t i o n b u t as a
t o o l to fac ilita te th e e s ta b l is h m e n t o f p e a c e f u l r e l a ti o n s w i t h t h e p e o p le s a n d
c o m m u n i t i e s th e y w e r e e n c o u n te rin g .
F a r th e r fro m In d ia , a n d a f te r h a v in g s e ttle d in th e h u b t r a d e o f M a la c c a , in
151 1 , a n i m m e n s e a r r a y o f o p p o r tu n i ti e s lie d a h e a d fo r th e P o r t u g u e s e w h o h a d
e m b a r k e d at th e i r K i n g ’s s e rv ic e in s h ip s d e s ti n e d t o th e se a s o f A s i a , a f t e r h a v in g
a c c o m p li s h e d th e i r m il it a r y d uty.
The

s h o re s

o f th e

In d o ch in ese

p e n in su la

s ta r te d

to

be

f r e q u e n te d

by

P o r tu g u e s e n a v ig a t o r s at lea st s in c e Ỉ 5 1 3 a n d D u a r t e C o e l h o 1 w a s a m o n g th o se
c h a r g e d b y th e K i n g o f P o r tu g a l to e x p lo r e th e c o a s t a r o u n d th e e s tu a r y o f th e
i m m e n s e S ô n g H ồ n g , th e R e d R i v e r ( w h i c h h a d n o t at t h e t i m e a f o r m e d d e lta 2).

1. Concerning Duarte Coelho, a personality engaged in the political building o f the empire, see Isabel A.
Tavares Mourão, «Duarte Coelho: Facetas de uma personalidade empenhada na construẹão politica do
império» in D. Joclo / / / e o Império - Actas do Congresso Internacional Comemorativo do sen nascimento
(Lisboa e Tomar, 4 a 8 Junho de 2002) [Roberto Cameiro e Artur Teodoro de Matos (Dir.)], Lisbon/Braga:
CHAM/C entro de Estudos dos Povos e Culturas de Expressão Portuguesa, 2004, p. 205-216.
2. By means o f the Portuguese cartography it is possible to follow the creation and the evolution o f the delta
o f the Red River throughout the centuries.

526


P O R T U G U E S E LA N G U A G E AS M ATRIX OF THE W R ITTEN VIETN A M E S E .

T h e c o a st w a s h e n c e f o r t h d u ly m a p p e d . C h a m I s la n d w i t h a d e e p - w a t e r a n d w e llp r o te c te d b a y b e c a m e f r o m t h e n o n a h a r b o r fo r th e j u n k s a n d o th e r sail s h ip s
p ilo te d b y th e P o r t u g u e s e . O t h e r is l a n d s a ls o b e c a m e p o r ts o f call, a n d in s o m e
o th e rs t h e y s u f f e r e d s h i p w r e c k s - i n c l u d in g th e P a r a c e l a n d th e S p r a tly

th e n

d e s c r ib e d g e n e r i c a l ly u n d e r t h e P o r t u g u e s e d e n o m i n a ti o n “ P r a c e l ” o r “ P a r a c e l ” 2.
T h is i m m e n s e s h o r e l in e , w h i c h w o u l d ta k e th e m a r i n e r s a n d m e r c h a n t s f a rth e r
into C h in a , w a s c a r e f u lly o b s e r v e d , d e s c r i b e d in d e ta il in itin e ra rie s a n d s u b je c t to
p e rs is te n t c a r t o g r a p h i c e ffo rts . E a r ly on , th e P o r tu g u e s e felt th e n e e d to m a k e
le n g th y s to p s a t m id w a y o f t h e i r s a il in g j o u r n e y to t a k e in to a c c o u n t th e c h a n g in g
r e g i m e o f m o n s o o n w in d s . T h o s e s ta y s in th e c o a s ta l isla n d s a ll o w e d th e first
c o n ta c ts w i t h a u t o c h t h o n e p o p u l a t i o n s w h o tra v e lle d in d im i n u ti v e b o a ts b u ilt w i t h
m e s h e d fib e rs, b e t w e e n th e litto ra l a n d t h o s e c lo s e isla n d s , w h e r e f e tc h in g th e n e s ts
o f th e s e a s w a l l o w s in its p e r c h e d r o c k s w a s a lu c r a tiv e a c tiv ity . T h e P o r tu g u e s e
becam e

acq u ain ted

w ith

these

shores

and

th a t

s tr in g

o f isla n d s ,

and

m any

e n c o u n te r s in 16th c e n tu r y , w i t h t h e lo c a l c o m m u n it i e s a n d w i t h M u s l i m p ira te s ,
h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d b y F e m a o M e n d e z P i n to in h is m a s t e r p i e c e “ Peregrinaẹam ” ,
first p u b lis h e d in 1614 ( s o m e y e a r s a f t e r h is de a th ).
I n s c r ip tio n s in th e P o r t u g u e s e l a n g u a g e ( f o r in s ta n c e in C h a m isla n d ) w e r e
w r itte n in r o c k s , m o s t o f t h e m n o l o n g e r r e c o g n i z a b l e w i t h th e p a s s a g e o f tim e.
A m o n g t h e m o n e e n g r a v e d b y D u a r t e C o e lh o , d a te d 1518 a n d a " p a d r ã o " ( s to n e
i n s c r ib e d w ith t h e c o a t o f a r m s o f P o r tu g a l ) , w h i c h la te r o n w a s p u l le d d o w n . T h e
e x a c t y e a r in w h i c h t r a d e s ta r te d h a s n o t b e e n p o s s ib le to d e te r m i n e b u t th e f a m e o f
t h e r ic h n e s s o f “ C o c h i n c h i n a ” is d e s c r i b e d b y T o m é P ire s in h is S u m a Oriental3,

1. Concerning one o f the shipwrecks that occurred in the Spratly area in the 17th century and the daily-life o f
the survivors during seven years until their return to Macao, see Isabel A. Tavares Mourão, «De Ilhéu em
Ilhéu, sete anos de caminho até Macau... Análise de um texto inédito, dos fins do século XVII intitulado

“Relaọão de alguns naufragantes que se salvarão e viverão em hua ilha da area seje anos”» in Portos,
Escalas e Ilhẻus no Relacionamento entre o Ocidente e o Oriente, A d a s do Congresso International
Comeworativo do Regresso de Vasco da Gama a Portugal (Ilha Terceira e s . Miguel - Aẹores / 1 1 a 18 de
Abril de 1999), [Avelino de Freitas de Meneses (Coord.)], 2 vol., Portugal: Universidade dos Aẹores/
Comissão Nacional para as Com em oraọões dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 2° vol., 2001, p. 359-377.
2. Concerning Paracel islands, see Isabel A. Tavares Mourão, «Paracel» in Dicionário da História de Macau
(Dictionary o f the History o f Macao), [Isabel Leonor de Seabra (Coord.)] presently being printed in
Macao.

3. Arm ando Cortesão (Ed.), A Suma Oriental de Tomé Pires e o Livro de Francisco Rodrigues, Coimbra:
Acta Universitatis Conimbrigensis, 1978. It should be noted that in the 16th century the Portuguese
designated as Cochinchina the whole territory situated between the North o f C ham pa and the South o f
China, but in 17th century the Cochinchina coincided only with the lands ruled by the N guyễn lords.

527


VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉƯ HỘI THẢO QUỔC TẾ LẦN TH Ứ T ư

p u b l is h e d in 1516 w h e r e w e c o n f i r m th a t a m o n g s t th e first b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th is trade
w e r e th e P o r tu g u e s e c a p ta in s o f th e M a l a c c a fo rtre ss, c h a r g e d b y t h e m o n a r c h o f
e x p a n d in g th e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t th e s e s h o re s , by s e n d i n a n e w s h i p s to e x p b r e
f a rth e r a w a y .
B u s in e s s w a s c a ư i e d o n , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s p o s s ib l e t h r o u g h aestures
a n d sig n s, a n d w i t h t h e h e lp w h e n e v e r a v a ila b le o f A s i a n t r a n s l a t o r s , but the
la n g u a g e

b a r r ie r

m ade

d iff ic u lt

e ff e c tiv e

a r r a n g e m e n ts .

In

th e

sp ectru m

of

la n g u a g e s o f A s ia , V i e t n a m e s e w a s d iff ic u lt to lea rn , b e c a u s e o f t h e v o c a l tonalities,
o r to n e s , a n d b y th e u s e in its w r itte n f o rm o f c h a r a c te r s th a t th e P o r t u g u e s e fcr a
lo n g tim e c o u ld n o t d e c ip h e r . T h e le a r n in g o f b o th C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s a n d nôm
dem anded

s tr e n u o u s

s tu d ie s th a t w e r e

n o t c o m p a t ib l e w i t h

th e

s im u lta n e o u s

p u r s u in g o f o th e r a c tiv itie s , i n c l u d in g t e n d i n g to v a r io u s b u s in e s s i n te r e s ts . M a n ' o f
the P o r tu g u e s e m e r c h a n t s th a t s a ile d th e w a te rs o f t h e Đ a i V i ệ t c o a s t b e lo n g e c to
th e n o b ility , th e k i n g o f P o r tu g a l h a v in g g r a n t e d t h e m th e n e c e s s a r y licensee to
tra v e l to C h i n a a n d J a p a n , a n d e n g a g e in tra d e , as a r e w a r d f o r s e r v i c e s to the
C r o w n a c c o m p li s h e d in th e E a s t. A l m o s t as n o r m t h e s e n o b l e m e r c h a n t s v e r e
a c c o m p a n ie d in th e i r v o y a g e s b y p rie s ts w h o w e r e h ig h ly c u lt iv a t e d , imbuec: o f
religiou s p r o se ly tis m a n d e a g e r to find w a y s to c o m m u n ic a te w ith th e local population.
S o m e p ro g re ss w a s a c h ie v e d at first in u n d e rs ta n d in g the la n g u a g e s p o k e n by the
V ie tn a m e s e a n c esto rs but it s o o n b e c a m e clear that o n ly a s y s te m a tic s tu d y o f the

language, c o n d u c te d by sp e cia lists in linguistics w h o w o u ld settle lo ca lly , c tu ld
ac h ie v e m e a n in g fu l results. T h e n o b le m e rc h a n ts , for the sake o f th e ir b u s in e s s success,
e n c o u ra g e d the p rie s ts w h o tra v e lle d w ith th e m to h e lp in th e c o m m u n ic a t io n 'vith

local authorities in o r d e r to o b tain susta in ab le c o m m e rc ia l relations. A p a rt o f the g u n s
ac h ie v e d in th ese lucrative tra v e ls w e r e in fact d o n a te d to th e relig io u s O r d e rs , a b r m
o f p a rticipation in the e x p e n s e s w ith the b u ild in g o f n e w c h u rc h e s o f M a c a o o r with the
e s ta b lis h m e n t o f n e w relig io u s m issio n s. In th at respect, it c o n s titu te d a pow erful
incentive in the strife fo r learning oriental languages.
A f t e r d e f e a ti n g m a n y o f th e g r o u p s w h i c h d e d ic a te d t h e m s e l v e s t o piracA, in
th e se a s o f th e F a r E a s t, a n d h a v in g s e ttle d in M a c a o , e s t a b l i s h i n g o n th e v a y
p r o s p e r o u s tra d e lin k s w i t h th e s u r r o u n d i n g re g io n , th e P o r t u g u e s e f a c e d l e w
p r o b le m s th a t d e m a n d e d a n a d d e d u r g e n c y in th e le a r n in g o f V i e t n a m e s e lan g u a g e ,
i f m o r e i o n g - s t a n d i n g a llia n c e s w e r e in d e e d to b e p u r s u e d . W i t h o u t g o i n g h e re into
de ta il on its o rig in s , s u f f ic e to s a y th a t te n s io n s b e tw e e n E u r o p e a n p o w e r s at th e e n d
o f th e 16th c e n tu r y h a d a tr a n s la tio n in th e s e a re a s o f A s ia . B r i t i s h a n d D i t c h ,
o r g a n iz e d in p r iv a te “ C o m p a n i e s ” , s ta rte d to sail in th e I n d ia n O c e a n a n d in th e
P a c ific , a n d th e P o r t u g u e s e u n d e r s t o o d th e u r g e n t n e e d to f o r g e a ll ia n c e s with th e

528


P O R T U G U E S E LAN G U AG E AS M ATRIX OF TH E W R ITTEN VIETN AM ESE.

ru le rs o f th e t e r r it o r i e s w h e r e th e y u s e d to tra d e . In th is p e r i o d o f th e b e g in n i n g o f
th e 17th c e n tu r y th e P o r t u g u e s e w e r e a s s id u o u s v isito rs o f th e c o a sta l p o rts o f H ô i
A n , a n d D à N ă n g , m a n y t i m e s in a s s o c ia tio n w ith J a p a n e s e m e r c h a n t s in th e ir
b u s in e s s e n d e a v o r s . S e v e r a l p r ie s ts , F r a n c is c a n s , A u g u s t i n i a n s a n d D o m i n ic a n s , h a d
by th a t tim e b e e n t r y i n g t o le a rn th e V i e tn a m e s e l a n g u a g e b u t c le a rly w i th o u t
s u c c e s s to th e p o in t th e y g a v e u p f o u n d in g a m is s io n . It w a s in th a t c o n te x t th a t the

J e s u its w e r e a s k e d t o c o n tr i b u te to th e ta s k at h a n d s , b y s e n d in g m is s io n a r ie s to a
te r r ito ry th a t h a d n e v e r b e f o r e fallen into th e ir j u r i s d i c t i o n - th e la n d s ru le d bv th e
N g u y ễ n lords, n o w a d a y s in c e n tr a l V iê t N a m .
*

T h e P o r t u g u e s e a n d in p a r t i c u l a r th e J e s u its h a d th e e x p e r i e n c e th a t th e
l e a r n in g o f a l a n g u a g e b e c a m e m u c h e a s ie r i f th e p h o n e m e s th a t th e y n e e d to
m e m o r i z e w e r e p r e v i o u s l y t r a n s p o s e d to th e s y s te m o f w r i tt e n p h o n e ti c s th e y w e r e
u s e d to. B u t s o m e e a rlie r , in t h e 16lh c e n tu r y , a tte m p ts at th a t p h o n e ti c tra n s p o s itio n
w e n t s p e c t a c u l a r l y o f f th e m a r k , b y ig n o r a n c e o f th e V i e t n a m e s e la n g u a g e . A g o o d
e x a m p l e o f a r r i v in g a t v e ry s u r p r i s i n g r e s u lts in th a t e ff o r t is in F e r n a o M e n d e z
P i n t o ’s “ Peregrinaẹam ' ’ w h e n h e trie d to r e c o r d th e n a m e s o f th e p la c e s h e v isite d
in his tra v e ls , in h is a c tiv ity a s a tra d e r, in th e c o a s t o f C o c h in c h in a . A r e s e a rc h
c a rr ie d by I s a b e l A . T a v a r e s M o u r ã o e x p la i n s th e o r ig in o f s o m e w o r d s u s e d by
M e n d e z P i n to , e s t a b l i s h i n g th a t w h a t th e a u th o r t h o u g h t w e r e n a m e s o f p la c e s a n d
riv e r s , w e r e in fa c t e x p r e s s i o n s in V i e t n a m e s e o r C h a m , p o i n ti n g s o m e t im e s to local
a c t i v i t i e s 1. I n s te a d o f a m a n o f “ f e rtile i m a g in a t io n ” o r d o w n r i g h t lia r2 as s o m e
c ritic s a c c u s e d h i m o f b e in g , P i n to w a s w r itin g d o w n s o m e V i e t n a m e s e a n d C h a m
w o rd s/sen ten ces.

We

can

advance

som e

exam ples:

A g im p u r3

(atih pur4),

0 rein o do D a i-V iê t n o sécu lo
XVI e na primeira metade do século XVII» in Oceanos n° 32, Outubro-Dezembro 1997,

1. S e e I s a b e l A . T a v a r e s M o u r ã o , « 0 1 h a r e s P o r t u g u e s e s s o b r e

L i s b o a : 1 9 9 7 , p. 1 0 5 - 1 1 7 ; « A s p e c t o s d a p r e s e n ẹ a P o r t u g u e s a n a C o c h i n c h i n a e n o T u n K im

(Vietname)» in Os Portugueses e o Orients. História, itinerários, representaẹões [Rosa
M a r i a P e r e z ( C o o r d . ) ] , D . Q u i x o t e , 2 0 0 6 , p. 2 5 5 - 2 7 3
2. S e e f o r i n s t a n c e M i c h e l C a r t i e r « V o y a g e à t r a v e r s line C h i n e i m a g i n a i r e : la « P é r é g r i n a t i o n »

de Pernão Mendes Pinto» in Actes du IVe Colloque International de Sinologie (Chantilly,
1983), Paris: Institut Ricci, 1991, p. 75-93. This author considers that Pinto has an imaginary
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e F a r E a s t c a r t o g r a p h y , n a m e l y o f t h e V i e t n a m e s e la n d s . Is a b e l A .
T a v a r e s M o u r ã o d i s a g r e e s t o t a l l y w i t h t h a t p o i n t o f v i e w , b a s e d o n c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d a f te r
a l o n g r e s e a r c h . ( S e e a r t i c l e s s u p r a n o t e 6.)
3. Peregrina<;am , c h a p t e r 129,

4. Gerard Moussay, Dictionnciire Cam-Franẹais-Vietnamien, Phanrang: 1971, p. 18: AOihpur
= đông~Esl (East) and p. 283: Pũr = Đông = Est (East). Fernao Mendez Pinto thought he
w a s b e i n g t o l d t h e n a m e o f a l a n d w h e n in f a c t h e w a s b e i n g e x p l a i n e d t h e d i r e c t i o n to t a k e
to m e e t t h e “ k i n g ” o f C o c h i n c h i n a

529

VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TÉ LÀN THỦ T ư

T a r a u l a c h i m 1 (thau rau + lachi3), T i n a c o r e u 4 (77 nat-că'ô rê5), T i m o c o u h o s 6 (thiêu

m a 7 + cô hôn8).
In 1615 th e first J e s u its a rr iv e d in th e la n d s o f th e N g u y ễ n lords fo llo w in g a
re q u e s t b y F e m a o d a C o s t a 9. T h e n e e d to e n s u re s p ir itu a l s u p p o r t to th e C h ristian

1. P e rcg rin a q a m , c h a p t e r 4 1 .

2. Alexandre Rhodes (Ed.), Dictionarivm Annamiticvm Lvsitanvm et Latinvm. Roina: Sa-.rae
C o n g r e g a t i o n s d e P r o p a g a n d a F id e , 1 6 5 1 , ( f a c - s i m i l e d v e r s i o n : H o - C h i - M i n h - C i t y , 199 ) f.

751. Thau rau = bale! = cymba (small boat)
3. D ictiu n a rivm A n n a m iticvm ... f. 3 9 2 : L a c h i = esteiro p iq u e n o de m ar on de rio - riu u u s è

fiu m in t... ( s m a l l r i v e r , b r a n c h o f a r iv e r , a c r e e k , a s m a ll n a r r o w s t r e a m ) . In c o n c l u s i o n som e
lo c a l p e o p l e to ld P i n t o t h a t t h e r iv e r w o u l d o n ly b e l a r g e e n o u g h f o r s m a l l b o a t s anc he
t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e a c t u a l l y n a m i n g th e r iv e r .

4. Peregrinaọam, ch. 4 1.

p. X I I : Ớ = không = tie p a s ( t o t ) ,
p. XXVII: 77...Ó = ne pas = không (not, neither); p. 231: N at-ca= quang-dâng ~ clar et
vaste (clear and large); p. 355: Re = rục = filet d ’eau (stream). The expression «str;am
neither clear, nor !arge» was taken by Pinto for the name o f the river. Pinto heard 77 naí-că’

5. G é r a r d M o u s s a y , D ictio n n a ire C a m -F ra n ựais-V ietnam ien,

Ô R e a n d h e h a d w r i t t e n T in a co reu .

6. Peregrinaẹam, Timocouhos chap. 131/ Timocouhós cap. 130 e ị 81/ Tinocouhós cap. 29.
D e s i g n a t e d a c c o r d i n g to M e n d e z P i n t o t h e p e o p l e a g a i n s t w h o m C o c h i n c h i n a r a i s e d v ar,
d u r i n g t h e t i m e s h e w a s t r a v e l i n g in t h e a r e a .

7. Dictionarivm Annamiticvm Lvsitanvm et Laiinvm. f. 765: Thiêu m a = queimar o corpo
morto = cadauer i%ne consumer (to burn the corpse). The information on the dictionary
refers to a Cham custom o f burning the bodies without burial, what Mendez Pinto tocK as
the name o f a people (see together note !6 and ! 7).
8. Dìcíionarivm Annamiticvm Lvsitanvm et Latinvm f. 336: /?□«= alma -anima, ae (soil) f.
336: CÔ hon - almas dos que morrem sem sepultura = animae illorum qui aeputura
carent...(souls that die without burial).
9. Fernao da Costa participated in the defence o f Malacca in 1606; in 1614 was sent to Johor as
am bassador,

in

1615

he co m m an d ed

the

fle e t

c o n t r i b u t e d a g a i n t o t h e d e f e n c e o f M a l a c c a ; in

in c h a r g e

o f coastal

1618 w e n t from

su rv eillan c e and

G o a to M a l a c c i as

c o m m a n d e r o f t h e r e s c u e f le e t a n d in 1 6 2 0 h e w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l in r e s c u i n g P e r a k . Me w a s

among M alacca’s

“ Cosados” (list o f the settled married Portuguese) until 1626. Aoout

F e r n a o d a C o s t a , s e e P a u io J o r g e d e S o u s a P in to , P o rtu g u e se s e M o la io s, M cilaca ■
> OS

sultanatos de Johor e Achem 1575- 1619, Lisbon: Sociedade Histórica da Independênca tie
P o r t u g a l , 1997, p. 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 . C o n c e r n i n g t h e r e q u e s t o f F e r n a o d a C o s t a to the S o c i e y o f

Jesus see Christoforo Borri that refers also the embassy sent to Cochinchina by the vice roy.
Christoforo Borri, Relation de In Nouvelle Mission des Pères de la Compagnie de ỉesys au
Royaume de la Cochinchine, tradvite de I'Italien dv Pere Christofie Borri Milano is, qii fut

urt des premiers quì entrerent en ce Royaume par le Père Antoine de la Croix cle la tmsme
Compagnie, Lille: 1631, p. 93-94.
530


PO R TU G U E S E LA N G U A G E AS M ATR IX OF TH E W R ITTEN V IETN AM ESE.

J a p a n e s e in th e ir d i a s p o r a led to s e n d s o m e J a p a n e s e - s p e a k i n g m is s io n a r ie s fro m
M a c a o to C o c h i n c h in a la n d s , b u t th e y e n c o u n t e r e d m a r k e d d iff ic u ltie s in l e a r n in g
t h e V i e tn a m e s e la n g u a g e . In th e f o ll o w i n g y e a r, 1616, F r a n c i s c o d e P in a a rriv e d ,
a n d m a n a g i n g to s p e a k th e lo c a l l a n g u a g e f lu e n tly , h e b e c a m e t h e r e a f t e r a p i o n e e r
in t h e p h o n e tic t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f th e V i e t n a m e s e la n g u a g e , b y u s in g th e P o r tu g u e s e as
its r e f e r e n c e 1.
T h e p r e m a tu r e d e a t h o f F a t h e r F r a n c i s c o d e P in a , in a s h i p w r e c k in 162 5 ,
p r e v e n t e d h im f ro m p e r f e c t i n g h is m e t h o d . A n o t h e r J e s u it w o u l d a c h ie v e th a t ta s k :
F a t h e r G a s p a r d e A m a r a l s e n t to f o u n d a n e w m is s io n in th e la n d s r u le d b y th e
T r i n h lo rd s ( T u n K im ) . G a s p a r d e A m a r a l is th e o n e w h o f ix a te d th e V i e t n a m e s e
l a n g u a g e as it w a s s p o k e n at th e C o u r t o f th e T r in h a n d in th e r e g i o n a r o u n d H à
N ô i, w h e n he c o m p l e te d th e first V i e t n a m e s e - P o r t u g u e s e d i c t io n a r y in 1634.
F r a n c is c o d e P i n a a n d G a s p a r d e A m a r a l w e r e b o t h P o r tu g u e s e , a n d b o m in
n o t to o d ista n t v illa g e s o f th e s a m e p r o v in c e o f B e ira , P i n a in G u a r d a , in 1586, a n d
A m a r a l in C o r v a c e ira , in 1594. T h e y w e r e n o t o f th e s a m e g e n e r a ti o n , a n d as f a r as
w e k n o w n e v e r m e t, e ith e r in C o i m b r a w h e r e b o t h s tu d ie d o r in th e F a r E a s t; b u t
G a s p a r w a s a w a r e o f th e m e t h o d o l o g y u s e d b y P in a . In 1630, w h e n G a s p a r b e g a n to
s tu d y V i e tn a m e s e l a n g u a g e in M a c a o C o l l e g e , h e m e t t h e r e A n t o n i o d e F o n te s , a
c o m p a n i o n o f A l e x a n d r e d e R h o d e s , w h e n t h e s e t w o h a d s ta r te d to b a b b le th e
V i e t n a m e s e l a n g u a g e w i t h F a t h e r P ina.
*

D if fe r e n tly

from

P in a ,

G aspar

de

A m aral

soon

r e v e a le d

h im se lf

as

e x c e p tio n a lly ta le n te d in l e a r n in g la n g u a g e s . H a v i n g left L i s b o n in 1623 for J a p a n ,
he a tt a in e d M a c a o a f t e r a n e x tr e m e l y l o n g a n d d iff ic u lt j o u r n e y . T h e r e , w h i l e
k e e p in g d e lib e ra te ly a l o w p r o f ile , h e s e t h i m s e l f to le a rn J a p a n e s e . W e k n o w th a t
A m a r a l w e n t s e c r e tly to C o c h i n c h i n a in 1627, w h e r e h e s ta y e d fo r a w h ile at th e
h o m e o f a J a p a n e s e f a m i ly in F a y f o ( H ô i - a n ) to p e r f e c t h is k n o w l e d g e o f J a p a n e s e
a n d to try to c a tc h a b o a t th a t w o u l d sail to J a p a n . T h a t b r i e f c o n ta c t w i t h a r e g i o n
r u le d by th e N g u y ễ n lo rd s w a s s h o r t a n d c la n d e s tin e . F a t h e r G a s p a r d e A m a r a l d id

1. R o l a n d Jacques, P o rtu g u e se Pioneers of Vietnamese prior to 1650. L'auvre de quelques

pionniers portugais dans le domaine de la Linguistique vietnamienne jusqu’en 1650,
bilingual edition, Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2002; «Le Portugal et la romanisation de la langue
v i e t n a m i e n n e . F a u t- il r é é c r i r e l’h i s t o i r e ? » in R evu e F ra n g a ise d ’h isto ire d ’Outre-M e r , T o m e
85 (11>98). n° 318, France: 1998, p. 21-54; «Aux origines du Quồc Ngữ: Quelques
observations sur les circonstances historiques et I’environnement scientifique des premiers
écrits sur laphonétique vietnamieme» in Tap San Khoa Hoc A - Đ H T H TP. H C M -Annals of
H C M C it y University, 3/1995, V i ê ũ tN a m : 1 9 9 5 , p. 93-109.
531

VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉƯ HỘI THẢO QUÓC TÉ LẦN THỦ T ư

e m b a r k in H ộ i A n , d i s g u i s e d as a s a ilo r, b u t d e s tin y p r e v e n t e d h i m fro m rea c h in g
t h e N i p p o n a r c h i p e l a g o fo r a s to r m a l m o s t d e s tr o y e d th e s h ip th a t h a d to find
p r o te c ti o n in th e h a r b o u r o f M a c a o . T i m e s w e r e d if f ic u lt in e c o n o m i c te r m s for the
P o r t u g u e s e in th e F a r E a st. T h e tr a d e in J a p a n s u f f e r e d th e i m p a c t o f th e rivalries
w i t h S p a n ia r d s a n d N e t h e r l a n d s p e o p le . B u s i n e s s w a s f u rth e r t r o u b l e d b y activity o f
t h e r e lig io u s O r d e r s w h o c o n ti n u e d to s e n d m is s io n a r ie s to J a p a n , n o tw ith s ta n d in g
all th e in te r d ic tio n s i m p o s e d by t h e J a p a n e s e ru le rs. T h e s e a s w e r e no lo n g e r safe
w ith th e D u t c h in th e are a . S o it w a s n o t th e b e s t t im e f o r A m a r a l to in sis t o n taking
u p a g a in h is j o u r n e y a n d h e s p e n t s o m e t im e i n s t e a d in V e r d e I s l a n d (property
b e l o n g i n g to th e J e s u its ) . T h e r e h e p u r s u e d h is s tu d ie s o f th e l a n g u a g e , th e culture
a n d th e g e o g r a p h y o f J a p a n , w ith P a u l o S a y t ô as c o m p a n i o n (a J e s u it o f J a p an e se
o rig in ), u n d e r th e g u i d a n c e o f th e b e s t o f m a s te rs : F a t h e r J o a o R o d r i g u e s . T h e la:ter
h a d b e e n i n te r p re te r f o r A l e s s a n d r o V a l i g n a n o , h e g o t a c q u a i n te d w ith T o y o to m i
H id e y o s h i, t a k i n g p a r t in o ffic ia l m e e t i n g s d r e s s e d in th e J a p a n e s e w a y ; a fte rw a rd s
h e h a d b e e n d e s ig n a t e d o ffic ia l in te r p r e te r ( Tguzzu) a n d t r a d e re p r e s e n ta tiv e in
N a g a s a k i at the s e r v i c e o f T o k u g a w a l e y a s u 1.
B e s i d e s h is i m m e r s i o n in th e J a p a n e s e c u ltu r e , C a s p a r s ta r te d his studies o f
t h e C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e a n d sc rip t at V e r d e Isla n d . H is p r o je c t at th e tim e was
e x tr e m e l y d a rin g : h e i n te n d e d to r e a c h J a p a n d i s g u i s e d as a C h i n e s e m e r c h a n t in the
c o m p a n y o f F u j ia n m e r c h a n ts .

T h e trip o f A m a r a l a n d S a y t ô w a s e v e n b ỉe n

n e g o ti a te d a n d p a id fo r by th e F a t h e r V i s it o r A n d r é P a l m e ir o a n d A m a r a l stopped
t r i m m i n g h is b e a r d a n d let his h a ir g r o w w h i l e a w a i t i n g to e m b a r k . H o w e v e r the
R e c t o r o f th e C o l l e g e o f M a c a o , P e d r o M o r e j o n , w h o w a s r e p l a c i n g at th e t im e the

F a t h e r V is ito r , o n b e i n g to ld th a t t w o p r ie s ts , P e r o M a r q u e z a n d A l e x a n d r e R hodes,
h a d j u s t b e e n e x p e ll e d by th e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e T r i n h in T u n K i m , o r d e r e d A i m r a l
to g o to T u n K i m i n s t e a d 2. T h e R e c t o r w a s th u s r e c o g n i z i n g G a s p a r d e A m a r a l ’s
d i p lo m a t i c a b ility a n d t r u s tin g his a lr e a d y i m p r e s s i v e lin g u is tic s k ills ( p r o f ic i e n c / in
t w o A s ia n la n g u a g e s a n d C h i n e s e s c rip t). A s it w a s th e u s e , A m a r a l w o u l d not
tra v e l a lo n e a n d h e left M a c a o a c c o m p a n i e d b y P a u l o S a y tô in S e p t e m b e r 1629.

1. About the life o f Father Joao Rodrigues see: Jacques B é s i n e a u , “All Japan avec .000
Rodrigues 1580/1620”, Lisboa/Paris: Centro Cultural Português da Funđaẹão Calcuste
Gulbenkian/ Comissăo Naciona! para a Comemoraẹão dos Descobrimentos Portugueses,
1993. Michael Cooper s. J. “Rodrigues o Interpreted (translation o f The Interpreter) Lisxrn:
Quetzal Editores, 1994.)
2. On the life o f Father G a s p a r do A m a r a l see Isabel Augusta Tavares M o u r ã o , Gcispa■ do
A m a ra l S .J . (15 94-1646). L a vie et I ’ceuvre d ’un Je s u ite p o rtu g ciis fo n d a te u r de id mission
je s u ite du Tun K im à la c o u r des T rin h , (PhD thesis d e f e n d e d at the Ecole P r a t i q u e des

Hautes Etudes (Sorbonne) in 19 October 2011), 3 vol., Paris: EPHE, 2011.

532


PO R T U G U E S E LA N G U A G E AS M A TR IX OF THE W R ITTEN VIETN AM ESE.

T h e F a t h e r - R e c t o r w a s r i g h t a b o u t A m a r a l 's ta le n ts . H e w a s s u c c e s s f u l at the
c o u rt o i ' th e T r i n h lo rd s a n d t h e i n c i d e n t w i t h M a r q u e z a n d R h o d e s w a s o v e r c o m e .
A m a ra l w a s e v e n in v it e d to s ta y , a l t h o u g h h e h a d to d e c li n e b e c a u s e s u c h m o v e
w o u ld h a v e r e q u i r e d p r e v i o u s a g r e e m e n t f r o m h is S u p e r io r s . A m a r a l w a s still
d r e a m in g o f g o i n g to J a p a n o n his w a y b a c k b u t o n c e in M a c a o th e h i e r a r c h y
d e c id e d th a t h is r e tu r n t o T u n K im w a s t h e m o s t im p o r ta n t. It w a s th e n w h i l e
a w a itin g th e f a v o r a b l e m o n s o o n w i n d s to se t sail th a t h e s ta rte d a n in te n s iv e

le a r n in g o f th e V i e t n a m e s e l a n g u a g e .
A s w e h a v e s e e n , h e h a d a lr e a d y c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a i n in g o f A s i a ti c la n g u a g e s .
H e k n e w th e t e c h n i q u e s th a t J o a o R o d r i g u e s Tguzzu h a d t a u g h t h im ; h e h a d s p e n t
e n o u g h t i m e w ith R o d r i g u e s w h o w a s t h e a u t h o r o f a n i m p o r ta n t w o r k c o n c e r n in g
the g r a m m a r o f th e J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e . A l r e a d y t w o e d itio n s h a d b e e n p u b l is h e d th e Arte da Lingoa de J a p a m in 1608, a n d t h e Arte Breve, s h o r t e n e d a n d r e v i s e d in
1620. R o d r i g u e s h a d w o r k e d b e f o r e u n d e r V a l i g n a n o ’s i n s tr u c tio n s in th e first
trilin g u a l d i c t io n a r y L a t i n - P o r t u g u e s e - J a p a n e s e , e d ite d in 1594, a n d th e n in th e
m o n u m e n ta l

opus

c o n c lu d e d

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Vocabulảrio da Lingoa de Japam.
P r o b a b ly it w a s in t h a t s ta y in M a c a u , a d d i n g to h is m u ltip le ta s k s o f V ic e R e c t o r o f th e S a i n t - P a u l ’s C o l l e g e t h a t G a s p a r d e A m a r a l b e c a m e i n v o lv e d in th e
p h o n e ti c t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f V i e t n a m e s e , as h e w a s p r o n o u n c i n g o u t lo u d th e w o r d s h e
le a r n e d in th a t l a n g u a g e . T h e m e t h o d o f p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e
p i o n e e r e d b y M a t t e o R i c c i a n d i m p r o v e d , c o n c e r n i n g to n e s , b y L a z z a r o C a t ta n e o in
C h in a , w a s n o t s tr a n g e to h im .
*

In

15th M a r c h

1631

G aspar

de

A m aral,

as

M i s s i o n ’s F a t h e r

S u p e rio r,

a c c o m p a n ie d b y A n t o n i o d e F o n t e s a n d A n t o n i o C a r d im , d i s e m b a r k e d in th e c a p ita l
o f th e k i n g d o m t h e n r u le d b y th e T r i n h T r a n g . A l t h o u g h F o n t e s w a s a lr e a d y
p r o f ic ie n t in t h e V i e t n a m e s e l a n g u a g e as s p o k e n in t h e S o u th o f th e k i n g d o m

(N g u y ễn

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p r o v in c e s ) ,

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very

r e a s o n a b le

k n o w l e d g e , h e d e c i d e d t o p r o c e e d as i f th e y k n e w n o t h i n g o f t h e lo ca l l a n g u a g e ,
a s k in g for a n in te r p re te r , as b e fo r e . H e w a n t e d to b e t h o r o u g h l y a w a r e o f th e
d ia le c ta l v a r i a n ts o f t h e T u n K i m first, to a v o i d p r o b l e m s r e la te d to th e p r o lo n g e d
civ il w a r le d b y t h e T r i n h a n d th e N g u y ễ n . It w o u l d h a v e b e e n d is a s tro u s i f it
b e c a m e k n o w n th a t a n y o f th e p rie s ts h a d liv e d b e f o r e h a n d in C o c h in c h in a , in c u r r in g
th e risk o f b e in g a c c u s e d o f s p y in g fo r t h e e n e m y , e s p e c ia lly b e c a u s e it w a s k n o w n
f o r quite s o m e t im e th a t th e P o r tu g u e s e w e r e u s i n g th e p o rts in th e S o u th a n d
s u s p e c te d f u rth e rm o re th a t th e y w e r e p r o v i d i n g m ilita ry h e lp to th e N g u y ễ n lords. A t

533

VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TÉ LẦN TH Ứ T ư

th e tim e a p e rs is te n t r u m o u r in M a c a o e x p la in e d , at least partially , t h e e x p u lsio n o f
P e r o M a r q u e z a n d A l e x a n d r e R h o d e s p rec isely as a g e s tu r e o f r e ta lia tio n for the fact
th at s o m e P o r tu g u e s e so ld ie rs h a d b e e n sig h te d in th e ra n k s o f th e N g u y ễ n ' during a
b a ttle w ith th e T r in h th a t w a s n o t s u c ce ssfu l fo r th e T r in h arm y.
G a s p a r d e A m a r a l s ta r te d to f re q u e n t d a ily t h e c o u r t o f th e T r in h . D r e s s e d as a
local m a n d a r in , h e h a d a lr e a d y a d a p te d h i m s e l f c o m p l e te l y t o t h e s ty le o f the
c o u n tr y at th e m o m e n t th e s h ip a ư a n e e d b y J e s u its lifte d a n c h o r b a c k to M a c a o . H e
to o k d e ta ile d n o t e s o f e v e r y t h in g h e s a w a n d h e a r d , t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f his daily
v isits to th e p a la c e s . H is ta s k s as a m is s io n a r y w e r e o n ly p e r f o r m e d a fte r sunset,
s o m e t im e s t a k i n g h i m d e e p e r into th e n ig h t; by t h a t t im e h e m a s t e r e d e n o u g h the
l a n g u a g e to be a b le to h e a r c o n f e s s io n fro m th e local C h r is tia n s .
*

By

1634 A m a r a l h a d a lr e a d y c o m p l e te d h is first V i e tn a m e s e - P o r t u g u e s e

d ic tio n a r y w i t h a h a r m o n i z e d a n d p e rf e c te d s y s t e m o f p h o n e tic tra n s c rip tio n . A ll his
v is its to th e C o u r t h a d g i v e n to h im th e c h a n c e to a c q u ir e f u r t h e r k n o w l e d g e about
th e c o u n try . F r o m th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e k i n g d o m to th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f ju siice ,
fro m e tiq u e tte r u le s to th e w a y o f c o u n ti n g th e t im e ( h o w to n a m e th e y e a rs and
h o u r s ) , f ro m a n c e s t r a l c u s to m s a n d p r a c tic e s to r itu a ls a n d th e preparatior. o f
o i n tm e n ts , f r o m fo o d to d re s s , th e r e is e x tr e m e l y r ic h tro v e o f h i s t o r ic a l in fo rm a tio n
s t e m m i n g f r o m h i s a tt e n ti v e a n d c a re f u l o b s e r v a t io n th a t a l l o w us to h a v e a very
d e ta ile d p ic tu r e o f th e C o u r t o f th e T r in h a t th a t d is ta n t e p o c h . M u c h o f the
i n f o r m a t io n is a ls o r e c o r d e d in h is letters to his S u p e r io r s .

G a s p a r d e A m a r a l h a d liv e d in P o r tu g a l f o r a l m o s t th irty y e a r s a n d m a n y tim es
h e in v o k e d i m a g e s f r o m th e r e to e s ta b lis h c o m p a r i s o n s a n d a s s o c i a t i o n s w ith what
h e w a s w i t n e s s i n g . H e w r o t e a b o u t th e s im ila ritie s a n d th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e
a d m i n is t r a t iv e d i v is i o n o f b o th k i n g d o m s , o r o n t h e r e n d e r i n g o f ju s tic e , or o n
a n y th i n g th a t h e t h o u g h t w o r t h o f c o m p a r is o n . In fru its, fo r in s t a n c e , h e e sta blished
c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n a r o m a , taste , siz e a n d c o l o u r o f local fru its a n d th e ones o f his
m o t h e r c o u n tr y . I n th is r e m a r k a b l e w o r k o f c o m p i l a t i o n A m a r a l u s e d the g rap h ic
a c c e n t s th a t e x is t e d in th e P o r tu g u e s e l a n g u a g e th a t h e tu r n e d in to a code o f

1. A c c o r d i n g to I s a b e l A . T a v a r e s M ourao’s r e s e a r c h it’s n o t p o s s i b l e to find e v i d e n c e o f
P o r t u g u e s e s o l d i e r s b e i n g e n l i s t e d in t h e N g u y ễ n r a n k s , n e v e r t h e l e s s V i e t n a m e s e a n c e s to r s
b o u g h t c l o t h e s f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e , s t y l e d a s P o r t u g u e s e f a s h i o n , a n d o n e is t e m p t i d to
a d m i t th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h o s e g a r m e n t s h a v i n g b e e n w o r n b y lo c a l s o l d i e r s a s a w a r
s t r a t a g e m to s a p t h e c o u r a g e o f t h e enemy, t a c k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e p r e s t i g e a c q u i r e d t y t h e
P o r t u g u e s e in A s i a in t h e a r t s o f w a r .

534


P O R TU G U ES E LAN G U AG E AS M ATRIX OF THE W R ITTEN VIETN AM ESE.

d ia c r itic s ig n s , w r i ti n g d o w n th e w o r d s in a w a y th a t c o u ld b e r e a d by the
P o r tu g u e s e , a fte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g th a t c ode.
M a n y h a n d - w r i t te n c o p ie s w e r e m a d e at th e tim e , w h i c h is e v id e n c e o f the
i m p o r t a n c e o f th a t w o r k . O n e o f t h e s e c o p ie s w a s ta k e n b y A l e x a n d r e R h o d e s w h o
b r o u g h t it w i t h h im f ro m M a c a o to R o m e a n d p u b l is h e d it th e r e in 1651, w ith a
L a tin tra n s la tio n a d d e d , u n d e r t h e a u s p ic e s o f th e C o n g r e g a t i o n fo r th e P r o p a g a t i o n
o f t h e F a ith (Propaganda Fide). R h o d e s h i m s e l f w a r n e d th e r e a d e r s , in th e v e r y first
p a g e s , th a t h e h a d l im it e d to a d d L a tin a n d u s e d th e w o r k s o f G a s p a r d e A m a r a l a n d
A n t o n i o B a r b o s a . In fac t B a r b o s a h a d o n ly w r itte n d o w n u n d e r th e in s tr u c tio n s o f

A m a r a l a P o r t u g u e s e - A n n a m i t e ( V i e t n a m e s e ) d ic tio n a r y . W e c a n th e n state as a
m a t t e r o f fa c t th a t A l e x a n d r e R h o d e s w a s n o t th e a u th o r o f th e d ic tio n a r y p u b l is h e d
in R o m e th a t b e a rs h is n a m e in th e c o v e r fo r h e h a d n o d e e p k n o w l e d g e o f
P o r t u g u e s e la n g u a g e ; h e w a s p r a c tic a lly ig n o ra n t o f th e re a lity o f th e k i n g d o m o f
P o r tu g a l ; h e w a s n o t a n e x p e r t in lin g u istic s tu d ie s ; a n d h e w a s n o t p r o f i c ie n t in th e
“ Tunkinense” w a y to s p e a k th e V i e tn a m e s e l a n g u a g e . F u r t h e r m o r e h e r e v e a le d
s e r i o u s s h o r t c o m i n g s in t h e tr a n s la tio n to L a tin , c o m m i t t i n g m is t a k e s in in te r p re tin g
w h a t w a s w r i tt e n b y A m a r a l , in P o r tu g u e s e a n d “ Tunkineme ” , a n d m a n y tim e s
r e s i g n i n g h i m s e l f to u s e th e e x p r e s s io n “ th a t th e P o r tu g u e s e c a l l . . . ” to try to e x p la in
a g iv en w ord.
*

T h e s y s te m p e r f e c te d b y A m a r a l w a s u s e d to te a c h y o u n g V i e t n a m e s e s in c e at
least 1634. F a t h e r B e r n a r d i n o R é g i o w h o liv e d w ith th e F a t h e r S u p e r io r A m a r a l
s in c e

O cto b er

1631

u n til h is d e a th in M a y

1634, r e c e iv e d t h e ta s k to te a c h

c a ll ig r a p h y , r e a d i n g t h e n e w w r i tt e n s y s te m , as w e ll as t e c h n i q u e s o f d r a w in g , an d
e n g r a v i n g 1.
O n c e g r a s p e d th e t e c h n i q u e o f g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a ti o n o f t h e p h o n e m e s it
b e c a m e p o s s ib le to d i v u lg e th e n e w m e t h o d o f w r i ti n g V i e t n a m e s e t o a n e v e r la rg e r
c o m m u n i t y , n a m e l y a m o n g s t t h o s e h e lp i n g th e P rie s ts in th e ir m is s io n .
A m a r a l k n e w o n ly t o o w e l l h o w d iffic u lt it w a s fo r a la r g e n u m b e r o f

m i s s i o n a r i e s to le a rn s o m a n y l a n g u a g e s a n d so d if f e r e n t s c r ip tin g s y s te m s . U n d e r
his o r i e n t a t i o n A n t o n i o d e F o n t e s h a d s ta rte d to s tu d y C h i n e s e c h a ra c te r s b u t
p r o g r e s s w a s v e ry s lo w .

1. Bernardino Régio was born in Alexandria (Milan) probably in 1595. He died the 23rd May
1634, in Hạ Noi, and Father Gaspar de Amaral needed to announce to the Superiors this fact,
so h e had written the eulogy o f Regio’s life and everything concerning this death. See Ajuda
Library, Jesuitas na Asia 49-V-31 «Annua de 1634 do Reyno de Annam pa 0 Pe André
Palmejro Vizitador das Provincias de Japao e China», f. 308-309.

535


VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUÓC TÉ LẦN TH Ứ TƯ

T h e Je su its, o n e m i g h t r e c a ll, w e r e u n d e r c l o s e s u r v e i ll a n c e a n d c o u ld not
e n te r th e h o u s e s o f th e C h r i s t i a n s . T h e g a th e r i n g s a t th e p r i e s t s ’ d o o r s t e p s w e r e not
a llo w e d either. A ll th e s u c c e s s o f th e m is s i o n a r y w o r k d e p e n d e d o n th e h e lp from
s o m e n a tiv e s o f th e c o u n tr y , w h o h a d f r e e d o m to c ir c u la te a ro u n d . T o fa c ilita te the
c o m m u n ic a t io n a m o n g t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d th e i r a s s o c i a te s th e s p r e a d i n g o f the
n e w w r itte n fo rm o f t h e V i e t n a m e s e l a n g u a g e r e v e a l e d i t s e l f a f o r m id a b l e tool. T o
th e n e w l y a rr iv e d m i s s i o n a r i e s , P o r t u g u e s e - s p e a k e r s all, th e l e a r n in g o f V ie tn a m e s e
l a n g u a g e b e c a m e e a s i e r a n d q u i c k e r a n d t h e lo c a l p e o p le w o r k i n g w ith th e Priests
f o u n d n o t th a t d iff ic u lt to le a r n th e n e w sc rip t.
It s e e m s th a t th e first p r io r it y o f A m a r a l w a s to d i s s e m in a te th e n e w script
a m o n g s t th e V i e t n a m e s e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y , to w h o m

h e a ls o w o u l d have

d e s tin e d his first d ic tio n a r y . P r o b a b ly , o n e o f h is d r e a m s w a s to u n a b le s o m e OÍ his

y o u n g s tu d e n ts to e n g a g e in f u r t h e r le a r n in g , la te r in the C o l l e g e o f M a c a o . W ith
th e h e lp o f th e d i c t io n a r y t h e y w o u l d b e c o m e p r o f i c i e n t in P o r tu g u e s e lan g u a g e , an
a b s o lu te

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“ P a d r o a d o ” 1 o f P o r t u g a l ’s k i n g in th e E a s t. (It a p p e a r s r a th e r o b v i o u s that a
V i e t n a m e s e - t o - P o r t u g u e s e d i c t io n a r y is n o t th e id ea l tool to le a rn V i e tn a m e s e but
ra th e r a v e h ic le to le a rn P o r t u g u e s e ) .
A n e w lite ra tu re s ta r te d t o b e d i s s e m in a te d : s e r m o n s , h a g io g r a p h ie s (lives o f
S a in ts), p r a y e r s a n d lita n ie s . A s t i m e w e n t b y , all th e p r a y e r s p r in te d in C h inese
c h a ra c te r s at th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e M is s i o n , b e g a n to b e w r itte n in V ie tn a m e s e (in

L a tin a lp h a b e t), f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s p e c t i v e p h o n e t i c tra n s c rip tio n . T h e r e p o r ts o f thei
V i e tn a m e s e a s s is ta n ts , u p o n r e t u r n i n g f r o m th e i r m is s io n a r y trips, w e r e a ls o w r t t e n
u s in g th e s a m e s y s te m , s o m e t h i n g th a t s ta r te d w i t h A m a r a l a n d w e n t o n f o r m any
y e a r s to c o m e .

T h e m e t h o d o f t h e n e w s c r ip t d e v e l o p e d b y A m a r a l w h i c h t o o k P o rtu g u e s e as
its m a t r ix a llo w s still in o u r t im e s th e r e a d i n g o f P o r tu g u e s e b y a n y V i e t n a n e s e 2
a n d th e r e a d i n g o f V i e t n a m e s e ( o n c e th e d ia c r itic s ie n s a re u n d e r s t o o d ) b) th e
P o r tu g u e s e .

1. Concerning Padroado see the book o f Roland Jacques, De Castro Marini à fa'ifo:
Naissance et dẻveloppement dll padroado portugais d ’Orient des origines à 1659, Lisbon:
Caiouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1999.
2. Excluding a few recent changes in the sound o f certain phonemes. For example the sound of
an R, in which the Chinese have difficulties in pronunciation started to be read either as an R
or a z, depending on the ascent o f the Vietnamese. It is particularly evident in the case )f the
word Rau that already existed at the time o f Amaral to indicate vegetables and that today is
read either as Zau, or as Rau in the Hanoi region.

536


P O R T U G U E S E LA N G U A G E AS M ATR IX OF TH E W R ITTE N VIETN AM ESE.

T h e a d o p ti o n o f t h e s y s te m o f p h o n e ti c s c rip t, i m p o s e d la te r b y th e c o lo n ia l
p o w e r , n a tu r a lly c a u s e d s o m e p r o b l e m s , b u t it m u s t b e u n d e r l i n e d th a t u ntil th e n
o n l y th e e lites c o u ld r e a d th e l a n g u a g e - e it h e r in C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s ' o r in nôm. T h e
n e w m e t h o d a ll o w e d th e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f th e a n a l p h a b e t i s m e r a d ic a tio n , fre e d V ie t
N a m o f b e in g c u ltu r a lly i n f l u e n c e d b y o n ly o n e s o u r c e a n d , th e r e f o r e , p r o m o t e d th e
r e d u c t i o n o f tra d itio n a l g e o s t r a t e g i c d e p e n d e n c i e s . T h e p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r ip tio n m a d e

a l s o e a s ie r th e l e a r n in g o f E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s w i t h a c o n c o m i t a n t b r o a d e n i n g o f
h o r i z o n s . It a ls o c o n tr i b u te d to th e i m m e n s e t a s k o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n a n d s u s ta in a b le
d e v e l o p m e n t th a t V iệ t N a m e n g a g e d i t s e l f in. W it h th e r e m a r k a b l e c o n tr i b u ti o n o f
t h e s e 17 th c e n tu r y p io n e e r s , w e h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n i n g , t h e r o a d b e c a m e w id e o p e n
f o r th e Q u ố c n g ữ to p e r f o r m its r o le in th e n a ti o n a l f ig h t f o r h a p p in e s s ( f r e e d o m a n d
i n id e p e n d e n c e ).

1. According to Daniel Hémery in 1880 only one in every four adults could decipher several
hundreds o f Chinese characters. Then, remarked this a u t h o r , there were between 40.000 and
60.000 li t e r a t e s a n d a m o n g t h e m 20.000 h a d l i t e r a r y degrees. See D a n i e l H é m e r y , H o C h i
Minh de L'Indochine au Vietnam, France ( E v r e u x ) : Gallimard, 1995, p. 26.

537