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Cd, Pb, and Cu in water and sediments
and their bioaccumulation in
freshwater fish of some lakes in Hanoi,
Vietnam
a

b

Ha Thu Le & Huong Thi Thuy Ngo
a

Faculty of Biology, Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam National
University, Hanoi, Vietnam
b

Department of Geochemistry and Environment, Vietnam
Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources, Hanoi, Vietnam
Published online: 30 Jan 2014.

To cite this article: Ha Thu Le & Huong Thi Thuy Ngo (2013) Cd, Pb, and Cu in water and sediments

and their bioaccumulation in freshwater fish of some lakes in Hanoi, Vietnam, Toxicological &
Environmental Chemistry, 95:8, 1328-1337, DOI: 10.1080/02772248.2013.877462
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Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 2014
Vol. 95, No. 8, 1328–1337, />
Cd, Pb, and Cu in water and sediments and their bioaccumulation
in freshwater fish of some lakes in Hanoi, Vietnam
Ha Thu Lea and Huong Thi Thuy Ngob*
a

Faculty of Biology, Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam;
Department of Geochemistry and Environment, Vietnam Institute of Geosciences and Mineral
Resources, Hanoi, Vietnam

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b

(Received 15 June 2013; accepted 17 December 2013)
The seasonal variations of Cd, Pb, and Cu in the water, sediments, and freshwater fish
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Cirrhinus molitorella, and Oreochromis mossambicus)
of four lakes in Hanoi, Vietnam, were investigated. Samples for analysis were taken
four times from April 2010 to March 2011. The levels in water were lower than the
Vietnamese standards, except for Pb, but they were all much higher than the Canadian
standards for protection of aquatic life; in the sediments, they were higher than world
average levels. Bioaccumulation of the three metals in fish was site-dependent and
species-dependent, but correlations of their levels in fish to those in water and
sediments were weak. Levels of Pb in fish exceeded those of the UK and the WHO
standards, and the recommended values of Vietnam for human consumption. Overall,
the results show that the lakes are polluted with these metals, and consumption of high
quantities of fish from them may be problematic. The outcome of this research helps
to establish background data for future monitoring.
Keywords: metals; Cd; Pb; Cu; Hanoi lakes; sediments; water pollution; freshwater
fish

Introduction
Pollution of aquatic ecosystems by metals is relevant for public health because of the
potential bioaccumulation of some of them in aquatic organisms including fish used for
human consumption. Bioaccumulation of certain metals by aquatic animals may entail

toxic effects, even at levels as low as in the natural environment (Ngo, Gerstmann, and
Frank 2011a, 2011b, 2011c). The metals investigated here, i.e., Cd, Cu, and Pb, may be
incorporated into suspended particles which ultimately sink into the sediments. When
physicochemical conditions such as pH, salinity, or redox potential are favorable, they
may be remobilized back to the water column (Calmano, Hong, and F€orstner 1993) to
become available for organisms living in or near the benthic zone, e.g., mollusks, common carp, or mud carp (Cross, Duke, and Willes 1970), to interfere with synthesis and
activity of enzymes involved in fundamental biochemical and physiological processes
(Donkin, Ohlson, and Teaf 2000; Nordberg et al. 2007; Schmitt, Brumbaugh, and May
2007; Vinodhini and Narayanan 2008; Ngo, Gerstmann, and Frank 2011b). As fish are at
the top of aquatic food chains, they are good indicators of metal pollution (Rashed 2001).
Hanoi is known as “Lake City” throughout its history because of its large number of
lakes. Due to rapid economic development, the population of Hanoi has expanded to
approximately five million people; many industries have been established in and around
*Email:
Ó 2014 Taylor & Francis


Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry

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the city during the last decades. In consequence, the discharge of untreated effluents has
risen steadily, rendering the lakes ecologically unstable and changing their ecosystems.
This has led to massive losses of naturally inhabiting fish in Truc Bach, Thanh Nhan, and
Thien Quang Lakes, almost every year between 2006 and 2013. Most studies on trace
metals in Hanoi lakes have been performed on the West Lake, the largest natural one in
Hanoi (Pham, Pulkownik, and Buckney 2007; Kikuchi, Hai, and Tanaka 2010).
The aim of this study is to investigate the spatial and temporal variations of Cd, Pb, and

Cu in the water and sediments of Truc Bach, Thien Quang, Thanh Nhan, and Yen So
Lakes, and to monitor their bioaccumulation in the freshwater fish species, silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), mud carp (Cirrhinus molitorella), and tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus). The data are compared with safety limits established by the World Health
Organization (WHO 1989), the UK permissible limits (CEFAS 2000), and the Vietnamese
safety standard (VMOH 2007) in order to raise awareness on food safety issues.

Materials and methods
Study sites and species
Water and sediment samples were taken and fish were caught from the four lakes four
times between April 2010 and March 2011. A map of the lakes and sampling sites is presented in Figure 1.
Truc Bach Lake has a surface area of about 24 ha, with a median depth of 5.8 m in the
dry season and 6.2 m in the rainy season. Thien Quang Lake has a surface area of 5.5 ha,
with a depth of about 3–6 m. Thanh Nhan Lake has approximately 8.4 ha surface area,
with a depth of 2.5–4 m. Yen So Lake is the first of five regulatory lakes of the same name
belonging to the drainage system of Hanoi because most of the city’s wastewater runs
through them; samples were taken from the first one which has a surface area of 29.8 ha.
The three fish species investigated in this study were the following: (1) silver carp (H.
molitrix, Valenciennes 1844), a cyprinid freshwater fish native to North and Northeast
Asia, a herbivorous filter feeder without stomach and feeding continuously on phytoplankton; (2) mud carp (C. molitorella, Valenciennes 1844), a ray-finned fish mainly found in
southern China and Vietnam, dwelling on the bottom of slow-flowing rivers and lakes,
omnivorous, consuming mainly organic detritus, filamentous algae, pieces of aquatic
weeds, and insects; (3) and tilapia (O. mossambicus, Peters 1852), native to southern
Africa, but occurring now in many freshwater and brackish water habitats of tropical and
subtropical countries, an opportunistic omnivore, feeding mainly on algae and phytoplankton, but taking also aquatic plants, zooplankton, small invertebrates, and fish larvae. All
three are important as part of the diet of lakeshore residents and their customers.

Labware and sampling procedure
All glassware and plastic equipments used for containing samples and analytical purposes
were soaked for 24 h in 1:1 conc. HNO3 and rinsed thoroughly with bidistilled water

before use.
Water samples were collected in April 2010, July 2010, November 2010, and in the
beginning of March 2011. After being taken into a 0.5-L acid-washed polyethylene bottle,
the water sample was immediately acidified with 2 mL of conc. HNO3 per liter of water,
transported on ice to the laboratory, and stored in a refrigerator till analysis was done
within 1 week. Sediment samples (0–15 cm in depth) were collected at the same time


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1330

H.T. Le and H.T.T. Ngo

Figure 1. A map showing the location of the investigated Lakes in Hanoi (above), and the locations of sampling sites in Truc Bach (ST1–ST3), Thien Quang (SQ1–SQ3), Thanh Nhan (SN1–
SN3), and Yen So Lakes (SY1–SY2) (below).

using a Petersen grab (Cole-Parmer, Hanoi, Vietnam). At each sampling station, three
grabs from three points located approximately 25 m apart in a triangle and 30 m from the
shore, were taken and pooled (about 2 kg), stored in a food-grade polyethylene bag, and
transferred to the laboratory. At the same time and sampling stations, silver carp, mud
carp, and tilapia, about 300–500 g each, were caught by fishermen. They were transported
alive to the laboratory in labeled 10-L transparent polyethylene bags.

Sample preparation and metal analysis
An aliquot of 50 mL of each water sample was taken into a 100-mL Erlenmeyer flask,
5 mL of suprapur HNO3 (60% v/v) were added, and the mixture was heated on a hot plate


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1331

to 95  C for 4 h. Upon cooling to room temperature, the sample was adjusted to 50 mL
with bidistilled water in a volumetric flask; finally, the sample was filtered through a
syringe filter of 0.45 mm pore size (Whatman, Singapore).
Upon arrival at the laboratory, the fish were immediately excised and muscle tissues
were prepared for metal analysis by wet digestion (Perkin-Elmer Corporation 1996a).
Briefly, the samples, 0.1–0.2 g wet weight each, were cut into small pieces and digested
in 5 mL aqua regia in 20-mL borosilicate glass tubes for 1 h at 60  C, followed by 3 h at
120  C. The samples were cooled to room temperature and 500 mL of conc. H2O2 were
added, followed by heating to 120  C in a hot block until clear solutions were obtained,
taking about 1 h. The digestates were diluted to 20 mL each with bidistilled water and
filtered through 0.45-mm cellulose syringe filters.
Sediment samples were dried in an oven at 70  C for 3 days, ground with mortar and
pestle, sieved through a 50-mm sieve, and wet-digested according to Perkin-Elmer Corporation (1996b), with the following modifications. An aliquot of 0.5 g ground sediment was
digested in 10 mL aqua regia as described above, and 1 mL of conc. H2O2 was added. The
digestion was complete when the digestates were clear, taking about 5 h. The digestates
were diluted to 20 mL each with bidistilled water.
The concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Cu were determined by inductively coupled plasma
Ò
mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, ELAN 9000; Perkin-Elmer SCIEX, Waltham, MA, USA);
detection limits for Cd, Pb, and Cu were 2.8 ng LÀ1, 7.7 ng LÀ1, and 45 ng LÀ1, respectively. The analytical method was validated with certified standard reference materials
from oyster and fish liver (Graham B. Jackson Pty Ltd, Dandenong, Victoria,
Australia). Recoveries were within the certification range, i.e., 93% Æ 12 for Cd, 90% Æ
7 for Pb, and 92% Æ 4 for Cu. Procedural blanks consisting of aqua regia were below
detection limits. The results were reported in mg LÀ1 for water, mg kgÀ1 for sediment dry
weight, and mg kgÀ1 for fish wet weight. The working standards of the metals for ICPMS were prepared from stock solutions of their nitrate salts in HNO3 (0.5 mol LÀ1) by

dilution with appropriate volumes of 2% HNO3. All reagents used were of analytical
grade (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany).
Data analysis
The data were presented as means Æ SD (standard deviation). Two-way analysis of variance was used to determine whether differences in metal concentrations among lakes and
sampling times, and among lakes and species were significant. When significant difference was found, the Student–Newman–Keuls test was applied (GraphPad Software, San
Diego, CA).
Results and discussion
In water, Cu had the highest concentration, followed by Pb and Cd (Table 1). Cu levels
varied between sampling times (Yen So Lake) and lakes (p < 0.05), i.e., Thien Quang
Lake (40 Æ 6 mg LÀ1) showing the lowest concentration at all times (p < 0.05). A possible explanation for this might be that this lake receives only runoff and domestic wastewater from households and nearby restaurants, while the others receive wastewater from
a variety of sources including a paper mill, tanneries, breweries, and hospitals. In Yen So
Lake, Cu was higher in winter (November and March) than in the rainy season (July) and
spring (April) (p < 0.01). There is almost no rain during winter; hence metals are more
concentrated in urban wastewater directed to the lake. Highest levels of Cd were observed


Thien Quang
0.20 (0.01) a
0.17 (0.05) a
0.18 (0.06) a
0.22 (0.08) a
0.17 (0.08) a
29.0 (1.2) a
32.4 (4.2) a
31.6 (3.3) a
31.1 (3.2) a
31.0 (3.0)a
40.2 (7.1) a
38.6 (6.5) a
37.4 (6.9) a

42.0 (6.6) a
39.6 (6.1)a

Truc Bach
0.12 (0.05) a
0.16 (0.04) a
0.15 (0.05) a
0.15 (0.06) a
0.14 (0.06) a
24.3 (3.4) a
27.0 (3.4) a
40.2 (7.7a
36.3 (6.7) a
32.0 (8.1) a
50.5 (3.1) b
61.8 (8.2) b
63.5 (7.9) b
53.4 (8.6) b
57.3 (8.4) b

April 2010
July 2010

November 2010
March 2011

April 2010

July 2010
November 2010

March 2011

April 2010

July 2010
November 2010
March 2011

Dates

58.1 (8.3) b
52.9 (6.2) b
60.7 (6.6) b
55.0 (8.2) b

48.3 (9.3) b

26.6 (4.23) a
27.7 (4.8) a
29.0 (4.1) a
28.9 (4.3) a

32.1 (4.2) a

0.15 (0.06) a
0.14 (0.04) a
0.13 (0.06) a

0.13 (0.04) a
0.16 (0.04) a

Thanh Nhan

44.5 (9.3) bÃ
71.9 (8.5)bÃÃ
76.8 (8.3)b Ã
60.3 (14.3) b

48.1 (3.9) b

23.5 (4.0) a
41.3 (7.9) a
34.2 (10.1) a
31.3 (9.4)a

26.1 (5.8) a

0.57 (0.19) b
0.85 (0.17) b
0.68 (0.19) b

0.62 (0.20) b
0.69 (0.20) b

Yen So

Canadian guideline

1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and7.0 mg LÀ1 at
0–60, 60–120, 120–180,

and >180 mg LÀ1 CaCO3

2.0, 3.0, and4.0 mg LÀ1 at
0–120, 120–180, and >180
mg LÀ1 CaCO3

0.017 mg LÀ1

i

Note: Asterisks denote statistically significant differences from first sampling (April 2010) values (ÃÃp < 0.01). Different superscript letters (a, b) indicate that values of each metal (at
different sampling times, and average value) in different lakes are significantly different (p < 0.05; ANOVA followed by Student–Newman–Keuls test). iCanadian Water Quality
Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life (CCME 2007). Bold values indicate the average in order to easily differentiate with other numbers, and to compare with the Canadian
criteria (which were also bold).

Average

Cu

Average

Pb

Average

Cd

Metals

Locations

Table 1. Concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Cu in the water of four Hanoi lakes (mg LÀ1) over 1 year. Mean values (standard deviations in parentheses) for three to
five samples

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in Yen So Lake at all seasons (p < 0.01). The lake receives water from heavily polluted
rivers, i.e., Kim Nguu, Set, Lu, and especially To Lich River burdened with wastewater
from rubber, tobacco, and battery factories.
Metal levels in sediments were also high; they did not differ between seasons (p >
0.05) but between lakes (p < 0.05; Table 2). Cd was the lowest; Pb and Cu were in about
the same range. Of the four lakes, levels of the three metals were highest in sediments of
Truc Bach Lake and lowest in Yen So and Thanh Nhan Lakes. Truc Bach Lake is the oldest, with high population density and many industrial activities around it, so metals have
accumulated in its sediments over longer time. Presently, the metal levels in sediments of
Thien Quang, Thanh Nhan and Yen So Lakes were similar to those of West Lake sediments (Kikuchi, Hai, and Tanaka 2010), the largest natural lake in Hanoi, next to Truc
Bach Lake; but the sediment levels in the Truc Bach Lake were higher than those reported
for West Lake sediment in 2007 (Pham, Pulkownik, and Buckney 2007) and in 2010
(Kikuchi, Hai, and Tanaka 2010). Truc Bach Lake received wastewater from several
industries but not the West Lake.
Overall, metal pollution in water and sediments is lower than reported for lakes in

Africa, e.g., Lake Victoria, Kenya (water: Cd 10–20 mg LÀ1 and Pb 150–440 mg LÀ1; sediment: Cd 0.4–2.8 mg kgÀ1 and Pb 17–77 mg kgÀ1 dry weight [d.w.]) (Tole and Shitsama
2003), Lake Manzala, Egypt (water: Cd 20 mg LÀ1, Cu 55 mg LÀ1) (Bahnasawy, Khidr,
and Dheina 2011). In western countries, lakes showed generally lower metal levels in water
and sediments, e.g., Cd and Pb in the water of Altenw€orth Lake, Austria, ranged from 0.05
to 0.06 mg LÀ1 and from 0.13 to 0.21 mg LÀ1, in sediments from 0.06 to 0.8 mg kgÀ1 and
from 2.6 to 119 mg kgÀ1 d.w. (Colley 1989). Generally, Pb levels in water of the four
Table 2. Concentrations of metals in sediments of four Hanoi lakes (mg kgÀ1 dry weight) at different sampling times. Mean values (standard deviations in parentheses) for three to five samples.
Locations
Metals
Cd

Dates

Average

Thanh Nhan

Yen So

1.54 (0.50) c
1.31 (0.35) c

0.50 (0.14) a
0.33 (0.10) a

1.16 (0.16) b
0.71 (0.24) b

0.61 (0.24) a
0.46 (0.09) a

November 2010
March 2011

1.62 (0.41) c
1.38 (0.37) c
1.46 (0.37) c

0.48 (0.11) a
0.46 (0.14) a
0.44 (0.12) a

0.91 (0.32) b
0.82 (0.32) b
0.90 (0.28) b

0.67 (0.10) a
0.72 (0.16) a
0.62 (0.17)a

World
average
0.17

April 2010
July 2010
November 2010
March 2011

142.5 (44.1) b

154.5 (25.2) b
205.4 (18.0) b
172.2 (32.3) b
168.6 (36.5) b

50.1 (9.0) a
44.5 (10.7) a
54.6 (10.5) a
51.4 (11.1) a
50.1 (9.2) a

64.7 (19.1) a
52.2 (16.1) a
61.5 (14.3) a
47.7 (10.7) a
56.5 (14.3) a

36.9 (8.19) a
35.1 (6.6) a
39.3 (5.1) a
41.5 (5.2) a
38.2 (6.0)a

19

April 2010
July 2010
November 2010
March 2011

120.2 (10.5) c
113.8 (6.2) c
116.9 (19.0) c
104.6 (16.1) c
113.9 (13.3) c

48.7 (3.5) a
44.5 (6.7) a
41.6 (7.9) a
46.8 (7.8) a
45.4 (6.1) a

84.1 (22.4) b
74.9 (23.5) b
72.1 (18.4) b
82.6 (20.7) b
78.4 (19.0) b

53.2 (12.1) a
42.6 (12.7) a
43.8 (5.8) a
57.8 (12.9) a
49.3 (11.4)a

33

Average
Cu

Thien Quang

April 2010
July 2010

Average
Pb

Truc Bach

ii

Note: Different superscript letters (a–c) indicate that values of each metal (at different sampling times, and average value) in different lakes, are significantly different (p < 0.05; ANOVA followed by Student–Newman–Keuls
test). iiWorld Average for Sediment (Bowen 1979). Bold values differentiate the average values with others.


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H.T. Le and H.T.T. Ngo

Hanoi lakes exceeded the Vietnamese standard for conservation of aquatic animals and
plants (Pb 20 mg LÀ1) but not Cd and Cu (Cd 5 mg LÀ1, Cu 200 mg LÀ1). Nevertheless,
all three metals were much higher than the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life (CCME 2007), i.e., up to 50 times for Cd, up to 15 times for Pb,
and up to 50 times for Cu (Table 1). The sediment levels in all the four Hanoi lakes were
higher than world average (Bowen 1979), i.e., up to eight times for Cd, up to nine times
for Pb, and up to four times for Cu (Table 2).
The metal concentrations in fish from the four lakes are summarized in Figure 2, the
differences for the three species likely being due to their different feeding habits, ages,
and sizes (Linde et al. 1998; Canli and Atli 2003). Cu had the highest concentrations

(1.2–5.5 mg kgÀ1 wet weight [w.w.]), while Cd had the lowest (0.009–0.036 mg kgÀ1 w.
w.; Figure 2). Seasonal variations were only found for tilapia (Figure 2); specifically, in
Yen So Lake, Cd level in November was higher than in other seasons, in Thanh Nhan
Lake, Pb level in July was higher compared to that of other sampling times (p < 0.05;
Figure 2), although no such seasonal changes were observed in water and sediments (p >
0.05, Tables 1 and 2). Other factors such as solute metal speciation, influence of other cations, pH, and redox potential may contribute to their bioavailability and bioaccumulation
(Luoma 1983). For silver carp and mud carp, the Cd levels tend to be higher in July
(Thanh Nhan Lake) and in November (Yen So Lake) in comparison to other seasons.

Figure 2. Concentrations (mg kgÀ1 w.w.) of (a) Cd; (b) Pb; and (c) Cu in fish (wet weight basis) of
the four lakes at different sampling times. Note: Asterisks denote statistically significant differences
among sampling times in comparison to the lowest value (Ãp < 0.05). Different superscript letters
(a, b) indicate that values of the same species from different lakes within the sampling time interval
are significantly different (p < 0.05; ANOVA followed by Student–Newman–Keuls test).


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When comparing metal levels among species from the same lake, mud carp from Yen
So Lake had higher levels of Cd and Pb than the other two species, while in Thien Quang
Lake it showed lower Pb concentrations (p < 0.05); no differences were found for Cu in
all lakes (p > 0.05; data not shown). However, the mean metal concentrations in fish
from all lakes (Table 3) were not significantly different between species (p > 0.05).
In most cases, metal levels in the same species differed between lakes (p < 0.05;
Figure 2). Cd was found to be the lowest in all three fish species from Truc Bach Lake (p
< 0.05; Figure 2(a)), the highest in mud carp from Yen So Lake, where Cd levels in the

water were also the highest (Figure 2(a); Table 1). Pb concentrations in fish were about 30–
70 times higher than Cd, especially in mud carp from Yen So Lake (ca. 2 mg kgÀ1 w.w.),
while silver carp exhibited low Pb levels all year round (p < 0.05; Figure 2(b)). The high
Pb levels found in the mud carp from Yen So Lake, although Pb concentrations in sediments in this lake were lower than in other lakes, might be explained that Pb uptake rates
were increasing in the presence of high Cd level in this lake (Komjarova and Blust 2009).
Mud carp from Thien Quang Lake had lower levels of Pb and Cu than those from other
lakes (p < 0.05; Figure 2(b), (c)). Overall, metal concentrations in the same species vary
among lakes, depending on its levels in water and sediments. Other environmental and
physicochemical factors are known to be relevant (Pagenkopf 1983).
Some correlations of metal levels in water and sediments to those in fish were
found (data not shown) such as between Cd in water and in silver carp (rs ¼ 0.63) and
tilapia (rs ¼ 0.71) of Truc Bach Lake, or Pb in water and its levels in silver carp (rs ¼
0.80) and tilapia (rs ¼ 0.60) from Thanh Nhan and Thien Quang Lakes. For Cu, a positive
correlation was found between water and silver carp from Yen So Lake (rs ¼ 0.71; p <
0.05); the two species tilapia and silver carp often filter large volumes of water to collect
food, and therefore, may absorb the metals mainly from water and contaminated phytoplankton. Correlations were also found for mud carp and metals in sediments (Pb: Truc
Bach, rs ¼ 0.77, and Yen So Lake, rs ¼ 0.72; Cu: Truc Bach Lake, rs ¼ 0.56).
Mean levels of the metals in fish (Table 3) differ from previously published data
(Pham, Pulkownik, and Buckney 2007; Puttaiah and Kiran 2008; Puttaiah and Kiran

Table 3. Cd, Pb, and Cu in fish muscle of the present study and their maximum acceptable limits
(mg kgÀ1 w.w.). Mean values of fish from all lakes and standard deviations are in parentheses.
Concentration (present study)
Metal

iii

Silver carp

Mud carp

Tilapia

Cd

0.007–0.052
(0.020 Æ 0.007)

0.008–0.043
(0.021 Æ 0.006)

0.005–0.042
(0.017 Æ 0.005)

<0.2 (CEFAS 2000)
0.05 (46/2007/QĐ-BYT)
1.00 (WHO 1989)

Pb

0.34–2.0
(1.1 Æ 0.29)

0.36–2.2
(1.4 Æ 0.26)

0.60–2.1
(1.3 Æ 0.38)

0.2–0.3 (CEFAS 2000)

0.2 (46/2007/QĐ-BYT)
2.00 (WHO 1989)

Cu

1.1–6.1
(2.9 Æ 0.78)

0.8–4.2
(2.6 Æ 0.54)

1.2–4.3
(2.3 Æ 0.59)

0.6–1.0 (CEFAS 2000)
30 (46/2007/QĐ-BYT)
30 (WHO 1989)

Maximum permissible limits

Note: iiiMaximum permissible limits for some metals in fish muscle employed in UK (CEFAS 2000), the Vietnamese maximum level of biological–chemical residue in food (46/2007/QĐ-BYT), and the WHO recommended maximum level allowed in food (WHO 1989). Numbers appearing in bold mean that these metals
exceed the maximum acceptable limits for consumption.


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€ urk et al. 2009). In compari2008; Yilmaz 2009) or tend to be similar (Yilmaz 2009; Ozt€
son to national (VMOH 2007) and international safety standards for food (WHO 1989;
CEFAS 2000), Cd and Cu levels in fish from this study are low, Pb up to 10 times higher
(Table 3). Overall, most of the fish caught from Hanoi lakes are not really safe for consumption due to the high Pb concentrations.

Conclusions
The present results are significant in at least two major respects. (1) Caution should be
taken when considering the consumption of fish caught from these four lakes due to their
high levels of Pb. (2) Measures to prevent discharges of untreated waste waters should be
implemented, i.e., treatment of wastewater at the sources of pollution before being discharged, and/or using biological methods, e.g., phytoremediation, microbial products,
etc. to treat the lake water, in order to improve the water quality of the lakes.

Acknowledgements
This research is funded by Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Technology Development
under grant number 106.14.148.09. We are particularly grateful to Nguyen Thanh Nam, Truong
Ngoc Kiem, Tran Thi Phuong, Nguyen Thuy Duong, Nguyen Nhu Trang, and Duong Thi Lim for
their contributions.

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