DSpace at VNU: Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam

Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

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Ecosystem Services
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoser

Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems
in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam
Hideyuki Mohri a,n, Shruti Lahoti a, Osamu Saito a, Anparasan Mahalingam a,
Nimal Gunatilleke b, Irham c, Van Thang Hoang d, Gamini Hitinayake e,
Kazuhiko Takeuchi a,f, Srikantha Herath a
a

Institute for Sustainability and Peace, United Nations University, 5-53-70 Jingumae, Shibuya, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan
Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
c
Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
d
Centre for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Vietnam National University, Vietnam
e
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
f
Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, University of Tokyo, Japan
b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:

Received 5 December 2012
Received in revised form
9 July 2013
Accepted 15 July 2013
Available online 22 August 2013

Numerous studies have been conducted on homegarden systems by researchers from different
disciplines and countries, but most of them focus on ecological structure or specific ecosystem services
in a selected study area. Few studies take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by
homegardens, especially on a regional scale. This paper shows how these homegardens are ecologically,
socially, and economically diversified and how beneficial they are to human well-being as ecosystem
services. It also investigates the impacts of drivers on homegarden systems in rural areas in three
countries. These studies involved comprehensive literature reviews and field survey along with a
framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Four types of ecosystem services—provision,
regulation, cultural, and support—were assessed and compared. We found that traditional homegardens
maintain high ecosystem diversity especially in rural areas; however, recent socio-economic changes are
converting subsistence-oriented homegardens into commercial ones. Future challenges for further
research include how to enhance the resilience of homegarden systems against socioeconomic and
global climate changes by integrating traditional homegarden systems, modern technology, and the
global economy.
& 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Homegarden
Ecosystem assessment
Ecosystem services
Agrodiversity
Biodiversity

Contents

1.
2.

3.

n

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methodology and materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Scale, structure, and diversity of homegarden systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2.
Structure of homegarden systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.
Vertical structure of homegarden systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4.
Diversity in homegarden systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Ecosystem services provided from homegarden systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1.
Provisioning services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2.
Regulating services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 3 5467 1212; fax: +81 3 5406 7347.
E-mail address: (H. Mohri).

2212-0416/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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3.2.3.
Cultural services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4.
Supporting services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.

Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Drivers of change in homegarden systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Homegarden studies and global initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1. Introduction
A homegarden is a garden surrounding a residence that
provides various goods and services to members of the household.
A homegarden is usually a small-scale supplementary food production system designed for local inhabitants, but sometimes it
mimics natural, multilayered ecosystems (Hoogerbrugge and
Fresco, 1993). Soemarwoto and Christanty (1985) define a homegarden as a land use system with a structure resembling a forest
and one that combines the natural architecture of a forest with
species fulfilling the social, economic, and cultural needs of people.
A homegarden is often considered part of an agro-socio-ecological
system that comprises domesticated plants and/or animals, as well

as people (Soemarwoto and Conway, 1992). By producing a variety
of fruits, vegetables, and non-timber forest products, homegardens
contribute to a family′s diet and may even provide additional
income.
The majority of homegardens are distributed in East and West
Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, and Mesoamerica,
which suggests that homegardens are predominantly a tropical
phenomenon (Kumar and Nair, 2006). Tropical homegardens are
considered one of the oldest forms of managed land use activity
next to shifting cultivation (Kumar and Nair, 2004). Various studies
have been conducted on these homegarden systems, but most of
them focus on physical structure, function, and ecological structure or a specific ecosystem service in a particular study area (e.g.,
Abdoellah et al., 2006; Karyono, 1981; Kehlenbeck et al., 2007;
Phong et al., 2006; Phong et al., 2010; Soemarwoto and Conway,
1992; Ueda, 1996; Wiersum, 1977). Methodological problems
associated with each homegarden′s uniqueness have hindered
research, despite the structural and functional similarities
between various homegardens (Kumar and Nair, 2004). A challenge in homegarden research is the use of commonly accepted
research frameworks and procedures (Kumar and Nair, 2004).
Agroforestry and traditional production systems that include
homegardens are recently reevaluated as effective measures for
adapting to climate and ecosystem changes (Rao et al., 2007;
Takeuchi, 2010). However, several studies present empirical evidence demonstrating how a homegarden system can contribute to
the enhancement of adaptive capacity.
The objectives of this research are as follows:
(a) To investigate the scale, structure, and diversity in home(b) garden systems of Southeast Asia countries.

To assess the biodiversity and ecosystem services provided by
homegarden systems.
(c) To identify recent changes and drivers of these changes, including climate change, on homegarden systems in rural Asia.

2. Methodology and materials
2.1. Methodology
We have used the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
framework to evaluate the interaction among various services
offered by homegarden systems and current drivers of change to
address the recent findings on ecosystem services and environmental benefits provided by the homegarden system. Although
the MA (2003, 2005) states that homegardens are intensively
managed and modified by humans to avail ecosystem services, it is
an important source of the maintenance of local biodiversity.
The MA framework focuses mainly on linkages and dynamic
interactions between ecosystem services and human well-being
(MA, 2005). In addition to the dynamic process of evolution in
homegardens, sociocultural and economic factors alter the human
condition, while various natural factors influence ecosystems.
On the basis of the MA framework, a comprehensive literature
review was conducted. As listed in the references, a total of 104
books, peer-reviewed journal articles, and conference papers were
examined. Distribution of publications is diverse in terms of
publication year and theme. Almost equal numbers of literature
for three countries’ homegarden studies are referenced to identify
components, spatial layout, temporal/spatial scales, diversity, and
functions of each system by country. In addition to the literature
review, field observation and professional workshops were conducted in each country in 2011 and 2012, as shown in Table 1.

2.2. Study area
The homegarden is a traditional land use system that has
evolved from prehistoric times (e.g., hunters and gatherers),
through ancient civilizations to the modern era. Hutterer (1984)
reported that the homegardens of Java originated in the 7th

millennium BC. The historical records suggest that they were
attached to temples, palaces, elite residences, and the homes of

Table 1
Professional workshops in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam.
Country

Indonesia

Sri Lanka

Vietnam

Workshop date
Workshop venue
Number of local experts

6–8 January 2012
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
16

17–19 September 2011
Peradeniya University, Kandy, Sri Lanka
13

30 June–1 July 2011
Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam
10

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H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

common people. The homegarden system originated in Central
Java and parts of East Java, spreading to West Java in the mid-18th
century (Terra, 1954). Early references to a garden in ancient
Sri Lankan literature that resembled modern homegardens can
be found in the ancient epic Ramayana (Puri and Nair, 2004;
Kumar and Nair, 2004). This garden type has evolved into a
multistoried vegetation plot established by rural families around
their homes, using an ingeniously selected mixture of multiple-use
species of both indigenous and exotic origin with complementary
ecological characteristics (Gunatilleke et al., 1993). In the Kandyan
region, rural and semi-rural tree gardens were also referred to as
forest gardens owing their social functions and links to local
natural forests (McConnell, 2003; Perera and Rajapakse, 1991;
Jacob and Alles, 1987). The VAC system which stands for Vuon-AoChuong in Vietnamese, which translates to Garden-Pond-Livestock
pen, originated in the Red River delta and midlands of northern
Vietnam and utilizes land for carrying out various agriaquacultural activities in domestic dwellings (Trinh et al., 2003).
Implementation of the Doi Moi policy in 1986 promoted the VAC
system with an aim to increase and stabilize the nutritional
standard of poor rural people (Luu, 2001). Consequently, integrated farming has spread extensively across Vietnam especially
irrigated lowlands, rainfed uplands, and semi-urban areas, and
almost 44% of all households now have such a system (Luu, 2001;
Nguyen, 1997; Phong et al., 2003; Phong et al., 2010).
There are many types of homegarden systems worldwide. This
paper focuses on three countries in Asia—Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and
Vietnam—each of which has different characteristics depending on
the socioeconomic and geographic conditions of their land use

forms. However, other countries such as India or Bangladesh have
very similar homegarden systems (Bardhan et al., 2012; Kabir and
Webb, 2008; Kumar and Nair, 2004; Nair and Kumar, 2006; Nair
and Sreedharan, 1986). As described below, this study basically
focuses on one particular kind of homegarden in each country,
such as the Pekarangan, Kandyan, and VAC system.
Indonesia is the world′s largest island nation and has diverse
land use patterns and various bioproduction systems. The development of oil palm plantations has been a primary driving force of
changes in Indonesia′s rural landscape. Various homegarden
systems exist in different areas (Kaya et al., 2002; Kehlenbeck and
Maass, 2004; Michon and Mary, 1994). In this study, we focus on a
typical traditional homegarden system in Java, known as the Pekarangan. This is generally managed by individuals who grow various
products, including timber, vegetables, and fruits (Wiersum, 2006).
Sri Lanka has the highest percentage of rural population among
the Asian nations, which reached 85% in 2010 (World Bank, 2011).
Kandyan homegardens play an important role both as a link to
agricultural and natural landscapes and as a source of income in
the country′s midlands (Pushpakumara et al., 2010).
Vietnam is the world′s second largest rice-exporting country
and has shown rapid economic growth as a socialist country with
relatively stable political conditions and flexible economic policies.
Agricultural production in Vietnam is expected to expand, but
such a trend may cause significant changes in rural land use and
traditional bioproduction systems, including the VAC system.
Moreover, it is known as a traditional integrated agriculture–
aquaculture (IAA) system in Vietnam. This integrated farming
system has spread across the entire country.
In addition, this study initiated a new research project to
investigate a strategy for enhancing resilience to climate and
ecosystem changes utilizing traditional bioproduction systems in

rural Asia. The project was supported by the Ministry of the
Environment, Japan from 2011 to 2013, and selected Indonesia,
Sri Lanka, and Vietnam as case studies. We know that homegarden
systems also exist in areas other than Asia, but as a pilot
comparative study on homegarden systems, it was reasonable to

start with these three Asian countries. Table 2 lists their biophysical and socioeconomic features.

3. Results
3.1. Scale, structure, and diversity of homegarden systems
This section summarizes the spatial scale, temporal scale,
structure, and layout of homegarden systems. Both the scale and
structure of homegardens vary according to the physical, social,
and ecological attributes of the area.
3.1.1. Scale
Spatial scale. In terms of land area, the spatial scale under
homegardens varies depending upon the climate, soil type, topography, rainfall, economic activity, and culture. Twenty percent of
the total area in West Java is occupied by homegardens, while
about 70% of households in the Kandy area have homegardens.
Homegardens cover 20% of the total land area in Java overall
(Wiersum, 1980; Terra, 1954), while they occupy 30–40% of the
total cultivated area in Sri Lanka (Verheij, 1982; Ensing et al., 1985).
The area of individual homegardens varies from a few square
meters to hectares. However, in general, small land management
units commonly cover an average land area of 0.6 and 0.4 ha in
Java and Kandy, respectively. The total area under gardens, average
size, and range of area and pond areas for selected homegardens
are shown in Table 3. It is difficult to define a general scale of
integrated homegardens in Vietnam because the VAC system has
spread irregularly across the country and land has been allocated

directly by the government. The Mekong region has larger homegardens, averaging 0.75 ha, than the northern part of Vietnam,
which averages 0.14 ha. At 0.15 ha, pond sizes are the largest in
Mekong delta and are approximately 0.02 m2 in the north (Trinh
et al., 2003). In the northern Vietnam uplands, the garden area
ranges from 0.01 to 1.5 ha and the fishpond area ranges from 0.001
to 0.015 ha, in comparison with the lowlands where they range
from 0.002 to 0.003 ha and fishpond area is around 0.004 ha
(Luu, 2001).
Temporal scale. This refers to the time and labor spent in
managing homegardens as a subsidiary activity along with the
primary activity of farming. In general, homegardens require
minimal labor, which is mostly provided by household members
with flexible schedules. Labor and time spent on homegardens
change regionally according to the area of homegarden, intensity of
farming, number of family members, and the household′s primary
occupation (Torquebiau, 1992). According to Stoler (1978), a maximum of 8% of total working time is spent on homegardens, which
might reach up to two persons per day in peak seasons (Ninez,
1986). In Java, the labor requirement is comparable mainly in
homegardens, rice fields, and kebun talun (Christanty et al., 1986).
In Kandy, apart from household members, labor is hired for skilled
operations (Jacob and Alles, 1987) such as harvesting cash crops
such as cloves, black pepper, and tea. Most VAC homegardeners are
relatively young (35 years on average) and family members maintain these farming activities. For households, the average number of
family members is five and labors is 2.85 (Trinh et al., 2003). Table 4
shows the time spent and labor input in homegardens for selected
countries.
3.1.2. Structure of homegarden systems
Homegarden gardens’ vertical and horizontal structure changes
depending on the local communities’ communal, financial, cultural, and ecological attributes (Abdoellah et al., 2001). The
Javanese and Kandyan homegardens represent complex horizontal

zoning and vertical stratification at different heights with a high


H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

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Table 2
Biophysical and socioeconomic features of homegardens in the study areas.
Characteristics

Javanese homegardens

Kandyan homegardens

VAC system

Location/country
Local name
Population density(person/km2)
Eco-zone

Javanese/Indonesia
Pekarangan
700a
Humid; medium altitude and
lowlands

Kandy/Sri Lanka
Kandyan gardens

500–699
Humid; medium altitude

Rainfall(mm)
Altitude range(m amsl)
Annual mean temperature(1C)
Relative humidity(%)
Number of vertical strata
Dominant soil type

1800–2400
0–600a
22–29
Average 75
5a
Reddish brown to brown latosols

2000–2500
400–1000
24–26
65–80 (day) and 75–90 (night)
3–5
Reddish brown latosol to immature
brown loam

Slope of land(%)
Land tenure

Varied
Privately ownedb

10–40
Mainly privately owned

Classification
Market orientation

Traditional and commercial
Subsistence/commercial

Vietnam
VAC system
199–949e
Red River delta: Tropical to
subtropical, midlands:
tropical and subtropical,
lowlands: tropical, Mekong
delta: Tropical
1388–1900
1–80
26–29.5
82
N/A
North: Loam and sandy loam,
Central: Bazan, South: Alluvial
clay, Mekong delta: Clay
Varied
Privately owned (allocated by
government)
Traditional, commercial, mixed

Subsistence/commercial

Net income/family

6.6–55.7% of family income and
average of 21.1% depending on
size, family needs, and
composition of homegardensc

Commercial with subsidiary
subsistence
30–50% of family incomed

30–60% of family income

a

Fernandes and Nair (1986).
Wiersum (1982).
c
Soemarwoto (1987).
d
Pushpakumara et al. (2010).
e
General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2013).
b

Table 3
Total area under homegardens, mean management unit, and range of management unit in homegarden systems.
Area

Javanese homegardens
20%

c

Kandyan homegardens
30–40%

d

Total area under homegarden of
cultivated area (%)
Mean management unit (ha)

0.6a

1.0a/0.4b

Range of management unit (ha)

0.01–3.0a

0.4–2.2a/0.05–2.5b

Pond area (m2)

NA

NA

VAC
North: 27%, Central: 70%, South:
34%, Mekong Delta: 47%e
North: 0.14, Central: 0.27, South:
0.28, Mekong Delta: 0.75e
North: 0.05–0.32, Central: 0.02–
1.0, South: 0.08–0.72, Mekong
delta: 0.2–2.2e
North: 220, Central: 350, South:
72, Mekong Delta: 1500

a

Fernandes and Nair (1986).
Pushpakumara et al. (2010).
c
Wiersum (1980), Terra (1954), Verheij (1982).
d
Ensing et al. (1985).
e
Trinh et al. (2003), Luu (2001).
b

diversity of species, resulting in intimate plant association in a
virtually closed canopy structure, on the other hand VAC system
has a simpler vertical structure.

3.1.3. Vertical structure of homegarden systems
In Javanese homegardens, the ground level is occupied by

starchy food plants, vegetables, and spices, followed by fruit trees
and cash crops in the next layer, and tall trees such as coconut and
timber trees in the highest layer. Table 5 shows the vertical
structure and main species present at different levels of the
homegardens. Perera and Perera (1997a) study on the relative
frequency of occurrence suggests that in Kandyan homegardens,
the highest canopy layer is dominated by jackfruit and coconut

trees, followed by areca nut, fishtail palm, gliricidia, mango, and
cloves in the next canopy, and coffee in the lower canopy. In the
ground layer, the species vary from one garden to another.
However, recently it has been observed that the homegarden
structure can be affected by factors such as population density,
socioeconomics, proximity to the market area, owners’ preference,
and management objectives.
Horizontal structure of homegarden systems. A large number of
species are randomly arranged without specific geometrical patterns and are planted in order to achieve maximum space utilization and fulfill their light, water, and fertility requirements
(Christanty et al., 1986). Apart from these factors, managementassociated aspects are also important to determine the horizontal
zoning in the front, back, and sides of the house. On the basis of a


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Table 4
Time spent, cutting and harvesting cycle, labor spent, and division of labor in homegarden systems.
Time scale

Javanese homegardens

Kandyan homegardens

VAC

Time spent on homegardens
Cutting/Harvesting cycle

1 h/week/100 m²a
Irregular work scheduleb

220 days/yearh
Continuous harvest

Labor spent

Small amount of time and family
labor spent during free time
after workd

57 man days/yearc
Continuous harvest depending on
the output from different crops
Relatively small amount of labor by
household membersf

Division of labor

Land preparation & cultivation of
tree crops by men, cultivation of

annual crops by women.
Harvesting is done by all
household members, but
marketing is predominantly a
male activitye

Equal division of labor between
males and females with few
activities being exclusively the
domain of either sexg

Household commercially manages
VAC spent more time. Less
labor and capital on the
homegarden in households
that have other income
sources
Usually, family members manage
the farming activities

a

Stoler (1978).
Christanty (1985).
Torquebiou (1992).
d
Laumans and Kasijadi (1985).
e
Christanty et al. (1986), Laumans and Kasijadi (1985), Matahelumual and Verheul (1987).
f

Pushpa kumara et al. (2010).
g
Jayawardena and Jayathilake (1998).
h
Trinh et al. (2003).
b
c

Table 5
Vertical stratification in homegarden systems.
Stratum

Height in meters (m)

Javanese homegardens

Kandyan homegardens

VAC

Level 1-ground level

o3

Vegetables, medicines, spices, fruits trees,
subsistence, and cash crops- Okra,
eggplant, beans, tea, cassava, ginger,
turmeric, anthurium, pineapple, and
chili peppers

Flowers, medicinal
plants, herbs, spices,
fruits, plants in the
pond (or on the
banker), and
vegetables

Level 2-lower stratum

3–10

Medicines, food staple, subsistence, and
cash crops-Vanilla, banana/plantain,
cacao, coffee, passion fruit, betel vine

Fruits trees- Lucuma
mamosa, orange,
tangerine, grapefruit,
longan, rambutan,
kapok, and water
apple; bamboo,
cashew, Acacia
aneuna

Level 3-lower-middle
stratum

10–15

15–25

Level 5-upper stratum

25–30

Subsistence food staple, seasonal fruits and
cash crop- papaya, pepper, avocado,
mangosteen, breadfruit, rambutan,
citrus
Fruits, timber, medicines, cash cropsmango, bamboo, areca palm, nutmeg,
clove, rubber, wild breadfruit, kitul palm
Timber, cash crops, fiber and oil seed cropsdurien, talipot palm, jak, coconut palm,
kapok, pepper

Coconut, areca, bamboo,
eucalypts, cajeput,
and Caplophyllum
inophyllum

Level 4-upper-middle
stratum

Starchy food plants,
vegetables, and
spices- Languas,
ganyong,
xanthosoma,
cassava, sweet
potatoes, taro,
chili peppers,

eggplant, spinach,
and wing bean
Fruit trees and cash
crops-Bananas,
papayas, mango,
jakfruit, and other
fruit trees;
Soursop, jakfruit,
pisitan guava, and
mountain apple;
or other cash
crops such as
cloves
Other trees for
building material
and fuel woodcoconut trees and
other trees (e.g.,
Albizia)

Christanty et al. (1986), McConnell (2003), Trinh et al. (2003), An (1997).

literature review and field observations, we have drawn an aerial
view for each sample layout (Figs. 1–3).
In Kandyan homegardens, the horizontal zoning of planting is
random, without any specific pattern or arrangement, but a
significant correlation exists between different species with tree

species dominating (McConnell, 2003). Layouts of the VAC system
show a combination of garden, pond, and livestock pens, although
the components are diversified according to topological conditions, culture, and economy. According to (Trinh et al., 2003), there

are four basic types of VAC systems in Vietnam: the homegarden


H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

Fig. 1. Schematic view of Javanese homegarden. (a) road, (b) ornamental, cash
crops and fruit trees, (c) pathway, (d) fruit trees, (e) tall shady trees, (f) buruan
(cleared patch), (g) house, (h) vegetable plants and spices, (i) hedges along the front
and side boundary, (j) bathroom, (k) well, (l) poultry, (m) fishpond, (n) aquatic
plants and grasses, (o) fruit trees, (p) cattle shed, (q): latrine, (r) tall trees and
bamboo clumps, and (s) garbage dump.

Fig. 2. Schematic view of Kandyan homegarden. (a) road, (b) ornamental and fruit
trees, (c) pathway, (d) ornamental shrubs, (e) cleared patch, (f) house, (g) vegetable
plants and spices, (h) shrubs and hedges along the side boundary, (i) fruit trees, and
(j) tall timber trees, coconut and spice trees.

Fig. 3. Schematic view of VAC. (a) road, (b): pathway, (c) fishpond, (d) aquatic
plants and grasses along fishpond, (e) well, (f) vegetable plants spices and bonsai,
(g) cattle shed, pig pen and storage, (h) bamboo cluster along the side boundary,
(i) house, (j) coffee plants alongside boundary, and (k) fruit trees in backyard. (The
figures are drawn by Shruti Lahoti.)

combined with (1) fruit trees in South Vietnam; (2) pond and
covered livestock areas around the Red River delta and central
Vietnam; (3) vegetables in the Red River delta and central
Vietnam; and (4) forest trees, which is the type of VAC system
that generally consists of both and upper and lower levels (An,
1997). Over the past years, many attempts have been made by
either local organizations such as the Southern Vietnam Gardening

Association (VACVINA) or foreign investors to integrate new
technologies and introduce new crop species into the VAC system.
For example, a VAC combined with rice cultivation (particularly
hybrid rice) or forestry is called RVAC. VACB (VAC combined with
biogas) is applied in many places (Zhu, 2006). In addition, some

e129

communes have community- or village-scale VAC systems that
connect each household to a community farm and lake. The
community-scale systems grow more products suitable for sale
to larger markets (Ueda, 1996).
Several of the common differences among the three homegardens are related to the position of service area and species
layout. All services such as toilets, bathrooms, wells, smaller
fishponds, cattle sheds, and garbage dumps are located in the
backyard of the Javanese garden, thus this area is larger than the
front yard. The VAC system is opposite of this, with the front yard
encompassing a bigger area with a larger fishpond, cattle shed
well that are well-organized in front of the house. In Kandy
homegardens, a pond and cattle shed are rarely seen. Poultry is
common in all the homegardens located in back yards. In both
Javanese and Kandy homegardens, ornamental species, fruit trees,
and cash crop species are planted in the front yard for aesthetic
and security reasons, while vegetable plants and spices, some fruit
trees and fiber trees are in the back yard. Vegetables and other
plants are planted in front of the house in the VAC system.
3.1.4. Diversity in homegarden systems
Diversity in homegardens’ structure, composition, and function
is a result of associated socioeconomic changes. In the past, several
studies conducted on Javanese homegardens illustrated their

diversity as an outcome of differences in geographic location,
climatic condition, cultural factors, role in the farming system, and
socioeconomic conditions. Wiersum (2006) summarized these
important factors and highlighted the importance of livelihood
condition in determining the structure and composition of homegardens. On the basis of household economy, Wiersum suggested
four types of homegardens: survival, subsistence, market, and
budget gardens. Apart from market economy, access to markets
also determines the types of homegardens. McConnell (1992)
classifies the forest garden such as those we see in Kandy into
basically two types: “forested house-lots alone” or “forested
house-lots in combination with some small area of paddy land
in one of the nearby narrow valleys (McConnell, 1992, p 3).”
Likewise, components and types of VAC are dependent on geography, commune policy, and personal decision as mentioned
above, although the basic structure, garden, pond, and livestock
are always common (Edwards, 2010). Coastal areas inevitably
weighed on aquaculture and mountainside focused farming and
forestry (An, 1997). As previously mentioned, VAC has been
customized to improve its productivity, which leads to more
diversity in the system itself. For example, the more commercial
VAC is called “improved VAC” (Edwards, 2010), VAC with forestry
is RVAC, and VACB includes biogas (Ueda, 1996; Zhu, 2006).
3.2. Ecosystem services provided from homegarden systems
The homegarden system provides key ecosystem services that
may be conceptualized as provisioning, regulating, cultural, and
supporting services. In addition, homegardens serve as habitat for
a large range of flora and fauna and thus help in biodiversity
conservation.
3.2.1. Provisioning services
Provisioning services are those resources supplied by homegardens to human communities, which include food products,
timber for construction, fuel in the form of wood and charcoal, and

natural medicines. Table 6 summarizes the various provisioning
services offered by homegarden systems.
3.2.1.1. Food. Homegardens provide nutrition in various forms
such as food crops, fruits, vegetables, livestock, aquaculture, wild


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H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

plants and animal products. Each subcategory is explained in
detail below.
Crops. The diversity in homegardens is reflected in species
composition of various plant categories: food crops, fruits, vegetables, or medicinal and spice trees. Table 5 lists the major species
found under different plant categories in the study areas. In
Javanese homegardens, the major food crops are maize, coconut,
taro, and cassava. Kandyan homegardens are similar to Javanese
ones with coconut, cassava and jackfruits as the major food crops.
On the other hand, VAC farmers tend to grow sweet potato, corn,
or banana, which provide higher market prices. As mentioned
above, the species composition varies in different homegardens

and Table 5 summarizes the most commonly planted species
under different plant categories.
Livestock. Animal husbandry is an integral part of homegardens.
The choice of animal species is determined by various factors such
as sociocultural, environmental, financial, and religious concerns
(Soemarwoto, 1987). Milk and egg production provide nutritional
security to rural households and a source of additional income.
Animal waste provides manure required to maintain soil fertility

and production sustainability. However, in Kandyan gardens, the
livestock component is relatively less important (McConnell,
2003). A variety of livestock can be found in different VAC households. Pigs, cows, ducks and chickens are common in most places.

Table 6
Provisioning services provided from homegarden systems.
Provisioning services
Food

Fiber

Crops

Javanese homegardens

Kandyan homegardens

VAC system

Major food crops

Rice, maize, coconuts, taro, sweet
potato, cassava, yam, ganyong,
spinach, wing bean, eggplant,
leafy vegetables, etc.

Rice, maize, green gram,
cowpeas, cassava,
coconut, jackfruit, sweet
potato, taro, yam, juggary

and treacle from fish tail
palm.

Major cash crops

Coconut, banana, orange, mango,
jackfruit, papaya, guava, coffee,
clove, etc.

Cacao, cloves, cocoa, coconut,
banana, coffee, jackfruit,
mahogany, nutmeg,
pepper and other spices,
teak, jak and other timber
trees, etc.
Poultry and cattlee: 15% of
householders rear
livestocka
NA

Rice, corn, sweet potato,
citrus, black bean,
cassava, yam, banana,
coconut, jackfruit,
banana, luffa, orange
pomelo, longan,
kumquat, spinach
Bamboo, pineapple,
jackfruit, guava, papaya,
banana, lime, orange,

pomelo, lychee, pear
chilies, kangkon (in the
fishpond), etch
Buffalo, cow, pig, chicken,
duckj

Livestock

Chickens, cows, goats and sheepg

Aquaculture

Fishpond as a part of system

Wild plant and animal food products

Weed species used for herbal
medicine, roofing, vegetables,
and fodderg
Important source of building material
e.g., Sandoricum koetjape,
crescentia cujete, jack fruit
Supplies 40–80% of the rural fuel
wood f e.g., Laban, bamboo,
muntingia calabura

Timber

Fuel wood

Genetic resources

Provides habitat for small wild
animals such as birds, reptiles,
and amphibians

Natural medicines

Extracts from medicinal plant
provides treatment against
various diseases and is consumed
as a way of healthy life style

Nutrition

Supplies 18% calories and 14%
proteinsb, and provides vegetable
proteins, carbohydrates,
vitamins, and minerals

a

Pushpakumara et al. (2010).
Ochse and Terra (1937).
c
Gunathilake (1994).
d
Pushpakumara (2000).
e
Perera and Perera (1997b).

f
Wiersum (1977).
g
Soemarwoto et al. (1985).
h
Vien (2003).
i
Trinh et al. (2003).
j
Luu (2001).
b

Local breeds of chicken, eggs,
goat and cow milkd
Supplies 48% of the total
sawlog demand of the
countryc
Supplies 38% of the total
biomass fuel demand of
the countryc
Provides habitat for a wide
range of species, from soil
micro life to insects,
including pollinators, and
from crops, trees to
mammals, birds, and
other wildlifed
Most herbs and trees are used
medicinallya e.g.,
Turmeric, ginger, vanilla,

areca palm, clove, nutmeg,
etc.
NA

Carps, robu, mrigal, mud
carp, tilapia (Limited
number of case), soft
shell turtle, frogs,
snakehead fish, and
catfishh
Guava, vegetables, longan,
lychee, chilies, cassava,
bamboo i
Importance source of
building materials and
sawlog
Block wattle, litchi, guava,
Melia azendarach,
Casuarina equistifolia,
Mangifera, and bambooh
Provides habitat for small
wild animals such as
birds, reptiles,
amphibians, insects and
plants crops

Plenty herbs and medicinal
plants used medicinally
such as ginger, clove,
artemisia, etc.

NA


H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

Such livestock is raised not only to sell or consume but also to use
in ceremonies such as weddings or funerals (Trinh et al., 2003).
Livestock excretions are also fully utilized to fertilize gardens and
fishponds (Luu, 2001).
3.2.1.2. Aquaculture. Aquaculture has been considered a main
source of food security in terms of consumption and income
generation. Increasing global and local demand for aquaculture is
greater than ever (Ahmed et al., 2002; Muir, 2005). Aquaculture is
one of the three functions of the traditional homegarden in
Vietnam. Total production has been dramatically increased over
recent years; as of 2002, its amount was almost triple what it was
in 1990 (Vinh, 2005). Although the diversity of species in the pond
is quite rich, intensification can be seen especially close to big
cities such as Hanoi (Edwards, 2010).
Wild plant and animal food products. Various weed species have
been used as fodder, compost, medicine, and roofing material; a
few species are also used as food. Considering that 10 very
commonly found weed species are known to have medicinal
values (Sangat, 1988), weeds may be grown intentionally as useful
plant species in Javanese homegardens.
3.2.1.3. Fiber. Although little research has quantified the importance
of fiber produced by Javanese homegardens, this is an important
source of fuel and timber for rural households. Wiersum′s, 1977 study
reflects the importance of homegardens in fulfilling the energy
demands of rural households and after 5 years, Simon (1981)

reported that Javanese homegardens supply 51–90% of wood fuel to
the rural population. In Sri Lanka, Kandyan homegardens are
considered the single most important source of fiber in non-forested
land (Gunathilake, 1994). The Kandyan homegardens also help in
preventing deforestation by providing forest products (Pushpakumara,
2000). In Vietnam, the northern mountainous areas mainly have a
VAC system combined with forestry. Timber products are the primary
goods sold, but the region also has a small (and diminishing) lacquer
industry.
3.2.1.4. Genetic resource. The high species diversity of the homegardens is a potential genetic resource for a variety of plants and for
future breeding programs to increase the quality and quantity of
agricultural production (Soemarwoto, 1980; Karyono, 1981).
However, very little inventory work has been done to determine
the importance of homegardens as a genetic resource; these studies
are limited to a few from West Java. In Sri Lanka, many of the
endemic species found in these gardens are generic to the nontimber forests. For example, Caryota urens (kithul as it is known in the
local Sinhala language) is used to make alcoholic beverages, jaggery,
and a myriad other products with reasonably established markets
(Gunatilleke et al., 1993). In Vietnam, homegardens play a significant
role in conserving indigenous species and rare plants that are often
dismissed as a result of development-induced changes in land use
(Trinh et al. 2003).
3.2.1.5. Natural Medicine. Homegardens are an important source of
production and in situ conservation of medicinal plants (Rao and Rao,
2006) but relatively little data is available on the extent of medicinal
products used, extracted, and sold from homegardens. Some of the
deliberately planted species have exclusively medicinal values, while
other multipurpose species combine medicinal values with food or
spice value. Although the economic values of the medicinal plants in
homegardens are not exploited, they are widely used within the

family and community for medicinal purposes (Rao and Rao, 2006).
For example, Kubota et al., 1992 reported 26 medicinal species in
homegardens of Java and in Kandyan homegardens, medicinal plants
are recognized as the second most important resource (Perera and

e131

Perera, 1997a). For example, the bark of cinnamon is used
medicinally for treating diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting in Sri Lanka
and Indonesia (Rao and Rao, 2006). Medicinal plants are also
important and widely used in Vietnam. According to Trinh et al.
(2003), diversity of medicinal plants in a garden is higher than
others, including vegetables and fruits.
3.2.1.6. Nutrition. Homegardens play a key role in providing
nutritional and food security to households by ensuring a steady
supply of necessary vegetable proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins,
and minerals (Abdoellah, 1985), particularly during lean periods
when other food supplies are inadequate. In Indonesia, studies
have shown that rice fields provide higher yields of protein and
calories, while homegardens provide more calcium and vitamins
and a portion of the of calories and proteins consumed by an
entire village (Ochse and Terra, 1937). Kandyan homegardens play
a pivotal role in providing low-cost food and ensuring nutritional
intake, with direct access and a steady supply owing to the mix of
crops they contain, including vegetables, fruits, and others
(Pushpakumara et al., 2010). Although yields fluctuate throughout the year, there is usually something to harvest in a
Kandyan homegarden (Pushpakumara et al., 2010). The VAC
system also plays a significant role in providing nutrients. With
higher productivity of the VAC products, many families now have
incomes almost 15 times higher than they would from rice

farming, simply because the increased protein and vitamins
make meals more versatile and nourishing (Nguyen, 1997).
3.2.2. Regulating services
Recent studies on ecosystem services and environmental benefits of the agroforestry system highlighted various regulating
services that it offers (Jose, 2009; Rao et al., 2007). Regulating
services include functions such as sequestration of carbon from
the atmosphere, soil erosion regulation, waste treatment, water
purification, pest regulation and pollination, all of which help in
maintaining a sustainable supply of many provisioning services
provided by homegardens.
3.2.2.1. Climate regulation. The multilayered plant canopies in
homegarden systems have the potential to regulate the climate
on a local and global scale. On the local level, the dense vertical
structure of trees helps in controlling microclimatic conditions by
influencing the air temperature, radiation flux, soil moisture, or
wind speed and maintaining an ambient temperature (Rao et al.,
2007). Apart from the beneficial effects of homegardens in
moderating and ameliorating the microclimatic conditions,
homegardens play an important role in macroclimate regulation
through carbon sequestration. The woody biomass of this speciesrich and highly diverse land use system provides products for
subsistence and commercial purposes and offers potential for
carbon storage. In regard to climate change, the important regulating service offered by homegardens on a global scale is the
mitigation of CO2 emission by sequestering carbon from the
atmosphere.
A study by Roshetko et al., 2002 reported that carbon stock
stored by Javanese homegardens in their above-ground biomass is
equivalent to secondary forests of similar age in the same area. The
author also suggests that the homegarden system has a substantially higher aboveground carbon stock than that of vastly
degraded and underutilized land such as Imperata cassava systems
in Indonesia (Roshetko et al., 2002). Thus, homegardens have the

potential to allow a trade-off between carbon stored and profitability that benefits the small farmer through Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) projects.


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Tropical forest homegarden like Kandyan homegarden has a
great potential of carbon storage as it makes a mosaic with natural
forest and having multi-layered trees (Kumar, 2005; Pushpakumara et al., 2012). Mattsson et al. (2009) suggested that Sri
Lankan homegardens have high potential for small-scale afforestation or reforestation (A/R) projects under the CDM that allow
bundling of individual small plots. Of the Kandyan homegardens,
85% use no inorganic fertilizers, potentially serving as a model for
successful production without harming nature (Szott and Kass,
1993). Kandyan homegardens provide 31% of the vegetation cover
of the entire district, complementing the 17% provided by natural
forests, which is below the national average of 21% (Pushpakumara
et al., 2010).
For the Vietnamese case, very little studies have investigated on
the relationship between VAC system and climate regulation (Leisz
et al., 2007; To et al., 2012). Leisz et al. (2007) report that VAC
system especially with forestry has greater potential for the carbon
storage. The Vietnamese government has established working
groups for CDM projects and the CDM National Executive and
Consultative Board (CNECB) under the International Cooperation
Department of Vietnam. Most ongoing CDM projects are related to
hydropower, but in 64 of 83 projects, attempts have been made to
use the project for forestry and greenhouse gas (GHG) (Department of Meteorology, Hydrology and Climate Change, 2011). A
study has been conducted on the effects of land use change on

GHG emission in the northern mountainous area of Vietnam.
Although cultivation is not permitted on sloping forestland,
various farming activities shift cultivation to what is often considered forestry. Government policy has prohibited swidden and
fallow cultivation and has promoted permanent cultivation. Many
of these projects have been transformed into the VAC system
combined with forestry. However, according to the study, shifts in
land use system such as the swidden farming- to homegardenbased system, have negative effects because livestock activities,
rice cultivation, and other agricultural activities requiring the use
of fossil fuel actually increase GHG (Leisz et al., 2007).
3.2.2.2. Erosion regulation. One of the most important ecological
functions provided by homegardens is the regulation of soil
erosion. The low rate of erosion is achieved because of high
species diversity, multilayered canopy structure, and a thick layer
of litter with dense root architecture that guards the soil against
the erosive force of raindrops (Torquebiau, 1992). Moreover,
homegardens are not harvested completely, thus keeping the
erosion rate low (Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999). Although soil
erosion is widespread in Sri Lanka, especially in the wet zone,
homegardens erode only 0.05 t ha À 1 year À 1, which is comparable
to natural forests and usually less than 1% of the annual cultivation
systems (Wagachchii and Wiersum (1997); Pushpakumara et al.,
2010).
3.2.2.3. Waste treatment and water purification. The VAC system is
known as a recycling system; home waste, garden, pond, and
livestock pens are all well connected and designed to utilize any
waste from each homegarden component. Besides being sold and
consumed, vegetables from the garden are used as feed for fish
and livestock. Excretory substances from humans and animals are
utilized as manure in vegetable and fruit gardens. Ponds, gardens,
toilets, and livestock pens are usually linked through pipelines

(Ueda, 1996). These wastes are also optimized to generate
electricity through a biodigester. Biogas plants have been
promoted by various organizations and initiatives. According to
Bodganski et al. (2010), the gardening association VACVINA has
installed 1000 biogas plants and trained technicians in the Thanh
Hoa province. In the extended territory of the Kandyan gardens,

such as in the Badulla district, ponds that regulate water flow and
offer various services can be found; these are called buffalo ponds
in Sri Lanka (Wagachchii and Wiersum, 1997).
3.2.2.4. Pest regulation and pollination. In homegardens, traditional
management practices using livestock are used to control pests.
For example, in Java, peanuts are planted near the house to attract
insects so that chickens can find and eat them easily. Similarly,
birds and ducks are used to control insects (McConnell, 2003).
Although many authors have suggested that high species diversity
and intimate plant associations also minimize the risk of pests and
diseases in homegardens in comparison with monocropping, there
is no scientific evidence or research on the pest-regulating services
provided by homegardens.
Although animals often do not play an important economic role
in homegarden systems, they are essential for various biological
processes such as pollination, natural hybridization, and seed
dispersal. For example, Kandyan homegardens often provide
habitats for small mammals, birds, bats, and insects, all of which
play an important role in pollination and seed dispersal (Pushpakumara et al., 2010). Mendis et al. (1985) investigated the bee
pasturage potential in two Kandyan homegardens and found that
the number of bee foraging plant species accounted for 37.5% of
the total number recorded from the study areas. In the two
Kandyan homegardens, Cocos nucifera (coconut) and Falcataria

moluccana (Albizia moluccana) were identified as the most important sources of pollen and nectar, respectively, while many
economically important species such as Swietenia macrophylla
(mahogany), Melia dubia (lunumidella), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), Artocarpus spp. (jack and breadfruit), Mangifera indica
(mango), Persea gratissima (avocado), Coffea arabica (coffee), and
Camellia sinensis (tea) were also identified as important bee plants
(Mendis et al., 1985). Because of a lack of research focusing on this
aspect of homegardens, it is difficult to assess the significance of
homegardens in the overall process of pollination in Javanese
homegarden and VAC systems.
3.2.3. Cultural services
Studies have shown that culture strongly influences the selection of plants cultivated in homegardens. In Javanese homegardens, medicinal plants, used to treat and protect against diseases
for a healthy life, are more than just vegetable plants. In contrast,
more vegetables and ornamentals are planted in Sudanese homegardens to suit people′s food and visual preferences; the people
also prefer neat gardens (Mazumdar and Mazumdar, 2012). Terra
(1954) concluded that intensive homegardening is found in
matrilineal societies. Homegardens also play an important social
role in Javanese community life. Every homegarden has a clear
patch shaded by tall trees so children can play and elders can
interact during their free time. The gardens are also an important
social status symbol (Ahmad et al., 1980). Traditional homegardens
are generally bounded by a living fence of shrubs or small trees that
allow easy access to fetch water, collect medicinal plants, and pass
through. There is no concept of trespassing, thus homegardens help
enhance the community′s social network. In addition, the traditional concept of Rukun Tetangga (neighborhood) allows free
sharing of homegarden products among relatives and neighbors,
thereby fostering equitability within the community′s social fabric.
Kandyan gardens serve as a place for intra-family interaction,
since outside labor is minimally used. They also provide a place for
exchanges in rural villages. For example, the available garden in
the village may serve as a medicinal output to the needy. In

addition, they offer a place to meet, for children to play, and for
other small social gatherings, such as neighbors visiting to check
other′s well-being. Kandyan homegardens have exploited tourism


H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

by introducing tourists to spice gardens having unusual species,
local herbs, or medicinal plants. However, tourism has not been
developed in the homegardens of Java, despite the great potential
there for agro-tourism.
For VAC farming, cultural value is significant for most Vietnamese farmers. In general, farmers had little choice in decision
making before the Doi Moi renovation, for instance, in selecting
which plants to grow. On the other hand, a homegarden is
primarily the household′s choice, although some communes have
a policy to undertake certain farming activities. Some fruit species,
such as palm fruit, vine, and lime, are culturally important for rural
populations. These products are often used for festivals and
weddings. The Vietnamese New Year (Tet), is one of the country′
s biggest festivals and the fruits used for this celebration are
determined by the types cultivated by the homegardener (Trinh
et al., 2003).
3.2.4. Supporting services
3.2.4.1. Nutrient cycling and soil formation. Tropical forests are sustainable because of the dynamics of litter production, decomposition, and the subsequent bioelement release that also occurs in a
Javanese homegarden having greater litter fall than a typical forest
(Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999).
Thus, the homegarden system is a sustainable approach to
improve soil fertility by nutrient cycling and maintaining organic
matter, carbon content, and soil structure. This issue is in need of
attention by the scientific community to carry out field studies and

coordinated research to highlight the importance of homegarden
systems in nutrient cycling and soil formation.

3.3. Biodiversity
In order to understand the factors contributing to the biodiversity of homegardens, the resilience and evolution of the system
itself have to be studied (Galluzzi et al., 2010). However, conservation of biodiversity in tropical landscapes could be accomplished
through agroforestry systems, since it has largely ignored homegardens (Webb and Enamul, 2009). A study by Soemarwoto and
Conway (1992) reported that 78 bird species were observed in
Javanese homegardens, and 13 of them were protected species.
However, a detailed inventory list and studies focusing on the
biodiversity of homegardens are lacking in Indonesia. Many
endangered species that are diminishing in other areas of Indonesia tend to be protected in homegardens. In addition, many
seeds and crops imported from other countries have been adapted
for cultivation in most areas of the country. Apart from providing
key ecosystem services, Kandyan homegardens are habitat for a
large range of flora and fauna, thereby connecting agriculture with
the natural landscape and thus helping conserve biodiversity
against the risk of population fragmentation and the need for
gene flow, species dispersal, and migration increase (Pushpakumara et al., 2010). They are germplasm repositories of numerous
species (Pushpakumara, 2000) and are important for ex situ
conservation of germplasm by providing a gene bank. The presence of high fruit tree diversity, various niche specialization,
feeding materials, nest specialization, and a very low level of
disturbances (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) enable high faunal
diversity in Kandyan homegardens. In these gardens, Hitinayake
and Ekanayake (1999) recorded 12 mammal species belonging to
five orders and seven families; and a total of 35 birds belonging to
five orders and 14 families, including five endemic species. In
Vietnam, Vlkova et al. (2011) surveyed agrodiversity and found out
over 70 different plant species in a commune in the central Vietnam,
which depends on the size of each unit. South Vietnamese

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homegardeners, well known for traditionally growing a variety of
fruits, have tree selection procedures and distinguishable layouts for
their homegardens (Nguyen, 1995). According to (Trinh et al., 2003),
although some trends of monoculture are seen in VAC farms, their
level of biodiversity remains high in most places.

4. Discussion
4.1. Drivers of change in homegarden systems
Homegardens are dynamic and capable of responding to socioeconomic changes resulting from rural transformation and diversification of the rural livelihood (Peyre et al., 2006). Wiersum
(2006) stated that commercialization is leading to a more specialized cultivation system and generating more primary production
activities for rural populations, resulting in changes in the farming
and homegarden systems. In order to adapt to these socioeconomic
changes, the subsistence-oriented homegardens are increasingly
becoming more commercially oriented. Although the impacts of
such changes differ by region and depend on the intensity of rural
or urban transformation and socioeconomic changes, the homegardens are showing different trends in development. According to
Wiersum (2006), the main trends are an extension in the overall
size of homegardens and changes in their structure and composition because of increasing commercialization. The drivers of change
are primarily socioeconomic factors, commercialization, population
growth, change in the farming system, scientific innovations in the
health care sector, introduction of invasive alien plant species,
inheritance, urbanization, climate change, over-exploitation, and
pollution.
External market demand has led to cash crop production and
monoculture, which affect species diversity. Therefore, the structure of homegardens, which plays an important role in various
provisioning and regulating features, is being affected. Scientific
innovation in the healthcare sector strongly impacts the usage and

validity of traditional medicinal plants in homegardens (Kumar
and Nair, 2004). The outcome of commercialization is increased
production, which is obtained by additional inputs in the form of
pesticides and fertilizers. This consequently changes a system
defined as “low yield, low input, and low risk” to a system of
“high yield, high input, and high risk” (Soemarwoto and Conway,
1992). Commercialization is also disrupting the social services of
homegardens as well as the village′s social fabric by reducing
equitability and causing fences to be installed around the homestead to protect cash crops (Abdoellah et al., 2006).
Another threat to the traditional homegarden is the intentional
and unintentional introduction of invasive plant species such as
Acacia spp., Eucalyptus spp., Mimosa invisa, Mikania micrantha, and
Calliandra calothyrsus (Richardson et al., 2004; Kumar and Nair,
2006). Exchange of seeds through botanical gardens has been a
primary mode of deliberate introduction of alien plant species into
a country or ecosystem (Marambe et al., 2003). Similarly, seed
exchange among homegardens may be a major source of alien
plant species’ expansion. Spread of aggressive exotics along with
structural changes in rural bioproduction systems could reduce
floristic diversity in the homegarden (Kumar and Nair, 2006).
Population growth is an indirect driver causing land use
changes such as the fragmentation of landholding, which leads
to a decline in the average size of homegardens, thereby decreasing income and forcing farmers to seek employment elsewhere
(Christanty et al., 1986). In addition, because of urbanization,
homegarden areas are reduced to catering to the housing demand.
In this manner, the stable and sustainable system providing
various ecosystem services is now being threatened by various


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H. Mohri et al. / Ecosystem Services 5 (2013) e124–e136

human-induced drivers that directly and indirectly affect the
services offered by homegardens.
As Lewis (1954) argued, inequity is often led by a shift from
traditional farming activities to modern sectors. In Vietnam, rapid
economic growth, expansion of markets, population growth and
societal changes have created social and economic inequities,
especially between urban and rural areas. Social and economic
inequities in the country have led farmers to choose non-farming
activities and abandon their farmlands and homegardens. Moreover, recent changes in consumption and the demand-supply
relationship as a consequence of industrialization also influence
rural farming activities (Mergenthaler et al., 2009; Nguyen and
Winters, 2011; Nguyen, 2011).
Climate change is also considered a significant and additional
threat to homegarden systems (Pushpakumara et al., 2010). Many
farmers in the three study countries recognized some recent changes
in rainfall pattern, temperature, sea level and extreme events such as
floods and drought on a local scale, but scientific assessment of the
climate change impact on homegarden systems has not yet been
conducted. In addition to climate change, other direct drivers such as
over exploitation and pollution (MA, 2005) may have a negative
impact on ecosystem services from homegarden systems.
4.2. Homegarden studies and global initiatives
Various publications on homegarden systems have assessed
their ecological and economical values. These studies can be found
throughout different parts of the world, although research on this
topic remains insufficient (Kumar and Nair, 2004). Moreover, most
of the studies focus on ecological structure or a specific ecosystem

service in a particular study area. Only a limited number of studies
take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by
homegardens on a regional scale.
In recent studies, the importance of traditional knowledge and
technology is also recognized by various international initiatives
such as Satoyama Initiatives, The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), and more. The Globally Important Agriculture
Heritage System (GIAHS) initiated by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) points out that traditional
technology and practice have evolved in many parts of the world
and these farming systems have overcome rigorous local environmental and historical climate changes (Koohafkan and Altieri,
2011). An international platform, the Satoyama Initiative officially
adopted at the 10th meeting of the Convention on Biological
Diversity (COP10) in 2010, aims to “promote and support socioecological production landscapes to maintain their contribution to
human well-being (Satoyama Initiative, 2010).” The initiative focuses
on “integrating traditional ecological knowledge and modern science
to promote innovations” (Ministry of Environment, Government of
Japan, 2010) as one main approach towards building a sustainable
society.
The diversity and multifunctionality of the homegarden system
play an important role in providing general resilience against
climate and ecosystem change. General resilience is described as
a system or function that rises from significant impact, particularly
one “coping with uncertainty in all ways” (Folke et al., 2010). This
can be distinguished from specific resilience that is more specialized on a specific event or disturbance (Carpenter et al., 2001;
Folke et al., 2010).
5. Conclusion
This comprehensive study on the traditional homegardens in
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam was performed by means of

literature review, field observation, and a set of professional

workshops along the MA framework. Nearly 100 relevant articles
were collected and examined for this study, although literature or
information on homegardens and their ecosystem services are still
considerably inadequate for evaluating the complete picture of
efficacy, particularly in regard to global changes. Moreover, most
studies focus on ecological structure or a specific ecosystem
service in a particular study area. Only a limited number of studies
take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by
homegardens on a regional scale.
According to this review, homegardens have many functions: as
a source of income, place for communication, and a means of
conserving traditional culture, biodiversity, and agrodiversity. On
the basis of the review of garden components in the study areas,
such as spatial layout, temporal or spatial scales, and diversity or
functions, we conclude that characteristics and functions of homegardens differ both on a regional and local level within each
system. In the study areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam,
traditional homegardens still exist even after recent socioeconomic changes and the impact of other types of change. These
homegardens maintain high ecosystem diversity and provide
several ecosystem services. One of the main challenges in the
future will be to integrate such traditional homegardens with
modern technology and the global economy to enhance the
system′s resilience. Recently there is an attempt to promote
products of homegarden farmers in Kandy to the international
market by getting international certifications such as EU organic
and USDA National Organic Programme. Further empirical
research is also required for evaluating the contribution of the
homegarden system for providing resilience against climate and
ecosystem changes. Various recent global initiatives, such as the
Satoyama Initiative, may become a strong force for encouraging
more scientific communities to investigate small and middle scale

socioecological production systems such as traditional homegardens in different parts of the world.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our collaborative institutes, University of Peradeniya, Gadjah Mada
University, and Vietnam National University for supporting a
project on “Strategy to enhance resilience to climate and ecosystem changes utilizing traditional bio-production systems in rural
Asia”. The review study was carried out as part of the project and
would like to thank the Ministry of the Environment, Japan for
financial support.

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