Psychological testing 7th global edition by gregory

Psychological Testing

History, Principles, and Applications

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Gregory

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Psychological Testing
History, Principles, and Applications
seventh edition

Robert J. Gregory

Pearson Global Edition

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Psychological Testing

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Seventh Edition

Psychological Testing
History, Principles, and Applications
Global Edition

Robert J. Gregory
Professor Emeritus
Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois

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Brief Contents

Chapter 1

Implementation and Attributes of Psychological Testing    21
T O P I C 1 A

The Nature and Uses of Psychological Testing    21

TOPIC 1B

Ethical and Social Implications of Testing    40

Chapter 2 Origins of Psychological Testing    56
T O P I C 2 A

The Origins of Psychological Testing    56

TOPIC 2B

Testing from the Early 1900s to the Present    69

Chapter 3 Norms and Reliability    82
T O P I C 3 A

Norms and Test Standardization    82

TOPIC 3B

Concepts of Reliability    99

Chapter 4 Validity and Test Construction    118
T O P I C 4 A

Basic Concepts of Validity    118

TOPIC 4B

Test Construction    136

Chapter 5 Intelligence and Achievement: Theories and Tests    154
T O P I C 5 A

Theories of Intelligence and Factor Analysis    154

TOPIC 5B

Individual Tests of Intelligence and Achievement    179

Chapter 6 Ability Testing: Group Tests and Controversies    210

T O P I C 6 A

Group Tests of Ability and Related Concepts    210

TOPIC 6B

Test Bias and Other Controversies    238

Chapter 7 Assessing Special Populations    267
T O P I C 7 A

Infant and Preschool Assessment    267

TOPIC 7B

Testing Persons with Disabilities    289

Chapter 8 Foundations of Personality Testing    306
T O P I C 8 A

Theories of Personality and Projective Techniques    306

TOPIC 8B

S elf-Report and Behavioral Assessment of
Psychopathology    333

Chapter 9 Evaluation of Normality and Individual Strengths    360
T O P I C 9 A

Assessment Within the Normal Spectrum    360

TOPIC 9B

Positive Psychological Assessment    384

5

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6

Brief Contents



Chapter 10 Neuropsychological Testing    401
T O P I C 1 0 A N
 eurobiological Concepts and Behavioral
Assessment    401
TOPIC 10B



 europsychological Tests, Batteries, and Screening
N
Tools    424

Chapter 11 Industrial, Occupational, and Career Assessment    452
T O P I C 1 1 A Industrial and Organizational Assessment    452
TOPIC 11B

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 ssessment for Career Development in a Global
A
Economy    477

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Contents
Preface    15

Chapter 1 Implementation and Attributes of
Psychological Testing    21
T O P I C 1 A  The Nature and Uses of Psychological Testing    21
The Consequences of Testing    22
Case Exhibit 1.1 • True-Life Vignettes of Testing    22
Definition of a Test    23
Further Distinctions in Testing    25
Types of Tests    26
Uses of Testing    29
Factors Influencing the Soundness of Testing    31
Standardized Procedures in Test Administration    31
Desirable Procedures of Test Administration    32
Influence of the Examiner    37

Background and Motivation of the Examinee    38
T O P I C 1 B   Ethical and Social Implications of Testing    40
The Rationale for Professional Testing Standards    40
Case Exhibit 1.2 • Ethical and Professional Quandaries in Testing    41
Responsibilities of Test Publishers    42
Responsibilities of Test Users    43
Case Exhibit 1.3 • Overzealous Interpretation of the MMPI    45
Testing of Cultural and Linguistic Minorities    49
Unintended Effects of High-Stakes Testing    52
Reprise: Responsible Test Use    54

Chapter 2Origins of Psychological Testing    56
T O P I C 2 A  The Origins of Psychological Testing    56
Rudimentary Forms of Testing in China in 2200 b.c.    57
Physiognomy, Phrenology, and the Psychograph    57
The Brass Instruments Era of Testing    59
Rating Scales and Their Origins    62
Changing Conceptions of Mental Retardation in the 1800s    63
Influence of Binet’s Early Research on his Test    64
7

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8Contents

Binet and Testing for Higher Mental Processes    65
The Revised Scales and the Advent of IQ    66

T O P I C 2 B   Testing from the Early 1900s to the Present    69
Early Uses and Abuses of Tests in the United States    69
Group Tests and the Classification of Wwi Army Recruits    72
Early Educational Testing    73
The Development of Aptitude Tests    76
Personality and Vocational Testing after WWI    77
The Origins of Projective Testing    77
The Development of Interest Inventories    79
The Emergence of Structured Personality Tests    79
The Expansion and Proliferation of Testing    80
Evidence-Based Practice and Outcomes Assessment    81

Chapter 3 Norms and Reliability    82
T O P I C 3 A   Norms and Test Standardization    82
Raw Scores    83
Essential Statistical Concepts    83
Raw Score Transformations    87
Selecting a Norm Group    94
Criterion-Referenced Tests    96
T O P I C 3 B   Concepts of Reliability    99
Classical Test Theory and the Sources of Measurement Error    99
Sources of Measurement Error    100
Measurement Error and Reliability    102
The Reliability Coefficient    103
The Correlation Coefficient    103
The Correlation Coefficient as a Reliability Coefficient    104
Reliability as Temporal Stability    105
Reliability as Internal Consistency    106
Item Response Theory    110
The New Rules of Measurement    113

Special Circumstances in the Estimation of Reliability    113
The Interpretation of Reliability Coefficients    114
Reliability and the Standard Error of Measurement    115

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Contents
9

Chapter 4 Validity and Test Construction    118
T O P I C 4 A  Basic Concepts of Validity    118
Validity: A Definition    119
Content Validity    120
Criterion-Related Validity    122
Construct Validity    127
Approaches to Construct Validity    128
Extravalidity Concerns and the Widening Scope of Test
Validity    133
T O P I C 4 B   Test Construction    136
Defining the Test    136
Selecting a Scaling Method    137
Representative Scaling Methods    138
Constructing the Items    143
Testing the Items    145
Revising the Test    150
Publishing the Test    152

Chapter 5 Intelligence and Achievement:
Theories and Tests    154
T O P I C 5 A  Theories of Intelligence and Factor Analysis    154
Definitions of Intelligence    155
Case Exhibit 5.1 • Learning and Adaptation as Core Functions of
Intelligence    156
A primer of Factor Analysis    158
Galton and Sensory Keenness    166
Spearman and the g Factor    166
Thurstone and the Primary Mental Abilities    168
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory    169
Guilford and the Structure-of-Intellect Model    171
Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (Pass)
Theory    172
Information Processing Theories of Intelligence    174
Gardner and the Theory of Multiple Intelligences    174
Sternberg and the Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence    176

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10Contents

T O P I C 5 B   Individual Tests of Intelligence and Achievement    179
Orientation to Individual Intelligence Tests    179
The Wechsler Scales of Intelligence    180
The Wechsler Subtests: Description and Analysis    183
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV    189

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV    192
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition    194
Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4    197
The Cognitive Assessment System-II    198
Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)    201
Individual Tests of Achievement    202
Nature and Assessment of Learning Disabilities    204

Chapter 6Ability Testing: Group Tests and Controversies    210
T O P I C 6 A  Group Tests of Ability and Related Concepts    210
Nature, Promise, and Pitfalls of Group Tests    210
Group Tests of Ability    211
Multiple Aptitude Test Batteries    220
Predicting College Performance    227
Postgraduate Selection Tests    230
Educational Achievement Tests    234
T O P I C 6 B   Test Bias and Other Controversies    238
The Question of Test Bias    238
Case Exhibit 6.1 • The Impact of Culture on Testing Bias    247
Social Values and Test Fairness    248
Genetic and Environmental Determinants of Intelligence    250
Origins and Trends in Racial IQ Differences    257
Age Changes in Intelligence    260
Generational Changes in IQ Scores    264

Chapter 7Assessing Special Populations    267
T O P I C 7 A  Infant and Preschool Assessment    267
Assessment of Infant Capacities    268
Assessment of Preschool Intelligence    272
Practical Utility of Infant and Preschool Assessment    277

Screening for School Readiness    280
Dial-4    283

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Contents
11

T O P I C 7 B   Testing Persons with Disabilities    289
Origins of tests for Special Populations    289
Nonlanguage Tests    289
Nonreading and Motor-Reduced Tests    294
Case Exhibit 7.1 • The Challenge of Assessment in Cerebral
Palsy    294
Testing Persons with Visual Impairments    296
Testing Individuals Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing    298
Assessment of Adaptive Behavior in Intellectual Disability    298
Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders    304

Chapter 8Foundations of Personality Testing    306
T O P I C 8 A  Theories of Personality and Projective Techniques    306
Personality: an Overview    307
Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality    307
Type Theories of Personality    311
Phenomenological Theories of Personality    312
Behavioral and Social Learning Theories    314
Trait Conceptions of Personality    316

The Projective Hypothesis    318
Association Techniques    319
Completion Techniques    324
Construction Techniques    326
Expression Techniques    330
Case Exhibit 8.1 • Projective Tests as Ancillary to the
Interview    332
T O P I C 8 B   Self-Report and Behavioral Assessment of
Psychopathology    333
Theory-Guided Inventories    334
Factor-Analytically Derived Inventories    336
Criterion-Keyed Inventories    339
Behavioral Assessment    347
Behavior Therapy and Behavioral Assessment    348
Structured Interview Schedules    354
Assessment by Systematic Direct Observation    355
Analogue Behavioral Assessment    358
Ecological Momentary Assessment    358

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12Contents

Chapter 9Evaluation of Normality and Individual Strengths    360
T O P I C 9 A  Assessment Within the Normal Spectrum    360
Broad Band Tests of Normal Personality    361
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)    361

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)    364
Neo Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R)    367
Stability and Change in Personality    369
The Assessment of Moral Judgment    373
The Assessment of Spiritual and Religious Concepts    376
T O P I C 9 B   Positive Psychological Assessment    384
Assessment of Creativity    385
Measures of Emotional Intelligence    392
Assessment of Optimism    396
Assessment of Gratitude    397
Sense of Humor: Self-Report Measures    399

Chapter 10Neuropsychological Testing    401
T O P I C 1 0 A  N
 eurobiological Concepts and Behavioral
Assessment    401
The Human Brain: An Overview    402
Structures and Systems of the Brain    403
Survival Systems: The Hindbrain and Midbrain    406
Attentional Systems    407
Motor/Coordination Systems    408
Memory Systems    409
Limbic System    410
Language Functions and Cerebral Lateralization    411
Visual System    413
Executive Functions    414
Neuropathology of Adulthood and Aging    416
Behavioral Assessment of Neuropathology    420

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Contents
13

T O P I C 1 0 B   Neuropsychological Tests, Batteries, and Screening Tools    424
A Conceptual Model of Brain–Behavior Relationships    425
Assessment of Sensory Input    425
Measures of Attention and Concentration    427
Tests of Learning and Memory    428
Assessment of Language Functions    434
Tests of Spatial and Manipulatory Ability    435
Assessment of Executive Functions    437
Assessment of Motor Output    440
Test Batteries in Neuropsychological Assessment    441
Screening for Alcohol use Disorders    448

Chapter 11 Industrial, Occupational, and Career Assessment    452
T O P I C 1 1 A  Industrial and Organizational Assessment    452
The Role of Testing in Personnel Selection    453
Autobiographical Data    454
The Employment Interview    456
Cognitive Ability Tests    459
Personality Tests    462
Paper-and-Pencil Integrity Tests    464
Work Sample and Situational Exercises    466
Appraisal of Work Performance    469
Approaches to Performance Appraisal    470

Sources of Error in Performance Appraisal    474
T O P I C 1 1 B   Assessment for Career Development in a Global
Economy    477
Career Development and the Functions of Work    478
Origins of Career Development Theories    479
Theory of Person-Environment Fit    480
Theory of Person-Environment Correspondence    482
Stage Theories of Career Development    483
Social Cognitive Approaches    484
O*NET in Career Development    485
Inventories for Career Assessment    486
Inventories for Interest Assessment    487

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14Contents
A p p e ndi x A   Major Landmarks in the History of Psychological Testing    497
A p p e ndi x B   Standard and Standardized-Score Equivalents of Percentile
Ranks in a Normal Distribution    500
Glossary    502
References    514
Name Index    570
Subject Index    586

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Preface
Psychological testing began as a timid enterprise
in the scholarly laboratories of nineteenth-century
European psychologists. From this inauspicious
birth, the practice of testing proliferated throughout
the industrialized world at an ever accelerating pace.
As the reader will discover within the pages of this
book, psychological testing now impacts virtually
every corner of modern life, from education to vocation to remediation.

Purpose of the Book
The seventh edition of this book is based on the same
assumptions as earlier versions. Its ambitious purpose is to provide the reader with knowledge about
the characteristics, objectives, and wide-ranging effects of the consequential enterprise, psychological
testing. In pursuit of this goal, I have incorporated
certain well-worn traditions but proceeded into some
new directions as well. For example, in the category
of customary traditions, the book embraces the usual
topics of norms, standardization, reliability, validity,
and test construction. Furthermore, in the standard
manner, I have assembled and critiqued a diverse
compendium of tests and measures in such traditional areas as intellectual, achievement, industrialorganizational, vocational, and personality testing.

Special Features
In addition to the traditional topics previously listed,
I have emphasized certain issues, themes, and concepts that are, in my opinion, essential for an indepth understanding of psychological testing. For
example, the second chapter of the book examines
Origins of Psychological Testing. The placement of

this chapter underscores my view that Origins of
Psychological Testing is of substantial relevance to
present-day practices. Put simply, a mature comprehension of modern testing can be obtained only
by delving into its heritage. Of course, students of
psychology typically shun historical matters because
these topics are often presented in a dull, dry, and
pedantic manner, devoid of relevance to the present.

However, I hope the skeptical reader will approach
my history chapter with an open mind—I have
worked hard to make it interesting and relevant.
Psychological testing represents a contract
between two persons. One person—the examiner—
usually occupies a position of power over the other
person—the examinee. For this reason, the examiner needs to approach testing with utmost sensitivity to the needs and rights of the examinee. To
emphasize this crucial point, I have devoted the
first topic to the subtleties of the testing process,
including such issues as establishing rapport and
watching for untoward environmental influences
upon test results. The second topic in the book also
emphasizes the contractual nature of assessment by
reviewing professional issues and ethical standards
in testing.
Another topic emphasized in this book is neuropsychological assessment, a burgeoning subfield
of clinical psychology that is now a well-established
specialty in its own right. Neuropsychological assessment is definitely a growth area and now constitutes one of the major contemporary applications
of psychological testing. I have devoted an entire
chapter to this important subject. So that the reader
can better appreciate the scope and purpose of neuropsychological assessment, I begin the chapter with
a succinct review of neurological principles before

discussing specific instruments. Tangentially, this review introduces important concepts in neuropsychological assessment such as the relationship between
localized brain dysfunction and specific behavioral
symptoms. Nonetheless, readers who need to skip
the section on neurological underpinnings of behavior may do so with minimal loss—the section on
neuropsychological tests and procedures is comprehensible in its own right.
This edition continues to feature a chapter on
Evaluation of Normality and Individual Strengths.
This includes a lengthy topic on positive psychological assessment, such as the testing of creativity, emotional intelligence, optimism, gratitude, and humor.
I hope this concentration on life-affirming concepts
15

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16Preface

will provide some balance to the field of assessment
which, for too long, has emphasized pathology.
New to this edition is an extended topic on
assessment for career development in a global economy. This topic surveys major theories that guide
career-based assessment and also provides an introduction to valuable assessment tools. I felt that
increased coverage of career issues was desirable, in
light of the increasing fluidity of the modern global
economy. Further, even though the Great Recession
of 2007–2009 is technically over, uncertainty in the
world of work remains for many, especially for those
newly entering the job market. An understanding of
the potential role of career assessment in helping individuals traverse the new terrain of work and vocation is now more vital than ever before.

This is more than a book about tests and their
reliabilities and validities. I also explore numerous
value-laden issues bearing on the wisdom of testing. Psychological tests are controversial precisely
because the consequences of testing can be harmful, certainly to individuals and perhaps to the
entire social fabric as well. I have not ducked the
controversies surrounding the use of psychological
tests. Separate topics explore genetic and environmental contributions to intelligence, origins of race
differences in IQ, test bias and extravalidity concerns, cheating on group achievement tests, courtroom testimony, and ethical issues in psychological
testing.

Note on Case Exhibits
This edition continues the use of case histories and
brief vignettes that feature testing concepts and illustrate the occasionally abusive application of psychological tests. These examples are “boxed” and
referred to as Case Exhibits. Most are based on my
personal experience rather than scholarly undertakings. All of these case histories are real. The episodes
in question really happened—I know because I have
direct knowledge of the veracity of each anecdote.
These points bear emphasis because the reader will
likely find some of the vignettes to be utterly fantastical and almost beyond belief. Of course, to guarantee the privacy of persons and institutions, I have
altered certain unessential details while maintaining
the basic thrust of the original events.

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Changes from the Sixth Edition
In this revision, my goals were threefold. First, I
wanted to add the latest findings about established
tests. For this purpose, I have made use of about
300 new scholarly references, and “retired” an almost equal number of outdated citations. Second, I
wanted to incorporate worthwhile topics overlooked

in previous editions. A prominent example in this
category is assessment for career development,
which receives extended coverage in the book. And,
third, I sought to include coverage of innovations
and advances in testing. One example of this is inclusion of the Rorschach Performance Assessment
System, a new and promising approach to this established test. I was also aware that several tests have
been revised since the last edition went to press, including the CAS-II, WMS-IV, WIAT-III, to name
just a few. For these instruments, I have described
the newest editions and included relevant research.
More specifically, the improvement and enhancements in the current edition include the
following:
1.In Chapter 1 on Implementation and Attributes of Psychological Testing, new empirical research on the role of examiner errors in
producing distorted test scores is included.
New evidence of widespread cheating in high
stakes testing (school system achievement
testing, national certification exams) also is
presented.
2.Recent developments in evidence-based practice and outcomes assessment have been added
to Chapter 2, Origins of Psychological Testing.
New material on the history of personality
testing is also included.
3.In Chapter 5, coverage of the PASS theory
(Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, Successive) has been expanded in Topic 5A: Theories of Intelligence and Factor Analysis. In
Topic 5B: Individual Tests of Intelligence and
Achievement, a major test featuring PASS
­t heory, the Cognitive Assessment S­ ystem-II
(Nag lieri, Das, & G oldstein, 2012) is
highlighted.
4.A number of new and fascinating findings have
been added to Topic 6B: Test bias and Other

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Preface
17

Controversies. The question of whether statistical
tests of bias are themselves biased is first raised.
5.New research on the impact of Head Start, the
fate of children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
Disorders, and the nature of cognitive decline
in advance age, has been added to Topic 6B.
6.Also in Topic 6B, a new Case Exhibit demonstrating the impact of cultural background on
the test results has been added.
7.In the Chapter 7, Assessing Special ­Populations,
new material includes coverage of the Devereaux Early Childhood Assessment—­Clinical
Form (DECA-C), and a review of scales for the
screening of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The
complex issue of screening for school readiness
also is included.
8.In Chapter 8, Foundations of Personality Testing, the Rorschach Performance Assessment
System (R-PAS), a new scoring system for
the inkblot test, is reviewed. The well-known
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is incorporated as well. New material on the value
of ecological momentary assessment also is
included.
9.A new topic on stability and change in personality has been added to Chapter 9, Evaluation
of Normality and Individual Strengths. A new
instrument featured in longitudinal research,

the Big Five Inventory (BFI), is featured in this
topic.
10. The coverage of spiritual and religious assessment also has been significantly increased in
Chapter 9, including a review of the ASPIRES
scale (Assessment of Spirituality and Religious
Sentiments scale, Piedmont, 2010), a recent
and promising measure of spiritual and religious variables. Likewise, the review of creativity assessment has been expanded in this
chapter.
11. In Chapter 10, Neuropsychological Testing, the last research on mild Traumatic
Brain Injury (mTBI) is presented, and the
controversies surrounding baseline testing
of neurocognitive functioning in soldiers
and athletes are reviewed. The recently revised Wechsler Memory Scale-IV (WMS-IV)
is presented as well.

A01_GREG8801_07_SE_FM.indd 17

12. Chapter 11, Industrial, Occupational, and
Career Assessment, has undergone the most
substantial revisions in the book, especially
in the new Topic 11B: Assessment for Career
­Development in the Global Economy. In this
section, I review theories of career development, and present assessment approaches
­often useful in the new global economy.
Of course, minor but essential changes have been
made throughout the entire book to capture the
latest developments in testing. For example, I have
searched the literature to include the most recent
studies bearing on the validity of well-established
instruments.

Outline of the Book
Topical Organization
To accommodate the widest possible audience, I have
incorporated an outline that partitions the gargantuan
field of psychological testing—its history, principles,
and applications—into 22 small, manageable, modular topics. I worked hard to organize the 22 topics into
natural pairings. Thus, the reader will notice that the
book is also organized as an ordered series of 11 chapters of 2 topics each. The chapter format helps identify pairs of topics that are more or less contiguous
and also reduces the need for redundant preambles to
each topic.
The most fundamental and indivisible unit of
the book is the topic. Each topic stands on its own.
In each topic, the reader encounters a manageable
number of concepts and reviews a modest number
of tests. To the student, the advantage of topical
organization is that the individual topics are small
enough to read at a single sitting. To the instructor, the advantage of topical organization is that
subjects deemed of lesser importance can be easily
excised from the reading list. Naturally, I would prefer that every student read every topic, but I am a
realist too. Often, a foreshortened textbook is necessary for practical reasons such as the length of the
school term. In those instances, the instructor will
find it easy to fashion a subset of topics to meet the
curricular needs of almost any course in psychological testing.

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18Preface

The 11 chapters break down into five broad
areas, as follows:
Nature, History, and Consequences of
Testing
Chapter 1: Implementation and Attributes of
Psychological Testing
Topic 1A: The Nature and Uses of
Psychological Testing
Topic 1B: Ethical and Social Implications of
Testing

Chapter 7: Assessing Special Populations
Topic 7A: Infant and Preschool
Assessment
Topic 7B: Testing Persons with Disabilities
Assessment of Personality and Related
Constructs
Chapter 8: Foundations of Personality
Testing
Topic 8A: Theories of Personality and
Projective Techniques

Chapter 2: Origins of Psychological
Testing

Topic 8B: Self-Report and Behavioral
Assessment of Psychopathology

Topic 2A: The Origins of Psychological
Testing

Chapter 9: Evaluation of Normality and
­Individual Strengths

Topic 2B: Testing from the Early 1900s to
Present
Foundations of Testing

Topic 9A: Assessment within the Normal
Spectrum

Chapter 3: Norms and Reliability

Topic 9B: Positive Psychological
Assessment

Topic 3A: Norms and Test Standardization

Specialized Applications

Topic 3B: Concepts of Reliability

Chapter 10: Neuropsychological Testing

Chapter 4: Validity and Test Construction

Topic 10A: Neurobiological Concepts and
Behavioral Assessment

Topic 4A: Basic Concepts of Validity

Topic 4B: Test Construction
Ability Testing and Controversies
Chapter 5: Intelligence and Achievement:
Theories and Tests
Topic 5A: Theories of Intelligence and Factor
Analysis
Topic 5B: Individual Tests of Intelligence and
Achievement
Chapter 6: Ability Testing: Group Tests and
Controversies 
Topic 6A: Group Tests of Ability and Related
Concepts
Topic 6B: Test Bias and Other
Controversies

A01_GREG8801_07_SE_FM.indd 18

Topic 10B: Neuropsychological Tests,
Batteries, and Screening Tools
Chapter 11: Industrial, Occupational, and
Career Assessment  
Topic 11A: Industrial and Organizational
Assessment
Topic 11B: Assessment for Career Development
in a Global Economy
The book also features an extensive glossary and a
table for converting percentile ranks to standard and
standardized-score equivalents. In addition, an important feature is Appendix A, Major Landmarks in
the History of Psychological Testing. To meet personal needs, readers and course instructors will pick
and choose from these topics as they please.

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Preface
19

Supplements
Pearson Education is pleased to offer the following
supplements to qualified adopters.
Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank The instructor’s manual is a wonderful tool for classroom
preparation and management. Corresponding
to the topics from the text, each of the manual’s
22 topics contains classroom discussion questions,
extramural assignments, classroom demonstrations,
and essay questions. In addition, the test bank portion provides instructors with more than 1,000 readymade multiple choice questions.
PowerPoint Presentation The PowerPoint Presentation is an exciting interactive tool for use in the classroom. Each chapter pairs key concepts with images
from the textbook to reinforce student learning.

revision. These individuals include Susan Hartman,
who provided overall editorial guidance and arranged
for excellent reviews; Lindsay Bethoney, who managed
the many details of manuscript submission and preparation. In addition, I want to thank Somdotta Mukherjee (Copy Editor), Rajshri Walia (Art Coordinator),
Jogender Taneja (Project Manager), and the team involved in the final phase of development of this book.
Dozens of psychologists and educators permitted me to reproduce tables, figures, and artwork
from their research and scholarship. Rather than
gathering these names in an obscure appendix that
few readers would view, I have cited the contributors
in the context of their tables and figures.
In addition, these individuals helped with earlier editions and their guidance has carried forward

to the current version:
George M. Alliger, University of Albany

This text is available in a digital format as well. To
learn more about our programs, pricing options, and
customization, visit www.pearsonglobaleditions.com
/Gregory.

Linda J. Allred, East Carolina University

Acknowledgments

Michael L. Chase, Quincy University

I want to express my gratitude to several persons for
helping the seventh edition become a reality. The following individuals reviewed one or more previous
editions and provided numerous valuable suggestions:

Milton J. Dehn, University of Wisconsin–
La Crosse

Wendy Folger, Central Michigan University
Philip Moberg, Northern Kentucky University
Herman Huber, College of St. Elizabeth
Zandra Gratz, Kean University
Ken Linfield, Spalding University
Darrell Rudmann, Shawnee State University
William Rogers, Grand Valley State University
Mark Runco, University of Georgia, Athens
William Struthers, Wheaton College

Herbert W. Helm, Jr., Andrews University

A number of people at Pearson Education
played pivotal roles along the way, providing encouragement and tactical advice in the various phases of

A01_GREG8801_07_SE_FM.indd 19

Kay Bathurst, California State University,
Fullerton
Fred Brown, Iowa State University

Timothy S. Hartshorne, Central Michigan
University
Ted Jaeger, Westminster College
Richard Kimball, Worcester State College
Haig J. Kojian
Phyllis M. Ladrigan, Nazareth College
Terry G. Newell, California State University,
Fresno
Walter L. Porter, Harding University
Linda Krug Porzelius, SUNY, Brockport
Robert W. Read, Northeastern University
Robert A. Reeves, Augusta State University

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20Preface

James R. Sorensen, Northeastern University

Michael Eltz of University of Rhode Island

Billy Van Jones, Abilene Christian University

John Hall of Arkansas State University

Thanks are due to the many publishers who granted
permission for reproduction of materials. Administrators and colleagues at Wheaton College (Illinois)
helped with the book by providing excellent resources
and a supportive atmosphere for previous editions.
Finally, as always, special thanks to Mary, Sara,
and Anne, who continue to support my preoccupation with textbook writing. For at least a few years,
I promise not to mention “the book” when my loved
ones ask me how things are going.
Users of the text:
Melissa Blank of Moffitt Cancer Center at
University of South Florida

A01_GREG8801_07_SE_FM.indd 20

Jeanne Jenkins of John Carroll University
Kathleen Torsney of William Paterson University
Jason McGlothlin of Kent State University
Non-users of the text:
Bradley Brummel of The University of Tulsa
Peter Spiegel of CSUSB
Zinta Byrne of Colorado State University
Mikle South of Brigham Young University

Pearson would like to thank and acknowledge
Shweta Sharma Sehgal, for her work on the Global
Edition.

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Chapter 1

Implementation
and ­Attributes of
­ sychological Testing
P
Topic 1A  The Nature and Uses of Psychological Testing
The Consequences of Testing
Case Exhibit 1.1  True-Life Vignettes of Testing
Definition of a Test
Further Distinctions in Testing
Types of Tests
Uses of Testing
Factors Influencing the Soundness of Testing
Standardized Procedures in Test Administration
Desirable Procedures of Test Administration
Influence of the Examiner
Background and Motivation of the Examinee

I

f you ask average citizens “What do you know about psychological tests?” they might
­mention something about intelligence tests, inkblots, and true-false inventories such as the

widely familiar MMPI. Most likely, their understanding of tests will focus on quantifying
intelligence and detecting personality problems, as this is the common view of how tests are used
in our society. Certainly, there is more than a grain of truth to this common view: Measures of
personality and intelligence are still the essential mainstays of psychological testing. However,
modern test developers have produced many other kinds of tests for diverse and imaginative
purposes that even the early pioneers of testing could not have anticipated. The purpose of this
chapter is to discuss the varied applications of psychological testing and also to review the ethical
and social consequences of this enterprise.
The chapter begins with a panoramic survey of psychological tests and their often
­s urprising applications. In Topic 1A, The Nature and Uses of Psychological Testing, we
­summarize the different types and varied applications of modern tests. We also introduce the
reader to a host of factors that can influence the soundness of testing such as adherence to

M01_GREG8801_07_SE_C01.indd 21

21

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22

Chapter 1  •  Implementation and ­Attributes of ­Psychological Testing

standardized procedures, establishment of rapport,
and the motivation of the examinee to deceive. In
Topic 1B, Ethical and Social Implications of Testing,
we further develop the theme that testing is a consequential endeavor. In this topic, we survey professional guidelines that impact testing and review the
influence of cultural background on test results.

The Consequences of Testing
From birth to old age, we encounter tests at almost
every turning point in life. The baby’s first test conducted immediately after birth is the Apgar test, a
quick, multivariate assessment of heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and color. The
total Apgar score (0 to 10) helps determine the need
for any immediate medical attention. Later, a toddler
who previously received a low Apgar score might be
a candidate for developmental disability assessment.
The preschool child may take school-readiness tests.
Once a school career begins, each student endures
hundreds, perhaps thousands, of academic tests
before graduation—not to mention possible tests
for learning disability, giftedness, vocational interest, and college admission. After graduation, adults
may face tests for job entry, driver’s license, security
clearance, personality function, marital compatibility, developmental disability, brain dysfunction—the
list is nearly endless. Some persons even encounter
one final indignity in the frailness of their later years:
a test to determine their competency to manage
­financial affairs.
Tests are used in almost every nation on earth
for counseling, selection, and placement. Testing
occurs in settings as diverse as schools, civil service, industry, medical clinics, and counseling centers. Most persons have taken dozens of tests and
thought nothing of it. Yet, by the time the typical
individual reaches retirement age, it is likely that
psychological test results will have helped to shape
his or her destiny. The deflection of the life course
by psychological test results might be subtle, such
as when a prospective mathematician qualifies for
an accelerated calculus course based on tenth-grade
achievement scores. More commonly, psychological test results alter individual destiny in profound

ways. Whether a person is admitted to one college

M01_GREG8801_07_SE_C01.indd 22

and not another, offered one job but refused a
­second, diagnosed as depressed or not—all such determinations rest, at least in part, on the meaning
of test results as interpreted by persons in ­authority.
Put simply, psychological test results change lives.
For this reason it is prudent—indeed, almost
­m andatory—that students of psychology learn
about the contemporary uses and occasional abuses
of testing. In Case Exhibit 1.1, the life-­altering aftermath of psychological testing is illustrated by means
of several true case history examples.

Case Exhibit 1.1
True-Life Vignettes of Testing
The influence of psychological testing is best illustrated by example. Consider these brief vignettes:
• A shy, withdrawn 7-year-old girl is administered an IQ test by a school psychologist. Her
score is phenomenally higher than the teacher
expected. The student is admitted to a gifted
and talented program where she blossoms into
a self-confident and gregarious scholar.
• Three children in a family living near a lead
smelter are exposed to the toxic effects of lead
dust and suffer neurological damage. Based
in part on psychological test results that demonstrate impaired intelligence and shortened
attention span in the children, the family receives an $8 million settlement from the company that owns the smelter.
• A candidate for a position as police officer is
administered a personality inventory as part
of the selection process. The test indicates

that the candidate tends to act before thinking
and resists supervision from authority figures.
Even though he has excellent training and impresses the interviewers, the candidate does
not receive a job offer.
• A student, unsure of what career to pursue,
takes a vocational interest inventory. The
test indicates that she would like the work
of a pharmacist. She signs up for a prepharmacy curriculum but finds the classes to be
both difficult and boring. After three years,
she abandons pharmacy for a major in dance,

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Topic 1A  •  The Nature and Uses of Psychological Testing

frustrated that she still faces three more years
of college to earn a degree.
These cases demonstrate that test results impact individual lives and the collective social fabric
in powerful and far-reaching ways. In the first story
about the hidden talent of a 7-year-old girl, cognitive
test results changed her life trajectory for the better.
In the second case involving the tragic saga of children exposed to lead poisoning, the test data helped
redress a social injustice. In the third situation—the
impulsive candidate for police officer—personality
test results likely served the public interest by tipping the balance against a questionable applicant.
But test results do not always provide a positive conclusion. In the last case mentioned above, a young
student wasted time and money following the seemingly flawed guidance of a well-known vocational

inventory.

The idea of a test is thus a pervasive element of
our culture, a feature we take for granted. However,
the layperson’s notion of a test does not necessarily
coincide with the more restrictive view held by psychometricians. A psychometrician is a specialist in
psychology or education who develops and evaluates psychological tests. Because of widespread misunderstandings about the nature of tests, it is fitting
that we begin this topic with a fundamental question, one that defines the scope of the entire book:
What is a test?

Definition of a Test
A test is a standardized procedure for sampling behavior and describing it with categories or scores.
In addition, most tests have norms or standards by
which the results can be used to predict other, more
important behaviors. We elaborate these characteristics in the sections that follow, but first it is instructive to portray the scope of the definition. Included
in this view are traditional tests such as personality
questionnaires and intelligence tests, but the definition also subsumes diverse procedures that the reader
might not recognize as tests. For example, all of the
following could be tests according to the definition

M01_GREG8801_07_SE_C01.indd 23

23

used in this book: a checklist for rating the social
skills of a youth with mental retardation; a nontimed
measure of mastery in adding pairs of three-digit
numbers; microcomputer appraisals of reaction time;
and even situational tests such as observing an individual working on a group task with two “helpers”
who are obstructive and uncooperative.

In sum, tests are enormously varied in their
formats and applications. Nonetheless, most tests
possess these defining features:
• Standardized procedure
• Behavior sample
• Scores or categories
• Norms or standards
• Prediction of nontest behavior
In the sections that follow, we examine each
of these characteristics in more detail. The portrait
that we draw pertains especially to norm-referenced
tests—tests that use a well-defined population of
persons for their interpretive framework. However,
the defining characteristics of a test differ slightly
for the special case of criterion-referenced tests—
tests that measure what a person can do rather than
comparing results to the performance levels of others. For this reason, we provide a separate discussion of criterion-referenced tests.
Standardized procedure is an essential ­feature
of any psychological test. A test is considered to be
standardized if the procedures for administering it are
uniform from one examiner and setting to another.
Of course, standardization depends to some extent
on the competence of the examiner. Even the best test
can be rendered useless by a careless, poorly trained,
or ill-informed tester, as the reader will discover later
in this topic. However, most examiners are competent. Standardization, therefore, rests largely on the
directions for administration found in the instructional manual that typically accompanies a test.
The formulation of directions is an ­essential
step in the standardization of a test. In order to guarantee uniform administration procedures, the test
developer must provide comparable stimulus materials to all testers, specify with considerable precision the oral instructions for each item or subtest,

and advise the examiner how to handle a wide range
of queries from the examinee.

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24

Chapter 1  •  Implementation and ­Attributes of ­Psychological Testing

To illustrate these points, consider the
­ umber of different ways a test developer might
n
approach the assessment of digit span—the maximum number of orally presented digits a subject
can recall from memory. An unstandardized test
of digit span might merely suggest that the examiner orally present increasingly long series of
numbers until the subject fails. The number of
digits in the longest series recalled would then be
the subject’s digit span. Most readers can discern
that such a loosely defined test will lack uniformity from one examiner to another. If the tester
is free to improvise any series of digits, what is
to prevent him or her from ­p resenting, with the
familiar inflection of a television announcer,
“1-800-325-3535”? Such a series would be far
easier to recall than a more random set, such as,
“7-2-8-1-9-4-6-3-7-4-2.” The speed of presentation would also crucially affect the uniformity of
a digit span test. For purposes of standardization,
it is essential that every examiner present each series at a constant rate, for example, one digit per
second. Finally, the examiner needs to know how
to react to unexpected responses such as a subject

asking, “Could you repeat that again?” For obvious reasons, the usual advice is “No.”
A psychological test is also a limited sample
of behavior. Neither the subject nor the examiner
has sufficient time for truly comprehensive testing,
even when the test is targeted to a well-defined and
finite behavior domain. Thus, practical constraints
dictate that a test is only a sample of behavior. Yet,
the sample of behavior is of interest only insofar as
it permits the examiner to make inferences about
the total domain of relevant behaviors. For example,
the purpose of a vocabulary test is to determine the
examinee’s entire word stock by requesting definitions of a very small but carefully selected sample
of words. Whether the subject can define the particular 35 words from a vocabulary subtest (e.g.,
on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV, or the
WAIS-IV) is of little direct consequence. But the
indirect meaning of such results is of great import
because it signals the examinee’s general knowledge
of vocabulary.
An interesting point—and one little understood
by the lay public—is that the test items need not

M01_GREG8801_07_SE_C01.indd 24

resemble the behaviors that the test is a­ ttempting
to predict. The essential characteristic of a good
test is that it permits the examiner to predict other
­behaviors—not that it mirrors the to-be-predicted behaviors. If answering “true” to the question “I drink
a lot of water” happens to help predict depression,
then this seemingly unrelated question is a useful index of depression. Thus, the reader will note that successful prediction is an empirical question answered
by appropriate research. While most tests do sample

directly from the domain of behaviors they hope to
predict, this is not a psychometric requirement.
A psychological test must also permit the
­derivation of scores or categories. Thorndike (1918)
expressed the essential axiom of testing in his famous assertion, “Whatever exists at all exists in
some amount.” McCall (1939) went a step further,
declaring, “Anything that exists in amount can be
measured.” Testing strives to be a form of measurement akin to procedures in the physical sciences
whereby numbers represent abstract dimensions
such as weight or temperature. Every test furnishes
one or more scores or provides evidence that a person belongs to one category and not another. In
short, psychological testing sums up performance in
numbers or classifications.
The implicit assumption of the psychometric
viewpoint is that tests measure individual differences in traits or characteristics that exist in some
vague sense of the word. In most cases, all people are
assumed to possess the trait or characteristic being
measured, albeit in different amounts. The purpose
of the testing is to estimate the amount of the trait or
quality possessed by an individual.
In this context, two cautions are worth mentioning. First, every test score will always reflect
some degree of measurement error. The imprecision
of testing is simply unavoidable: Tests must rely on
an external sample of behavior to estimate an unobservable and, therefore, inferred characteristic.
­Psychometricians often express this fundamental
point with an equation:
X=T+e
where X is the observed score, T is the true score,
and e is a positive or negative error component.

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