transcripts contemporary 2

UNIT 1

WHAT’S IN A NAME?

TEACHER: Good morning, everybody. Good morning, Felipe, Monica, Theo… and I can’t remember your name.
STUDENT 1: Patricia
TEACHER: Right, Patricia. Those are all beautiful names, and that’s our topic today – names. Names are a cultural
universal. This means everyone uses names. A person’s name can tell us a bit about a person’s family. Today, we’ll begin
by looking at first names and how people choose names for their children. And then, we’ll talk about family names, and
look at the different categories of family names. Although the scope of the lecture today is English-language names, we
can use the same approach, you know, to look at names from any culture.
Let’s take a brief look at first, or given, names, there are several ways parents choose the first name for their child. The
first way is by family history, parents may choose a name because it is passed from generation to generation, for example,
the firstborn son might be named after his father or grandfather. Although family names are also passed to daughter, it is
usually as a middle name. Adding “junior” or “the second” – for example, William Parker the second – is only done with
boys’ not with girls’ names.
The second way parents choose a name is after a family member or friend who has died recently, or after someone they
admire, like a well-known leader or a famous musician. Although most English first names mean something, for example
“Richard” means powerful and “Ann” means grace, nowadays meaning is not the main reason people select their baby’s
name.
The third way is to provide a “push” for the child. Parents want to choose a name that sounds very “successful.” A strong
name might help them in the business world, for example. Or they might choose a name that works for either gender, like
Taylor or Terry. So, given these three methods, what is the most common way parents choose a name? Many parents
choose a name simply because they like it, or because it’s fashionable or classic. Fashions in names change just as they do
in clothes. One hundred years ago, many names came from the Bible – names such as Daniel, and Anna and Hannah and
Mathew. Then, fifty years ago, Biblical names went out of fashion. Nowadays names from the Bible are becoming popular
again. Similarly, parents often choose classic names, names that were popular in 1900, 1950, and are still popular now.
Classic names for boys include Thomas, David, Robert, and Michael. And for girls: Anna, Elizabeth, Emily and
Katherine, just to name a few. They’re classic. They never go out of style.
Let’s look at the origin of last names, also called family names or surnames. Researchers have studied thousands of last
names, and they’ve divided them into 4 categories. The categories are: place names, patronymics, added names, and

occupational names, a recent survey showed that of the 7,000 most popular names in the United States today, 43 percent
were place name, 32 percent were patronymics, 15 percent were occupational names, and 9 percent were added names.
The first category is place names. Place names usually identified where a person lived or worked. Someone named John
Hill lived near a hill, for example. And the Rivers family lived near a river, if you hear the name Emma Bridges, … What
image do you see? Do you see a family that lives near a bridge? If you do, you get the idea.
The second category is patronymics that’s P-A-T-R-O-N-Y-M-I-C-S. A patronymics is the father’s name, plus an ending
like S-E-N or S-O-N. The ending means that a child, a boy, is the son of his father, the names Robertson, Peterson, and
Wilson are patronymics. Robertson is a son of Robert, Peterson is a son of Peter, and so on.
The third category is added names. Linguists sometimes call this category “nicknames,” but when most of us hear the
word “nickname”, we think of a special name a friend or a parent might use. The word “nickname” is actually an old
English word that means an additional name, an added name. So I’ll use the term “added name’”. This category of last
names is fun because the names usually described a person. Reed, Baldwin and Biggs are examples. Reed was from “red”
for red hair. Baldwin was someone who was bald. Someone who had little or no hair. And Biggs?
STUDENT 2: Someone big?
TEACHER: Yeah, someone big, right. Now, if we look around the room, we could probably come up with some new last
names; like, uh, Curly or Strong.


Now, the fourth category is occupational names. The origin of the family name was the person’s occupation. The most
common examples still used today are Baker (someone who bakes bread), Tailor (someone who sew clothes), Miller
(someone who makes flour for bread), and Smith. … Now, Smith is actually the most common name in the western
English-speaking world. The name comes from an old English word, smite that’s S-M-I-T-E, which means to hit or strike
in the old days, a smith made metal things for daily life, like tools. Every town needed smiths. What’s interesting is that
many languages have a family name that means Smith. In Arabic it is Haddad, H-A-D-D-A-D. In Spanish it is Herrera, HE-R-R-E-R-A. In Italian it is Ferraro, F-E-R-R-A-R-O. And in German it is Schmidt, spelled S-C-H-M-I-D-T. All these
names mean Smith.
Though names may tell us something about someone’s family history, you need to keep in mind that they may not tell us
much at all about the present. For example, there’s usually not much connection between the origin of the name and the
person who has it now. Take the name Cook, for instance. A person named Cook today probably doesn’t cook for a living.
Also, many people change their names for various reasons. Lot of people who have moved the United States have
changed their names to sound more American. This happens less now than in the past, but people still do it. People also

use pen names or stage names to give themselves a professional advantage. For example, the writer Samuel Clemens used
the pen name Mark Twain, and Thomas Mapother IV uses the stage name Tom Cruise.
So, let’s recap now, in today’s lesson. We looked at how parents choose English first names. We also looked at some
common origins of family names, in the next class, we’ll look at how names are given in Korea and in Japan. This is
covered in the next section of the book. That’s all for today.
UNIT 2

ENGLISH: A GLOBAL LANGUAGE?

TEACHER: Today’s topic is English as a global language. I know many of you speak English as a second language, right?
How about u, Hiroshi? Is English your first language?
STUDENT 1: No, my first language is Japanese. English is my second language.
TEACHER: And how about you, Patricia?
STUDENT 2: English is my second language, too. My first language is Spanish.
TEACHER: See, many of you use English as a second language, even as a global language to communicate with other
people who speak English as a second language.
Today, I want to give you two contrasting points of view on whether or not English is a global language. The first is that
English is obviously a global language. People who support this point of view believe English is the language people all
over the world use to communicate and that it is gradually replacing other languages. The second point of view is that
English is not truly a global language, because it is not the main language spoken by most people worldwide. Supporters
of this view say that even though many people speak some English worldwide, English has not replaced other languages.
They acknowledge that people use English every day, for many reasons, but this doesn’t mean English is replacing other
languages, nor does it make English the main language spoken in the world.
First, let/s examine the first view. First of all, English is the dominant language of business travel and science. When
people need a common language, they often use English. Think about it. English is often used at tourist information
centers, in international hotels, at airports. If you use a taxi in Rome, and you can’t speak Italian, the taxi driver is more
likely to use English than any other languages. It is used at business meetings and international sports events. The
European Union uses English, along with French, at its meetings… ASEAN, the Asian trade group, uses English at its
meetings. Can you think of other situations in which English is used as a common language?
STUDENT 2: How about this class? All of us are listening to you in English.

TEACHER: Absolutely. Educational settings are a great example. Any others?
STUDENT 3: How about a chartroom on the Internet? I sometimes go to chat rooms and everyone is using English.
TEACHER: Excellent example. The Internet has created a lot of international communities and people often use English.
In fact, most people who use the Internet know English. This helps support the view that English is a global language.


The second major reason that people believe English is a global language is that it is the official language of more than
seventy-five countries. This means these countries use English in schools, banks, business, and government. Of these
seventy-five countries, English may be the only official language of the country, like in England, or English may be used
along with other official languages, like in the Philippines, Singapore, and India. In countries like India, where so many
languages are spoken, you can see how using English as an official language makes it easier for people to communicate.
The third reason to support the global argument is that every year about 1 billion people study English. Why? What are
some of the reasons? Hiroshi, how about you?
STUDENT 1: Well, now to study, and someday I want to be in international business.
TEACHER: That’s a solid reason. How about you, Oksana?
STUDENT 3: I’m not really sure. I just think it will help me in the future somehow.
TEACHER: There’s a more general reason. The point is, people want and need to learn English because it offers the
opportunities.
To sum up, English is used every day by many people. People all over the world come in contact with each other for many
reasons. They need a common language, a language to facilitate communication. Being proficient in English gives
someone and advantage in these situations.
OK. I have given you many examples of how English is used in a variety of situations. Nevertheless, does this mean that
English is a global language?
Let’s look at why some people don’t believe English has replaced other languages. First, there are about three times as
many people who speak Chinese as their first language as those who speak English as a first language. And in many
countries where some people use English for work each day, they don’t use English anywhere else even in Englishspeaking countries, there are millions of people who prefer to speak a language other than English at home, with friends,
or at work.
Second, I mentioned before that seventy-five countries have English as their official language. This doesn’t mean all, or
even most of the people in these countries can speak English. For example, in India, most sources agree that only about 5
percent of the population speaks English. That’s a small percentage!

Third, how much English does a person need to know to be called an English speaker? People may learn some English for
specific situations, such as the taxi driver I mentioned earlier. However, I think you would all agree with me that a taxi
driver who knows a few phrases like “Where are you going?” or “What is the name of your hotel?” isn’t really a proficient
English speaker. Another example is Air speak, the English chat is used by air traffic controllers and pilots. A pilot for
Japan Airlines or an air traffic controller in Paris needs to know Air speak. But they may learn only the English words they
need for these jobs, and therefore they can’t be considered English speakers.
The point here is that people all over the world may use English for work or other situations. Nevertheless, this doesn’t
mean they are fluent in English. They still use their first language for daily communication. English is not their main
language.
So, what does this all mean? I think it’s safe to say that English will continue to be the main language used in many
international settings, because. As I said earlier, people all over the world need a common language. And, for now, English
is that language.
But, English won’t replace other languages for most daily communication and this, to me, is what a global language really
is, one that replaces others for most everyday communication. Some people are afraid of this. The worry that as people
use English more and more, their ability in their first language will decline. I think people will use English along with
other languages. We are moving into a global culture, and as this continues, I think people from non-English speaking
countries will want to maintain their culture, including their first language. They may still want to learn English, but I
don’t see them giving up their own language for English. What do you think?


I’m going to stop there. I know that’s a lot of information to digest. We’ll continue talking about some of the differences in
the English words used in various countries like Australia, Singapore, and the Philippines. That’s all for today. Come see
me if you have any questions.
UNIT 3

HIGH ANXIETY: PHOBIAS

TEACHER: Good afternoon. Today we’re going to turn to a new topic in psychology and start looking at some “specific
psychological problems.” There are a variety of mental problems that can affect us in our daily life – some are not so
serious, like a fear of cats or of insects, and others are more serious. Now as psychologists, we try to study these different

problems and find ways to help people.
I want to start the discussion by talking about a fairly common kind of psychological problem – a phobia, that’s P-H-O-BI-A. First, I’ll explain what a phobia is, and then I’ll talk about some theories on why people have phobias.
As you can probably know, a phobia is a fear. So do any of you have phobias? Oh, come on, you can tell me; I’m a
psychologist. Yes, Monica?
STUDENT 1: I have a fear of swimming. I don’t like to go near the ocean.
TEACHER: OK, that’s not an unusual phobia. Anyone else? Ali?
STUDENT 2: I hate dogs. I mean, I just don’t like them. When I see a big dog, actually any dog, I just get nervous, so I
avoid them.
TEACHER: OK, that’s another common phobia. Thanks for sharing those examples of phobias. A phobia is not a normal
fear; it is an extreme fear – a very strong fear. For example, my brother, who’s a successful artist, had computer phobia.
He didn’t simply dislike using computers. He used to have a very strong fear of using them.
Psychologists have come up with three characteristics of a phobia. People display these three characteristics if they have a
phobia, not just a normal fear. Now first, a phobia is not a rational response. It’s a very strong reaction, too strong for the
situation. For my brother, this meant he had a very strong physical reaction if someone asked him to use a computer. He
started shaking violently and had trouble breathing. Once, he even started choking. Physical reactions like this are
common. Second, a phobia often lasts for a long time, for months or even years. In my brother’, it lasted several years.
Third, the reaction is too strong for a person to control. For example, even if my brother told himself not to be afraid at the
computer, it didn’t help. He still felt very afraid. Usually, people avoid whatever it is they are so afraid of. So, in my
brother’s case, he avoided using a computer.
OK, so those are the three characteristics of phobias. It’s an extreme, irrational response, it’s long-lasting, and it’s
uncontrollable.
STUDENT 3: So uncontrollable means even if you try to control it, you can’t?
TEACHER: Yes, it means you can’t control it by trying to deny you feel the phobia. There are ways to treat phobias and
we’ll talk about those in a minute. Yes?
STUDENT 4: What happened to your brother? Did he get over it?
TEACHER: Yes, he did. The main thing was that he decided that he wanted to get over it, and he was treated by a
psychologist. Now he uses computers all the time.
OK, so let’s spend a minute going over some classifications of phobias. Phobias are classified by the thing or situation that
the person fears. Greek or Latin names are usually used to describe the fear. Here’s an example: hypno, H-Y-P-N-O,
means sleep, so fear of sleep is hypnophobia. Cyno, C-Y-N-O, means dog. So a fear of dogs is …cynophobia, right?

Here’s another example. Aerophobia. Listen to the first part, Aero. What’s the fear? Aero as in airplane – Aerophobia is
fear of flying.
Let’s turn now to the causes of phobias. One theory is that a phobia is learned. This means something happens that causes
someone, or in a sense “teaches someone” to feel afraid. For example, Ali could have learned to be afraid of dogs if he
was attacked and injured by one as a child.


People can also learn to have phobias by watching how other people react. In fact, doctors find that phobias tend to run in
families for example, let’s imagine that Ali’s mother has always been afraid of dogs. Whenever Ali and his mother were
together and saw a dog, his mother would get very scared, very nervous. When Ali saw how his mother reacted, he would
then gradually become very scared, too. He would then have developed cynophobia from watching his mother. So, you
can see that there are two ways of learning can be involved in phobias. So, the first theory is that a phobia is learned.
Learned either by direct experience or by watching the reactions of others.
The second theory says that a phobia is only a sign of a deeper problem. This means that the phobia isn’t the whole
problem. Let’s take another example. I once treated a teenager who was very afraid of the dark. He couldn’t be in a dark
room by himself. He was terrified to go outside at night, and so on. According to this theory, when he acted afraid of the
dark, he was really showing his fear of something else. In therapy, it was revealed that he was afraid of his father. His
father was very strict when he was young, and once his father made him sit in a dark room when he did something bad.
According to this theory, his fear of the dark was a sign of his deeper, real fear of his father. Yes, question?
STUDENT 4: So what did you do? Did he have to talk with his father?
TEACHER: Well, no, we couldn’t do that. But recognizing that he was really afraid of his father and not the dark, was the
key step in the treatment. Now he’s cured. No more fear of the dark.
OK, so let’s think about these two theories and about the main difference between them. The first theory says that the
phobia is the problem itself. Right? And the second theory said phobia is a sign of a deeper problem the person has. Why
is this difference important? It’s mostly important in deciding how to treat the person. According to the first theory, if a
phobia is learned, perhaps it can be unlearned. A psychologist who follows this theory will try to teach someone to react
differently, to behave differently when he or she feels afraid. Changing the person’s behavior is the goal. On the other
hand, a psychologist who believes the second theory may start by trying to teach the person to react differently, but the
doctor is interested in more than that. The doctor’s objective, or goal, is to help the patient reveal the deeper psychological
problem, because it will be easier to treat the phobia if the deeper problem is identified and worked on as well.

I want you to think for a minute about the significance of having these two theories or any competing theories. What does
it mean? It tells us that psychologists, like any scientists, have to continue to do research, to learn, and to test treatments
we believe will be effective based on research. Treatments improve the more we learn.
I’m going to stop there for today. In the next class, I want to talk about other psychological problems. Read the next until
in your book before the next class that’s all for today.
UNIT 4

TV: WHAT WE WATCH?

TEACHER: Good morning. Who watched TV last night? Ah, most of you. OK, today we are going to talk about an
important part of the media – TV. Specifically, TV viewing and TV dramas.
Now first, I’ll give you some background, then we’ll discuss what makes this type of programming, dramas, so popular
worldwide.
OK. Let’s get started. Most of you would agree that watching TV is part of most people’s lives. Now statistics vary on
how much TV people watch, but research show that quite a few Americans, on average, exceed six hours of TV per day.
An English professor name Cecilia Tychy has studied TV for many years. In her book, Electronic Hearth: Creating an
American Television Culture, she discusses how the TV has become the center of activity at home. We walk into a room,
turn on the TV, and suddenly the outside world becomes less important. People use TV to tune out, or forget, about the
outside world. We’re safe to relax and join the world of the TV shows. Do you ever feel this way about TV? … Yes. Many
of you are nodding. She also sees our culture as being defined by TV. Now, by this she means that TV has a huge
influence on our attitudes, on what we like to eat, on what we like to wear, on what we like to talk about. For example,
popular TV shows are discussed at work, at school, in coffee shops. Why, even children four or five years old do this with
their favorite shows. This shows that we live in a TV culture.
Improved technology has contributed further to our TV culture. Satellite services, in particular, have expanded the TV
programming in many parts of the world. There are now hundreds of TV channels people can watch and the options


continue to expand: game shows, sports, news, talk show, comedies, TV dramas, movies, …. And with cable and satellite
there are a lot of choices
Nielsen Media Research studies people’s TV viewing habits in the U.S. They monitor which show are popular and with

whom. For example, popular shows have included the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? And the reality TV
show Survivor. They were very, very popular and watched by millions of people of all age groups
Now all of this is really background. What I want to focus on today is one form of a popular TV show that is popular with
many people of many age groups. This is TV dramas, specifically TV dramas known as soap operas, or, in Spanish,
telenovelas.
Some of you might be familiar with telenovelas. Telenovelas and soap operas in the U.S. are similar but have one big
difference – the number of episodes they have. Telenovelas and TV series end after about 200 episodes…. The story
eventually ends. Soap operas in the U.S., however, continue day after day for many year and may never end. Well, for
example, The Guiding Light has been on for more than 12,000 episodes, and on it goes. Can you believe that? More than
12,000 episodes!
Soap operas started in the United States in 1959, with the show The Guiding Light. These TV shows were called soap
operas because the main advertisers were companies that made soap.
Now, this type of programming is popular all over the world. Dozens of countries make them own soap opera shows.
Mexican soap operas have been voted the most popular TV show of the year in countries such as Korea and Russia.
Japanese soap operas are sent to Belgium. U.S. soap operas are watched worldwide. The Latin American soap opera,
Betty La Fea, or Betty The Ugly, was a huge success in the U.S. Brazilian telenovelas are the most widely distributed
television shows in the world and have been seen in more than 100 countries. And there are many other examples.
What is it about these shows that makes them popular everywhere? And why do people from very different cultures all
enjoy watching the same soap opera? Well, there are a couple of reasons.
One reason suggested by Robert C. Alien, who has done extensive research on television viewing, is that many soap
operas deal with universal themes that people all over the world understand. Themes are topics – for example, family,
love, personal struggle, money problems, marriage problems, health problems, job problems. Viewers do not need to
know the culture in order to understand the family problems in the show.
Now according to Ima Phillips, one of the creators of The Guiding Light, another reason is that people identify with the
characters. They feel the characters are just like them. To quote her from an interview, “they (the soap operas) deal with
life as we know it”. Now by this she mean the families in soap operas deal with problems of everyday life. And so, as
people watch every day, day after day a special bonder feeling develops between them and the TV family. They get to
know the characters and their problem. The TV family’s welfare becomes important. There is a sense of community, of
sharing, of family. All of these things contribute to character loyalty. If any of you have watched a show regularly, you
know what I mean. You watch it because you identify with the characters.

Now, writers of TV shows understand that TV viewers want to have a group of characters to know and care about. As
Wendy Richie, former executive producer of General Hospital put it, “the audience wants a personal, human connection,
and when they get it they are devoted. This means they become very loyal to the TV characters they watch every day. To
give an interesting example from As the World Turns: Some years back, the writers wanted to have the main character,
Bob Hughes, get shot on Friday. Well, that Friday turned out to be Christmas Eve. The producers of the show told the
writers, “No, no, no…he can’t be shot on this Friday’s show. Do you know why?”
STUDENT 1: Because it was too violent?
TEACHER: Well, no, not because it was too violent, but they didn’t want him shot on the Friday before Christmas.
STUDENT 1: Why? I mean why not?
TEACHER: Because the audience would worry all weekend about him. They wouldn’t know if he was alive or dead, and
they would not enjoy Christmas. So, the writers had to change the story, and have him shot after Christmas. I mean the
viewers really identify with their characters as if they’re real people.


Writers for evening TV also try to create character loyalty, but not with a continuing story. Instead each week, the story
begins and ends. However, each week the same characters appear and viewers watch because they know the characters
and they care about them, like friends. A great example of this was the show Seinfeld. There were four main characters:
Jerry, George, Kramer and Elaine. They each had their own problems, their own personalities. Viewers got to know them,
and wanted to see what would happen to them. Then you think about it, don’t good writers usually do this? They develop
our interest in the characters so that we want to keep reading, or keep watching TV. The next time you watch a soap opera,
think about the themes that make these shows so popular worldwide. Think about how as people watch each day, they get
to know the characters and become a part of that TV community. OK, that’s all for today. Uh, it’s time for you to go home
and watch some TV!

UNIT 5

LEARNING DIFFERENTLY

TEACHER: Hello everyone. I think we can get started now. As we have studied in this class there are many different
ways of learning. And there are many different learning problems. Some people have problems with reading, or math, or

with expressing their ideas in words. Some people have memory problems – for example, they have difficulty
remembering what they hear or read. Other people have problems holding a pencil or pen so that they can write. As
educators, these are challenges that we need to understand, because everyone deserves an education – and it’s our job to
promote learning.
Today I’d like to talk about one common cause of learning problems – the term “dyslexia”, that’s D-Y-S-L-E-X-I-A is
from Greek. It means difficulty with words and language. In the first part of my talk, I’ll briefly explain what dyslexia is
and give you some general background about it. Then, in the second part, I will present one doctor’s explanation of why
people with dyslexia have learning difficulties
OK, what is dyslexia? Dyslexia means a difficulty with reading or writing. Before about 1970, researchers thought
dyslexia was a visual problem. A problem seeing letters and words correctly. But this theory was never confirmed to be
true. Researchers have now concluded that the main problem may be that dyslexics have trouble matching sounds with
letters in words because their brains work differently from other people’s. Let me explain that. Every word is made up of
sounds, right? The sound units are called “phonemes.” Let’s take the word “cat”. Now someone who is not dyslexic will
read the word “cat” and be able to break it into the sounds, the phonemes C-A-T. However, someone who has dyslexia has
trouble breaking down the word into sounds, and as a result has trouble reading the word.
There are other problems people with dyslexia may have, and not everyone who is dyslexic has the same problems. That’s
why there is no definition of dyslexia that is accepted by everyone. We do know, however, that a dyslexic person’s brain
works differently from other people’s. Here are a few examples of students with dyslexia and their learning problems.
Anna know the answer to a question, but says the wrong words. Thomas studies hard for a spelling test. He can say how
each word is spelled, but he cannot write the words correctly on the test. Kurt tries to pay attention in class, but he has
trouble sitting still and listening. He can’t concentrate, and his teachers think he doesn’t care about school. Seiji has
trouble with the order of things, such as the steps in a math problem, his history lessons, or even his own daily schedule.
Susan has trouble following directions. She may confuse left and right…. Yes, do you have a question?
STUDENT 1: I don’t understand about the boy who can’t sit still.
TEACHER: The boy who can’t concentrate in class?
STUDENT 1: Yes, I mean how is that dyslexia?
TEACHER: Well, typically the child has trouble following spoken direction or understanding the steps in a lesson, and so
he becomes very nervous, or upset and can’t concentrate. OK?
STUDENT 1: Oh, OK. So the dyslexia prevents him from concentrating?
TEACHER: Right. These are some of the challenges for people with dyslexia. And as I said earlier, no two people have

identical problems. Of course, there are other reasons why a student might not pay attention in class, or have trouble
reading. However, these are problems someone with dyslexia may have because a dyslexic person’s brain works
differently from other people’s. Another question, yes?


STUDENT 2: How common is dyslexia?
TEACHER: It’s estimated that 10 percent of all school children are dyslexic.
STUDENT 2: Wow, that’s a lot. I heard that it only affects boys. That’s not true, is it?
TEACHER: No. research has confirmed that both genders can have dyslexia.
OK, so that gives you an idea of the problem, but what causes dyslexia? Researchers think that there may be a genetic
basis for dyslexia, that the problem is inherited from the mother or the father. This is based on the fact that about 85% of
children with dyslexia have either a mother or father who is dyslexic.
What’s interesting – as well as challenging for us, educators, is that these kids generally score high on intelligence tests,
but they usually can’t read, write, or spell at the same level as their classmates. This can be a problem because other
people, even their teachers, often don’t believe that the kids are very intelligent. In addition, dyslexics often feel like
there’s something wrong with them because they can’t learn the same way other kids at school can. They often feel
stressed and blame themselves, especially when other people say they’re lazy and not trying. Many of them try very hard
to learn, but still have trouble.
In this part of the lecture, I’ll present the work of Dr. Harold Levinson, a psychologist who has studied dyslexia for over
25 years.
To help us understand dyslexia, he tells us to think of our brains as TV sets, and to think of the parts in our brains that
receive information as computer chips. Every day, these chips, the parts in our brains receive information, right? Now this
information enter the brain as signals of what we see or hear or touch, and so on. Now the job of these brain parts is to
tune in the signals to different channels in our brain. Your brain receives the signals just as your TV sets at home does, like
it tunes in, say, Channel 5 or Channel 6.
Now, if these computer chips aren’t working right, they can’t receive the signals correctly. Nor can they tune in the correct
channels. So the signals drift around and become unclear, and as the signal drift, this causes problems. For example, if a
child’s brain cannot receive the signals on a page as she reads, she has difficulty reading. If a child cannot tune in the
signal he hears in class, he has difficulty understanding what the teacher tells him. If a signal drifts, this can also control
energy levels, our ability to concentrate, our ability to distinguish what is important and unimportant. This is why some

children have difficulty sitting still in class.
The good news is that after many years of research, Dr. Levinson and others have concluded that the brain can learn to fix
the drifting. Children who receive help often learn to deal with their individual problems and do better in school.
Naturally, it’s best if the schools intervene and give help when the children are very young. It’s also important that
teachers, and you, future teachers, be flexible about how you teach, and consider the different learning needs of students
with dyslexia…. In some special schools for dyslexic learners, the teachers read to the students. They don’t require the
students to read or write to learn. Teachers present lessons in a variety of ways. Students can take tests orally, rather than
in writing, and reading and writing are taught as separate skills. This approach recognizes that these students are very
capable of learning, but need to be taught in a different way because they learn differently. This is a very positive step.
So today I’ve given you some general ideas about what dyslexia is, and what educators are doing to help these students
learn. OK, well, that’s enough for today. We’ll talk more about this in the next class.
UNIT 6

IMMIGRATION: BOUNDS FOR THE UNITED STATES

TEACHER: All right. Let’s get started. U.S. immigration is our topic today. I know many of you are immigrants, so you
know something about this topic. As you may know by my last name, I have a German background; my parents
immigrated to the U.S. from Germany about fifty years ago…. Yes, question?
STUDENT: Does that mean you’re an immigrant?
TEACHER: Well, no. my parents are immigrants. They came to the States from Germany. I’m the first generation
German-American because I was born here.
First, we’ll talk briefly about immigration, the history of immigration to the U.S., and the story of diversity in the U.S.


To immigrate means to move from one country to another. It’s a permanent move. By contrast, if you go to live and work
in France for two years, you don’t immigrate there; you move there temporarily, because you plan to return to your
country. So to immigrate means to move to another country to live there indefinitely. Immigration happens all over the
world. Most people do it to improve their economic or social situation.
What I’ll do now is give you a brief chronology of U.S. immigration. Let’s start with the colonial period, the first wave of
immigrants, in the seventeenth century. Most immigrants were from Western Europe. Although the Spaniards arrived in

1513, the first permanent settlement in North America was one that the British started in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.
People were not prohibited from immigrating by the British; anyone could come. Life was difficult, and some people did
not survive but people felt it was worth the risk to have a better life in the colonies. The French, Spanish, and Dutch also
came, but in smaller numbers. I should also point out that about 20 percent of the population at this time was African
American. However, most weren’t immigrants; they were brought from Africa as slaves. Today we’re limiting our
discussion to voluntary immigrants – to people who choose to come to the US.
Now, by 1775, the US population had grown to about 2.5 million. The country was growing fast. Some thought too fast.
So in the 1790s, law were passed to control immigration for the first time. The Naturalization Act of 1798 required
immigrants to live in the US a certain number of years before they became citizens.
The second big wave of immigration happened between 1840 and 1920. During this wave, about 37 million people came
to the US. The industrial revolution had begun in Europe, causing a big shift from farming to factory jobs. Many left for
the US, hoping to continue doing the farming jobs they knew. About 80 percent of these second wave immigrants were
from all over Europe. During this second wave, Chinese workers also came to the US, mostly as contract workers. They
arranged, or contracted, to work for an American company before they left home. Most of them worked in the gold mines
of California, and later built railroads. Then laws were passed in the 1880s to keep most contract workers out.
Now let’s see, where are we? Ah, yes, uh, 1891, the US Congress created the INS, the Immigration and Naturalization
Service, to control immigration. Any of you who want to immigrate to the US have heard of the INS. Up until 1891, each
state had its own law and could decide which immigrants could enter. So no one really controlled the total number of
people allowed in each year. After 1891, the federal government made the laws instead. A year later, in 1892, the INS
opened Ellis Island, in New York Harbor. Ships would go past the Statue of Liberty, the symbol of a new life for many
people, and stop at Ellis Island. Have any of you seen Ellis Island? Or the Statue of Liberty? You have, Stefan?
STUDENT 2: Yes, I have. The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island.
TEACHER: What did you think?
STUDENT 2: Very impressive. Interesting, too.
TEACHER: yes, it is interesting now that Ellis Island has been made into a museum. It’s an important part of American
history. Between 1892 and 1954, when Ellis Island was closed, about 12 million immigrants entered through there, most
from Europe. I’d encourage you all to go for a visit.
Let’s go back for a minute. About 9 million people entered the US between 1900 and 1910. As a result, the US
government decided that it needed to limit the number of immigrants. This led to a series of new laws. First, the
Immigration Act of 1917 was passed to restrict who could enter. Then in 1921, the US Congress passed a quota system.

This meant they decided that a certain number of people from each country could enter the US each year. For example, 2
million from Germany could enter. Once that number had immigrated, no more were allowed until the next year. That’s
how the quota system worked.
During this period say up until the 1960s, the US was called a “melting pot”. The attitude was that immigrants had to give
up their traditions and cultures in order to create a uniform society. People were expected to forget about being Italian or
Chinese. They were expected to learn English and to adjust to American ways of doing things.
Now, let’s look at the third wave, the period from 1965 to the present time. In 1965 the quota system was abolished.
Instead, a limit of 290,000 was set on the total number of people who could enter each year. During the 1970s and 1980s,
about 80 percent of the immigrants were from Latin America and Asia, and only 20 percent were from Europe and
elsewhere. So if you compare the second and third waves, you see that in the second wave it was mostly Europeans and in


the third wave it was mostly Latin Americans and Asians. Again, economic opportunity was the main reason people
immigrated.
Each year after 1965, many people wanted to immigrate to the US, many more than the 290,000 limit. This led to the
Immigration Act of 1990. The Immigration Act of 1990 raised the yearly limit from 290,000 to 700,000. However, from
1990 to the present, the actual number has been closer to 1 million, one reason for this being that the US needs workers
for many of its service jobs, such as in restaurants or hotels or in farming
In recent years, many people in the US have come to realize that the country’s greatest strength is the diversity of its
people. So, the old melting pot ideal has been replaced with the ideal of cultural diversity, with recognizing the importance
of Americans’ many different cultural backgrounds, you can see this today in strong communities that are KoreanAmerican, Japanese-American, Italian-American, Mexican- American, and so on. Any questions about this? Susan?
STUDENT 3: I’m confused. I thought the melting pot was a good thing, that people should mix together and form a
strong society.
TEACHER: Yes, I think you’re right – we do want to mix together and form a strong society. But now the metaphor is that
we want to eat a mixed salad, where each ingredient keeps its original flavor, too. Does that sound like a good thing?
Student 3: Yes, it makes sense.
TEACHER: Well, let’s sum up. There were several waves of immigration into the US. The earlier waves were mostly
Europeans, while the later waves have been mostly people from Latin America and Asia. The main reason has always
been economic; they are looking for better jobs and a better life than they had in their home country. In the next class, I’m
going to talk about current immigration laws. We’ll start there next time. That’s all for today.

UNIT 7

WHO’S CALLING THE SHOTS?

TEACHER: Good morning. Hope you had a good weekend. Today we’re going to start talking about styles of business
management. Styles of business management vary from country to country, company to company, and from person to
person. One approach to good management now considered important worldwide is team building. Team building is only
part of what makes someone a good manager, but it underlies many good management practices.
When team building, the manager does things to help employees work together effectively as a group, as a team.
This is based on the idea that the manager’s job isn’t simply to tell people what to do, but to help solve problems and help
people communicate so they work well together. This approach emphasizes employee relations and it benefits the
company.
It hasn’t always been this way. Not so many years ago there was an attitude in American companies, of “What the
manager says, goes.” Employees were expected to do what they were told. But we’re seeing a new paradigm because
companies have realized that employees don’t do their best work when they’re treated like this. This was a big change in
American management style, perhaps influenced by the Japanese model.
First, in order to build a team, a good business manager knows that different people are good at different things and values
the special skills that each employee brings to the company. A good manager needs to find a way to let the employees
know that their particular skills are important to the company. The employees are then more likely to do their best when
they feel valued, and value each other. A strong manager knows how to build a team of employees who help each other do
their best work.
So, what can a manager do to help employees feel they’re valued, like part of the team? Let’s consider a situation at a
company called the ABC company. Let’s say there’s a new manager in the office, Mrs. Gomez, and she’s made some
changes. One day, an employee – Mrs. Parks - decides to approach Mrs. Gomez about some problems she is having at
work. Mrs. Parks has worked at the company for more than ten years. The new changes make it difficult for her to do her
job well. She’s stressed, and this is affecting her job performance.
So, Mrs. Gomez and Mrs. Parks talk. Mrs. Gomez listens. She knows she has made some changes, and that the office isn’t
being run like it was before. But she tells Mrs. Parks to try her best, and give it more time. Oh, I see a question. Anna?

STUDENT1: I’m not clear. What kind of changes are you talking about?
TEACHER: Oh. Well, let’s say one change is that, before, you gave a rough draft of your report to the secretary, and she
edited it and sent it out. Now, the secretary doesn’t do this for you. You have to do it yourself. She changed the way the
office was organized.
STUDENT 1: Oh, OK.
TEACHER: Later that night, Mrs. Gomez thinks about what Mrs. Parks said. She thinks it’s possible that other people in
the office are having problems, too. Mrs. Gomez knows that she needs a strong team to be a successful manager. She also
needs a stable group of employees. She doesn’t want people to leave. She decides she needs to get an accurate idea of the
employees’ perspectives. She decides to give the employees an opportunity to share their ideas. She wants to show them,
she values their work and their experience at the company.
So Mrs. Gomez makes a team-building plan. She begins by scheduling a meeting for the next day to talk about the
changes she has made, to give the employees an opportunity to say what problems they’re having and to ask questions. At
the end of the meeting, she gives the employees some questions to answer in writing to make it easy for them to share
their idea. She tells them she will use the answers they write and the ideas from the meeting to decide on the next step in
the office.
Let’s consider the kind of questions she gives them. She wants questions that focus on the work itself, questions that
would be easy for an employee to answer honestly. Questions like:
A. Is it clear to you what your responsibilities are?
B. Do your know who to talk to if a task is unclear?
C. Do your team members support you? If not, what specific things could they do to help you do a better job?
D. What was done in the past that you think worked better?
These questions are about the work, about how the office is organized, and about working together. They don’t focus on
the employee’s feelings about the manager.
Mrs. Gomez reads their answers to the questions. She also checks her notes from the meeting. She decides to modify the
way she has reorganized the office. Not big changes – just a few small ones. She realizes that some of the old ways were
better. So, she makes a few changes back to how the office was organized before. She also comes up with a six-month
plan for improvement, and tells the employees they will all review the plan together in six months.
What message is she communicating to the employees by these actions? Well, first, she’s telling them she considers their
ideas important; she values their opinions. Second, she is telling them she is in charge, but she values what they say.
Third, she’s telling them that change is not necessarily good if there is no good reason for it. In other words, she didn’t

need to make so many big changes when she started as manager. And, finally, she’s telling them that she is human, that
she can admit her mistakes, and that she’s willing to do what benefits the group. This puts her on the road to gaining their
support, and to being a successful manager.
Now, on to the third part of the plan. Mrs. Gomez plans a picnic at the park near their office. They have lunch, play
games, and talk. They laugh and joke and relax, by the end of the day, they know each other better. Hopefully, this will
help them work together better, as well.
Let’s review the three parts of Mrs. Gomez’s team-building plan. She had a meeting, she gave employees questions about
the office organization, and she planned a fun activity to help them get to know each other. We can see that her plan is
based on the importance of solving problems, and on the belief that communication is vital in order to succeed as a team.
This is a key point: her plan is based on the idea of solving problems and employees sharing ideas.
Any questions? Felipe?
STUENT 2: Well, I’ve studied some business management courses, and I understand that it’s important to develop
communication and build up team players, but isn’t us just a waste of time to have these “fun” activities?


TEACHER: Well, a lot of managers do think it’s a waste of time, especially in the short term. But, in the long run, it’s
definitely not a waste of time. In fact, it’s often a great way to save time in team-building.
Let’s stop here. Today we discussed team building and why it has become important. In the next class, I want to talk about
other group activities managers can use to build a team. We’ll start there next time. That’s all for today.
UNIT 8

RIGHT AND WRONG ON THE NET

TEACHER: Good morning. Did anyone hear the news about the teenager in New York who hacked into a bank’s database
and stole about 30,000 credit card numbers over the weekend? Hacking is related to computer ethics – that’s our topic
today.
Computer ethics deals with the proper use of information technology, such as computers and the Internet. By proper use, I
mean socially responsible use. We’ll first talk about what ethical behavior is and how this applies to computer use.
First, I want to make sure we all know what ethics is. Anyone? Yes, John.
STUDENT 1: It’s about right and wrong.

TEACHER: Yes. OK, Jennifer?
STUDENT 2: And it’s about being a good person, doing what’s right.
TEACHER: Yes, ethics includes both of these ideas. It deals with moral judgments, with what is acceptable or
unacceptable to do. Now we learn ideas about what is right and wrong from our families, our friends, and from the culture
we live in. because of differences in our backgrounds, we may not always agree on what is right and wrong.
However, for our discussion today, I will define for you what I mean by an ethical action. An ethical action is something
someone does that benefits someone and doesn’t hurt anyone. So, for example, if you see a man drop some money, and
you pick the money up and give it to him, this is an ethical action. On other hand, if you pick the money up and don’t give
it back to the man, this benefits you, but hurts the man. This is not an ethical action.
Now what about computers? What are the ethical boundaries for using computers and the Internet? Most people agree that
it is wrong to steal from a store. Would they also say it’s wrong to copy music files from the Internet? Or, to take another
example, most people agree that it is wrong to open an envelope and read a letter to someone else. Would they also say it’s
wrong to read someone else’s email?
In the past decade or so, many people have started using computers and the Internet, so these issues have become
important. In 1992, the Computer Ethics Institute was founded in the United States. This is a research, education, and
policy study group whose goal is to increase awareness of the ethical issues that are likely to come up as technology
develops.
One concept the Computer Ethics Institute has developed is the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics. These rules are
important guidelines the Institute thinks all computer users should follow. Now some of you may be familiar with the Ten
Commandments from the Bible, like, uh, “Thou shalt not kill” or “Thou shalt honor thy father and thy mother.” The Ten
Commandments of Computer Ethics have been written in the same style of language used in the Ten Commandments
from the Bible. For example, they use the phrase “Thou shalt not.” “Thou shalt not” means don’t or you shouldn’t.
Let’s look at each commandment of rule.
The first commandment says: Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. Simple enough, right?
Number 2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work. I interpret this to mean don’t use a computer in
any way that will affect or change the work someone else is doing. Don’t move or edit someone else’s files without telling
them.
Number 3. Thou shalt not snoop in other people’s files. To snoop means to try to find out something without another
person knowing it. If you look at someone else’s files on the computer or read their email, you’re snooping. Respect other
people’s privacy.

Number 4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. There are situations on the Internet in which you have to decide if you
are stealing or not, like downloading music files, as I mentioned earlier.
Number 5. Thou shalt not use a computer to say things that are untrue. It is up to you to be truthful in your website, in
your e-business, and in your email.
Number 6. Thou shalt not use a software to for which you have not paid. In other words, if the software is free on the
Internet, it’s okay to download and use it. However, it is not okay to copy software from a friend, because you didn’t pay
for it.
Number 7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without telling them, or without paying them. For
example, you shouldn’t use someone else’s computer, password, or Internet connection without asking them first.
Number 8. Thou shalt not appropriate someone else’s ideas. Appropriate is spelled A-P-P-R-O-P-R-I-A-T-E. …. It means
to take words someone else wrote and say they’re yours. Uh, for example, you have to write a report for school. If you
copy a term paper from the Internet and hand it in, you’re breaking the rule. Copying even a few sentences off the Internet
and presenting them as you own is breaking the rule.
Number 9. The ninth commandment says: Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing.
Now, this applies mostly to computer programmers. Social consequences means how the program you’re writing might
affect others in society. Could hackers possibly use your program to illegally gain access to a computer system? Skillful
hackers can hack into banks and into credit card companies; they can alter accounts and steal money. They can also create
viruses that can cause billions of dollars of damage worldwide.
Number 10. The tenth commandment says: Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that are respectful of others. For
example, sending unfriendly email to someone or about someone or creating websites with negative messages are
examples of breaking the rule.
OK, the Computer Ethics Institute has sent these guidelines to many large companies and to schools across the United
States. However, there’s no way to enforce these rules. Nevertheless, they would like to see schools, in particular, utilize
these rules to help students develop a strong sense of computer ethics. OK, any questions or comments at this point?
STUDENT 1: How are we supposed to remember all those rules?
TEACHER: Well, there are a lot of rules, but they all point down to a couple of principles: respect and fairness. Respect
what belongs to others and use resources fairly. Does that help?
STUDENT 1: Yeah, I guess so.

TEACHER: Good. Let’s go back to ethics. Now increasingly, schools are seeing that students need to be taught computer
ethics as part of the school curriculum. Some schools have come up with acceptable-use policies, or rules about what is or
isn’t OK for students to do regarding computer use. This is how the Computer Ethics Institute would like to see schools
utilizing the rules. Generally, it’s considered wrong to steal someone else’s password or to read someone else’s email. It’s
also considered unacceptable in college classes for a student to download a term paper off the Internet and pretend that he
or she wrote it. This is call “plagiarism,” and it’s a good example of breaking rule numbered 8. Students are permitted to
use the Internet for research, but are instructed to write the information in their own words and to explain where they got
the information.
Now the ten rules are guidelines for us to follow. These rules help us to be aware of the ethical uses of technology. Let’s
stop here for today. Think about these rules this week and we’ll talk about them. And read the next 2 chapters for next
week.

UNIT 9

WHERE WILL IT GO?


TEACHER: The topic for today’s class is land as a resource. Land, water, trees, oil… these are all resources, and as future
environmental scientists, you need to understand how to manage these resources. As the world population increases,
managing land resources will become a greater priority. Land is a limited resource.
Today, I’m going to divide the lecture into two parts. First, we’ll look at some of the factors contributing to pressures on
the land we have, and then I want to turn to some of the ways people worldwide are trying to address land problems and
meet the needs of future generations. Think of it as first the bad news, then the good news.
Let me start by saying there is less good productive land now than there was even ten years ago. By productive land I
mean land that is fertile, that we can use to grow food and raise animals. Each year more and more land becomes
degraded. We are losing productive land. Worldwide, new dry areas are developing and expanding. This is happening on
every continent except Antarctica. I don’t mean existing deserts like the Sahara are getting bigger. I’m talking about new
dry areas, areas where land has been declining in quality. You can see these areas in the map in your book. Why are these
areas forming and expanding? What do you think? Theresa?
STUDENT 1: It’s the climate, isn’t it? The earth is getting, you know, hotter because of global warming, so water gets

evaporated and the land dries out.
TEACHER: OK. Marcel, do you agree?
STUDENT 2: Well, yeah. It has to be the weather. What else could it be?
TEACHER: Well, different reasons have been given. Some people contribute it to global warming or to climate changes.
They say nature simply produces dry regions, like the Sahara Desert, as well as wet regions, like the Amazon Rainforest
…. Well, let’s think about this. Is it only the weather? Let’s see if there are other factors contributing to this trend.
Is nature, or the weather, really the problem? According to a large group of scientists, the weather isn’t the main factor.
Instead, they say, people are the main factor. When they say people are the main problem, they mean people’s actions –
how people use and manage land. Poor land management, overpopulation, poor farming techniques, too many animals,
and so on, can all affect the land.
Look at the chart in your book. As you can see, researchers have identified several ways human activities contribute to the
problem. The first is overgrazing by farm animals. They say about 35% of the loss of productive land is due to
overgrazing by farm animals. The second is overcutting of trees, which leads to about 30% of the loss. And lastly, 28% of
the loss of good land is from methods of farming. Overgrazing, overcutting, and farming methods. Let’s look at these one
at a time.
The first is overgrazing. Good topsoil is lost or damaged because of overgrazing by farm animals. Overgrazing means the
animals eat too many of the plants. There are several bad results of overgrazing. First, there aren’t enough plants left to
hold the soil in place. Then, the topsoil is eroded by wind and rain; they carry it away. Second, as the animals walk
around, the soil is compacted, and gets very hard. If the soil is too hard, rainwater isn’t absorbed into the soil, and this
causes the soil to stay dry and warm. As the soil gets drier, even fewer plants can grow. This, in turn, causes the animals to
walk around more and more, in order to find enough food to eat. And, this causes the ground to get packed down even
more, and get even drier, and so on. So, you can see that overgrazing can create this cycle.
Second, overcutting of trees also contributes to the loss of good land. The main problem is too many trees are cut and not
replanted. For years we’ve heard about how this is happening on a large scale in the Amazon Rain Forest in Brazil. Trees,
like land, are a resource we depend on. They’re vital to the whole environmental balance on earth. If trees are cut down
and not replanted, there is nothing to hold the good soil. Wind and water carry the good soil away and it erodes quickly,
leaving land that is dry and less productive. So, overcutting is another reason why land quality is declining.
Third, farming methods are another big factor. In some places, traditional methods that have been used for hundreds of
years no longer work well. Why do they no longer work well? Partly because the populations is increasing, and farmers
aren’t equipped to meet these new demands, and partly because the soil is getting worn out. More people need to be fed

from less land. As a result, some farmers may use too much fertilizer on the limited land they have, or not let the land rest
from year to year, causing it to become less fertile. Irrigation is a huge factor many of us don’t think about. Irrigation


water often has salt in it, and when the salt built up in the soil, the soil can no longer be used for farming. Currently, about
one third of the irrigated land in the world has too much salt in in. Irrigation has taken a heavy toll on good land.
So, basically, how people use the land seems to be a bigger factor in the decrease of productive land than weather. Of
course, weather is not the main reason for the problem. Some of the extremes in the weather caused by global warming
can make the situation worse for people who live in these dry areas. But the weather alone is not the main issue.
The decline of productive land is a worldwide problem. Currently, about one third of the world’s land area is considered
unproductive because it is too dry and damaged.
OK, so that’s the bad news. Now let’s turn to the good news. What are countries doing to help preserve land as a resource?
As experts learn more about this worldwide problem, they have tried to find ways to address it. Right now there are
several organizations, the United Nations for one, that are working to help people. They try to help countries or
communities look at their specific problems and figure out what possible changes they can make to protect their land.
They talk to people about their farming methods, their animals, and how they use trees and other resources. Farmers might
try to grow genetically engineered crops that don’t hurt the soil as much, or plant new trees, or raise fewer animals, or
build new irrigation systems that leave less salt in the soil. They look for local solutions that will work best for that
country this includes looking at what has been done traditionally and implementing modern farming methods in ways that
respect the local culture.
So, let’s review what we covered today. I mentioned that about one third of the available land worldwide has become dry
and less productive. The main reason for land degradation is people’s actions, including overgrazing by animals,
overcutting of trees, and farming methods. As scientists learn more, we need to work to help countries make specific
changes and for farmers to become better equipped so that they can preserve the good land that is left.
Let me just add that if we look at the estimates of what the world population will be fifty years from now – about 9 billion
people – it helps us see that protecting the good land that’s left needs to be a high priority.
I’ll stop there. We’ll continues with this next class. That’s all for this afternoon.
UNIT 10

IT’S IN THE DNA

TEACHER: Good morning. Today we’ll talk about an important topic in biology – DNA and DNA testing. Can anybody
tell us what DNA stands for?
STUDENT 1: Deoxyribonucleic acid …
TEACHER: Right. It’s the molecule that carries genetic information in all living cells. Now first, we’ll look at what DNA
is and when it was discovered. Then, we’ll look at DNA testing and several applications, or uses of testing. This is an
exciting topic for biologists because the more we learn about DNA, the more we see how science may change our lives –
from health care to our relationships. OK, what does DNA look like?
STUDENT 1: It looks like two strings, kind of wrapping around each other.
TEACHER: Yes, exactly. There’s a simple drawing of one in your book. As you can see, a molecule of DNA consists of 2
stands of chemical compounds arranged in a twisted pattern. Inside the human cell are chromosomes. The DNA is
organized in twenty-three pairs of chromosomes in the cell. Genes are arranged on the chromosomes and these carry
fundamental genetic information like hair color, eye color, or characteristics that aren’t as visible, such as intelligence, and
a lot more.
Scientists have been studying DNA for a long time. First, in 1860, Gregory Mendel made 2 important discoveries: tiny
particle he called genes, and, that genes carry information from cell to cell. Now this was really the beginning. Then, in
1953, J.D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered and described the DNA structure. Their work was so important that they
received the Nobel Prize in 1962. For the 1st time, scientists could understand exactly how DNA tells the cells what to do.
This generated more DNA research, and by the end of the 20th century, scientists made other important discoveries.
Probably the most important work was reading of the human genome, the complete set of human DNA. Uh, this was a
huge job, but after 10 long years in June, 2000, the head of the Project announced that they had identified the complete set
of human genes. Uh, this was a huge deal. Most people saw this as the beginning of a whole new era in DNA research.


Scientists could read all of the genetic messages in the human body! This is, of course, a very brief history of the study of
DNA.
All right, let’s consider DNA testing. One important use of DNA testing is testing identity, which is also called DNA
fingerprinting. Here’s how a DNA fingerprint is done. Scientists take a small sample of someone’s hair or skin, which
contains DNA. Next, they treat the sample with chemicals and make a film, like a small photograph. On this film there is
a visible pattern of black bars. This pattern of black bars is unique for each person. So, a DNA sample from your hair

identifies you, it’s like your finger printer; it identifies you and you only. I see a question, Miguel?
STUDENT 2: Does the DNA from hair or skin or blood all look the same?
TEACHER: No, not exactly. The DNA from your hair will look like hair DNA but it will be uniquely your DNA pattern.
It’s sort of like all noses look like noses, right? But your nose looks like your nose only.
Now I want to look at 2 applications, or uses, of DNA testing. First, how it can be used by doctors, and second, how it can
be used by the police. Within health-care, one important use is to identify potential for health problems. Researchers have
found some genes linked to a defect in chromosome 4, and Alzheimer’s disease is liked to a defect in chromosome 19. A
genetic link means that doctors know that if someone has defects in these genes, they’re more likely to get these health
problems; their potential is increased. Notice, I didn’t say “researchers have found that some genes defects cause specific
diseases.” There is simply a link.
After doctors perform DNA testing, they can then decide the best way to use the information. For example, they may give
medication to a patient to prevent a disease from ever starting. Genetic testing can also be used to decide which medicine
to give someone. This is called targeted medicine. To me, this is very exciting and promising. There are tiny differences in
DNA from person to person. These differences can affect which patients will be helped by a drug, and who may be
harmed by it. This is, uh, a tremendous advantage. It saves lives and money.
Now, let’s look at how DNA testing is used by police. The police can use fingerprints to identify and trace criminals. All
they need is a small amount, or trace, of blood or hair from the crime scene. If the DNA samples from the crime scene and
the suspect match, the results, at least in the United States, can be used as evidence in court. So, DNA testing can be used
to help put someone in prison. In much the same way, DNA testing can be used to help innocent people in prison. People
in prison can now try to use DNA testing for crimes that happened, say, 10 years ago. If their DNA fingerprint doesn’t
match DNA fingerprint from the crime scene, this can help them get a new trial and perhaps get them out of prison.
As you can see there are benefits to DNA testing. However, there are also some concerns that this type of information
might be used against us in the future.
Now let’s consider how DNA testing could be used against you. What if a company you wanted to work for asked you to
take a DNA test? And what if your DNA test showed that you had a gene defect linked to a certain type of cancer? Would
the company decide not to hire you? People also worry about health insurance. They’re afraid they might not be able to
get health insurance if their DNA test shows they’re at a higher risk for certain diseases. As a result, in the United States,
some laws have been passed to protect the privacy of medical records.
Now DNA testing has other possibilities that we won’t discuss today. But in any case, many people think about the
negative uses of testing – the fear that it will be used against people or to create “perfect” babies. Others think about

police being able to trace criminals and possible advances in healthcare. But, another way to think about it is that it tells us
more about who we are, and that’s the goal of biology – to understand nature.
I guess I’ll stop there for today. In the next class, I want to talk in more depth about uses of DNA testing by doctors. OK,
we’ll start there next time. That’s, uh, that’s all for today.

UNIT 11

STAYING HEALTHY

TEACHER: Good afternoon. Have you heard in the news that there is a new outbreak of Ebola in Central Africa?


This outbreak is an example of what we’re going to talk about today.
There has been plenty in the news about medical problems around the world. There are new strains of malaria, West Nile
virus, and ongoing news about AIDS. It seems the Incidences of many contagious diseases are increasing, even with the
great progress being made in healthcare. So there are many challenges for doctors and healthcare workers, as future public
health workers, it’s important for you to have a realistic view of these challenges, and also to develop a sense of optimism
in meeting them. Why are diseases spreading more rapidly? Well, we are traveling overseas more than ever before. As
more and more people travel, infectious diseases are transmitted more often and more quickly. How many of you traveled
overseas in the past 6 months? … A lot of you. Where did you go?
STUDENT 1: To Taiwan
TEACHER: How about you?
STUDENT 2: I went to Turkey.
TEACHER: And you?
STUDENT 3: Brazil
TEACHER: So you see, just among us, we’ve probably been around the world recently! Along with these infectious
diseases, there has been an increase in the number of people with allergies and breathing problems. Some believe this is
due to pollution. Are any of you allergic to anything?
To understand these problems, it helps to understand what our immune system is and why the world we live in makes our
immune system work very hard. Let me explain briefly what the immune system is. The immune system is the system in

our bodies that fights diseases. The job of the immune system is to defend the body against things that may harm us, that
may make us sick. For example, when someone sneezes on us on a crowded train…. Oh, I hate when that happens! How
healthy we are depends on how well we can fight and destroy the “bad guys” the germs or microorganisms that can hurt
us. To have immunity means to be able to fight them off. It’s very important to have a strong immune system if we want to
stay healthy.
Here’s a key point. We develop immunity to what is around us, to what we are exposed to. So if you live in Tokyo, you
develop immunity to microorganisms in Tokyo, if you live in Paris, you develop immunity to what is dangerous in Paris,
and so on. Adapting to the environment takes time this is called adaptive immunity. Adaptive immunity means people who
are exposed to the causes of a disease develop the ability to fight the disease. So, for example, a girl gets disease, say
chicken pox. That girl develops immunity to chicken pox, and she won’t get chicken pox again.
Now, how about someone from the U.S. taking a boat trip on the Amazon River, or someone from Taiwan traveling to
Africa? These people are in new places, places that have bacteria and viruses that cause diseases. But the person’s immune
system hasn’t adapted to fight those diseases so the person might get sick. Then if that person returns home from a trip and
is sick, he or she might be contagious. But the people back home won’t have the ability to fight the disease either, their
immune systems won’t know how. This is how infectious diseases can be transmitted to other people. To resist disease,
someone must have immunity. That’s very important.
We can have immunity by developing it, like the little girl with chicken pox, or by being immunized. One way to get
immunized is to get an immunization shot, for example, a shot for cholera. People often get shots before they travel to
build up their immunity. This does help, but in any, our immune systems have to work harder and harder when we come
into contact with new microorganisms.
In recent years we have learned more about a variety of immune system problems. Probably the most well-known is
AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome, caused by HIV, human immunodeficiency virus. Most of us know the
terms AIDS and HIV, but let’s look at what the letters stand for. The I-D in AIDS stands for immune deficiency.
“Deficient” means lacking, to not have enough of something. So people with AIDS lack of immunity. They can’t fight
infections or diseases.
Now back to allergies. A lot of people don’t thinks of allergies as being an immune problems but they are. In fact, allergies
are the most prevalent immune problem we have today. An allergy is a reaction to something that shouldn’t normally


affect people. Allergic reactions are really an action of the immune system. As I said earlier, the immune system is

working too hard. Another way to think about it is that the immune system makes a mistake. The mistake is that it fights
to protect you against something that is not dangerous to you, like cat, flowers, or grass.
Allergic reactions like sneezing, red itchy eyes, or difficulty breathing can make people uncomfortable, but are common
and generally not too serious. However, some people can develop a much more serous reaction that affects the whole
body. This is called an anaphylactic reaction – A-N-A-P-H-Y-L-A-C-T-I-C. This can be very dangerous. In fact, someone
can die if no medicine is given to stop reaction.
We treat allergies the same way that we try to prevent infectious diseases. We try to build up the immune system by
introducing small amounts of the allergen to the body. This makes us less sensitive to the allergen and teaches our bodies
not to react so strongly.
Well, let’s conclude this here. We all have some immunity challenges. These challenges won’t go away anytime soon
because we are going to continue to travel, and so on. But, we can take some control of the situation by being aware that
the various diseases, allergies, and environmental illnesses are linked at some level; they all have to do with our immune
system. Then we can take some positive steps. We can try to live a healthy lifestyle by eating well, exercising, controlling
stress, and being happy. Yes, some research shows that happy people are healthier. And, of course, by being aware of the
risks we face when we travel in countries that are very different from our own. Are there any questions? … Cynthia.
STUDENT 1: So when you have an allergy to something, like cat hair, you’re saying that you can cure it by becoming
healthier?
TEACHER: Yes, it helps to be in good health. That will reduce the symptoms.
STUDENT 1: Then can you avoid getting some disease like cholera or AIDS by staying healthy and having a strong
immune system?
TEACHER: Well, perhaps, but some microorganisms are so strong that they can attack even very healthy immune
systems. … So, our immune systems protect us. We can develop immunity to diseases by being exposed to them, by
adapting, or by getting immunized, usually by shots. Allergies are the most common immune system problems. In an
allergic reaction, the immune systems is working to fight something that doesn’t really cause us harm. And finally, a
healthy lifestyle can help us build up our immunity. We’ll stop here. Please read the next unit for next time.

UNIT 12

PREPARE, PREPARE

TEACHER: Good morning, everybody. Did any of you hear about the earthquake in California yesterday?
You did? Well. Fortunately, no one was seriously hurt. Today, I want to talk about what can be done in these types of
situations. In the urban planning professions, we need to know the scope of urban problems and make plans –in advance –
for dealing with them.
We’ll start by talking about the difference between natural hazards and natural disasters. I’m going to give you some ideas
about planning, about preparing for a natural hazard.
OK, first some background. Let’s look at what I mean by natural hazard. Natural hazards are things that happen in nature
that can be dangerous to us – like earthquakes, typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, fires, mudslides, volcanic eruptions,
avalanches, floods, and tornadoes…many natural hazards. A hazard, then, is something that can be dangerous.
Now, I want to make a distinction between a natural hazard and a natural hazard. As I just said, with a natural hazard there
is the potential for a lot of damage. In contrast, a natural disaster means terrible things do happen and normal life is
interrupted. People are killed; there is a lot of destruction. Disasters are what we hear about on the new.


You know as well as I do that we can’t stop earthquakes or hurricanes. So, I want to focus on ways we can limit the
impact, how we can prepare to significantly reduce deaths, injuries, and damage when they occur. Preparing is vital. What
a country does to prepare is based on the natural hazards that occur in that country.
Now let’s consider planning. It’s not easy to initiate an emergency response plan. There are many things to consider. At a
minimum, it takes scientific information, money, and cooperation between scientists and the government of a country.
Scientists and governments need to share information. This isn’t always easy to do – for a number of reasons.
First, a country may not be able to use scientific information because it doesn’t have the money. In a perfect world,
governments would have all the money that they need, but in the real world, they don’t, so governments have to set
priorities for spending. Governments, especially in developing countries, often have to choose between taking care of
problems they have now, like needing new roads and schools, and spending money to plan for problems they might have
if a natural disaster strikes. A great example is building materials. Scientists know that building materials are very
important in minimizing the destruction caused by natural disasters. Some governments are aware that these materials will
save lives, but they do not have the money to use them.
Second, government have to decide how and when to use information from scientists. Scientists can’t say definitely,
100%, that a storm will happen, or exactly when it will happen their information is not precise. So, a government has to
decide what to do if the scientific data tell them something is likely to happen. It can wait and do nothing, or it can tell

people to prepare…. Now let’s suppose the government tells people to leave their homes. So they do, and it costs a lot of
time and money for people to leave. What happens if there is no earthquake, or only a very small earthquake? Will people
be willing to leave the next time the government tells them to?
Before I talk more about planning, I’m going to tell you about two volcanic eruptions. Think about how planning, or lack
thereof, was a factor in both. In November 1985, the volcano Nevado Del Ruiz erupted in Colombia. For one year before
this, the volcano had been making noises. Scientists knew chat the volcano might erupt, but they could not say when it
would happen. The volcano kept making noises, but the people living nearby didn’t leave. Scientists had mad maps of the
most dangerous areas and given these maps to the government. The government, however, wasn’t able to use the
information before Nevado Del Ruiz erupted. When the volcano erupted, it melted snow and ice at the top of the volcano
and suddenly a lot of water rushed down the sides of the volcano, causing huge mudflows. This is when disaster struck.
The mudflows moved quickly through several towns. More than 25,000 people were killed in a very short time. They
weren’t prepared. This was a major disaster.
The second example is the volcano chat erupted in the late 1990s on the island of Montserrat in Caribbean. It had been
inactive for over a hundred years, but in 1995 it started making noises. Scientists watched the volcano very closely, and
told the government what was going on. The government told the people who lived nearby that they had to move. So, the
people were evacuated. From 1995 on, the volcano continued to be active. After five years, however, only about nineteen
people had been killed. A major disaster was avoided.
Now let’s consider these two examples. From the information we have, we know that one country was better prepared
than the other. We don’t know why. There could be many reasons. It’s complicated, and I don’t want to sound too critical
here, but we can see that Montserrat’s plan made a huge difference: Only nineteen people died there while 25,000 people
died in Colombia.
OK. Let’s turn now to initiating an emergency response plan. What basic things do you think any country needs in a plan?
What’s the first thing? Yes. Allen.
STUDENT: Knowing what’s going to happen.
TEACHER: Well, yes, but, uh, as we discussed, we can’t know with 100% certainty what’s going to happen. The first
stage is really made up of pans: gathering information (doing research), and planning how to provide for people basic
needs for food, water, and so on. First, scientists need to gather information from all over the world about the type of
hazards chat occur in their country. Then they can use the information from their research to try to predict what will
happen in the future, and plan accordingly. For example, Japan uses this type of information about earthquakes when it
makes new buildings, roads, and so on. This is difficult because the research cannot give them precise information.

In the second stage, the government must be prepared to provide for peoples basic needs if there is a natural disaster. They
need to do a minimum of 2 things. They need to organize enough emergency supplies, such as food, bottled water,
medicine, and so on. And they need to communicate to the people beforehand about where these supplies are located.
People need to know where to go. The second stage also covers exactly what everyone needs do immediately after a
natural disaster occurs – police, emergency rescue workers, citizens, et cetera – and where they should go, how to get
there and so on. This enables people to help themselves. So, the second stage involves providing information and supplies
to people.
The third stage of an emergency response plan is to recover. This means planning for what to do in the days and weeks
following the disaster, and how the government will enable people to return to normal life after the damage is done, it may
take years to rebuild after, say, an earthquake. The plan should include who, when, and how. For example, who will
rebuild houses and roads, when it will be done, and how it will be paid for.
This is only a brief introduction to making a plan. We can’t stop natural disasters, they’re going to happen. But we can
limit the damage they cause. In the next class, we’re going to discuss what countries are doing to build sager buildings in
earthquake areas. We’ll talk about the material being used. If you have any questions, come see me.
/ UNIT 12

PREPARE, PREPARE

TEACHER: Good morning, everybody. Did any of you hear about the earthquake in California yesterday?
You did? Well. Fortunately, no one was seriously hurt. Today, I want to talk about what can be done in these types of
situations. In the urban planning professions, we need to know the scope of urban problems and make plans –in advance –
for dealing with them.
We’ll start by talking about the difference between natural hazards and natural disasters. I’m going to give you some ideas
about planning, about preparing for a natural hazard.
OK, first some background. Let’s look at what I mean by natural hazard. Natural hazards are things that happen in nature
that can be dangerous to us – like earthquakes, typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, fires, mudslides, volcanic eruptions,
avalanches, floods, and tornadoes…many natural hazards. A hazard, then, is something that can be dangerous.
Now, I want to make a distinction between a natural hazard and a natural hazard. As I just said, with a natural hazard there

is the potential for a lot of damage. In contrast, a natural disaster means terrible things do happen and normal life is
interrupted. People are killed; there is a lot of destruction. Disasters are what we hear about on the new.
You know as well as I do that we can’t stop earthquakes or hurricanes. So, I want to focus on ways we can limit the
impact, how we can prepare to significantly reduce deaths, injuries, and damage when they occur. Preparing is vital. What
a country does to prepare is based on the natural hazards that occur in that country.
Now let’s consider planning. It’s not easy to initiate an emergency response plan. There are many things to consider. At a
minimum, it takes scientific information, money, and cooperation between scientists and the government of a country.
Scientists and governments need to share information. This isn’t always easy to do – for a number of reasons.
First, a country may not be able to use scientific information because it doesn’t have the money. In a perfect world,
governments would have all the money that they need, but in the real world, they don’t, so governments have to set
priorities for spending. Governments, especially in developing countries, often have to choose between taking care of
problems they have now, like needing new roads and schools, and spending money to plan for problems they might have
if a natural disaster strikes. A great example is building materials. Scientists know that building materials are very
important in minimizing the destruction caused by natural disasters. Some governments are aware that these materials will
save lives, but they do not have the money to use them.
Second, government have to decide how and when to use information from scientists. Scientists can’t say definitely,
100%, that a storm will happen, or exactly when it will happen their information is not precise. So, a government has to
decide what to do if the scientific data tell them something is likely to happen. It can wait and do nothing, or it can tell
people to prepare…. Now let’s suppose the government tells people to leave their homes. So they do, and it costs a lot of
time and money for people to leave. What happens if there is no earthquake, or only a very small earthquake? Will people
be willing to leave the next time the government tells them to?


Before I talk more about planning, I’m going to tell you about two volcanic eruptions. Think about how planning, or lack
thereof, was a factor in both. In November 1985, the volcano Nevado Del Ruiz erupted in Colombia. For one year before
this, the volcano had been making noises. Scientists knew chat the volcano might erupt, but they could not say when it
would happen. The volcano kept making noises, but the people living nearby didn’t leave. Scientists had mad maps of the
most dangerous areas and given these maps to the government. The government, however, wasn’t able to use the
information before Nevado Del Ruiz erupted. When the volcano erupted, it melted snow and ice at the top of the volcano
and suddenly a lot of water rushed down the sides of the volcano, causing huge mudflows. This is when disaster struck.

The mudflows moved quickly through several towns. More than 25,000 people were killed in a very short time. They
weren’t prepared. This was a major disaster.
The second example is the volcano chat erupted in the late 1990s on the island of Montserrat in Caribbean. It had been
inactive for over a hundred years, but in 1995 it started making noises. Scientists watched the volcano very closely, and
told the government what was going on. The government told the people who lived nearby that they had to move. So, the
people were evacuated. From 1995 on, the volcano continued to be active. After five years, however, only about nineteen
people had been killed. A major disaster was avoided.
Now let’s consider these two examples. From the information we have, we know that one country was better prepared
than the other. We don’t know why. There could be many reasons. It’s complicated, and I don’t want to sound too critical
here, but we can see that Montserrat’s plan made a huge difference: Only nineteen people died there while 25,000 people
died in Colombia.
OK. Let’s turn now to initiating an emergency response plan. What basic things do you think any country needs in a plan?
What’s the first thing? Yes. Allen.
STUDENT: Knowing what’s going to happen.
TEACHER: Well, yes, but, uh, as we discussed, we can’t know with 100% certainty what’s going to happen. The first
stage is really made up of pans: gathering information (doing research), and planning how to provide for people basic
needs for food, water, and so on. First, scientists need to gather information from all over the world about the type of
hazards chat occur in their country. Then they can use the information from their research to try to predict what will
happen in the future, and plan accordingly. For example, Japan uses this type of information about earthquakes when it
makes new buildings, roads, and so on. This is difficult because the research cannot give them precise information.
In the second stage, the government must be prepared to provide for peoples basic needs if there is a natural disaster. They
need to do a minimum of 2 things. They need to organize enough emergency supplies, such as food, bottled water,
medicine, and so on. And they need to communicate to the people beforehand about where these supplies are located.
People need to know where to go. The second stage also covers exactly what everyone needs do immediately after a
natural disaster occurs – police, emergency rescue workers, citizens, et cetera – and where they should go, how to get
there and so on. This enables people to help themselves. So, the second stage involves providing information and supplies
to people.
The third stage of an emergency response plan is to recover. This means planning for what to do in the days and weeks
following the disaster, and how the government will enable people to return to normal life after the damage is done, it may
take years to rebuild after, say, an earthquake. The plan should include who, when, and how. For example, who will

rebuild houses and roads, when it will be done, and how it will be paid for.
This is only a brief introduction to making a plan. We can’t stop natural disasters, they’re going to happen. But we can
limit the damage they cause. In the next class, we’re going to discuss what countries are doing to build sager buildings in
earthquake areas. We’ll talk about the material being used. If you have any questions, come see me.